A

Summer Training Report

On
Electrical system
AT

GAIL (PATA)

GAIL(INDIA) LIMTED,PATA
IN PARTIAL FUILFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Name of institute :GLA University
Submitted to:
P K Jain Submitted by:Vivek Pal
 Acknowledgement

I respect and thank Mr. Sudhir Dixit (HOD)], for providing me an opportunity
to do the project work in [GALE] and giving us all support and guidance
which made me complete the project duly. I am extremely thankful to [CK
JHA] for providing such a nice support and guidance, although he had busy
schedule managing the corporate affairs.

I owe my deep gratitude to our project guide PK JAIN who took keen interest
on our project work and guided us all along, till the completion of our project
work by providing all the necessary information for developing

The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of guidance and
assistance from many people and I am extremely privileged to have got this
all along the completion of my project. All that I have done is only due to such
supervision and assistance and I would not forget to thank them.

Lastly I thank almighty and my parent for their constant encouragement without
which it would not be possible.

VIVEK PAL

(STUDENT of GLA)
CONTENT
1.INTRODUCTION
2. SWITCHYARD

3. CIRCUIT BREAKER

4. ISOLATOR

5. EARTH SWITCH

6.CURRENT TRANSFORMER

7. POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

8. LIGHTINING ARRESTOR

9.WAVE TRAP

10.LINE MATCHING UNIT

11.PLCC

12.TYPES OF ELECTRICAL FAULTS

13.SYMMETRIC FAULT

14.UN SYMMETRIC FAULT

15. RELAYS

16. MOTOR

17.TRANSFORMER

18.VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE

19.CONCLUSION
1.INTRODUCTION
Gail (India) Limited (GAIL) (formerly known as Gas Authority of India Limited) is the
largest state-owned natural gas processing and distribution company in India. It is
headquartered in New Delhi. It has the following business segments: natural gas, liquid
hydrocarbon, liquefied petroleum gas transmission, petrochemical, city gas distribution,
exploration and production, GAILTEL and electricity generation. GAIL was conferred with
the Maharatna status on 1 Feb 2013, by the Government of India.Only six other Public
Sector Enterprises (PSEs) enjoy this coveted status amongst all central CPSEs. [4] GAIL was
listed in the 131st position among India's most trusted brands according to the Brand Trust
Report 2014, a study conducted by the Trust Research Advisory.
GAIL owns the country's largest pipeline network, the cross-country 2300 km Hazira-Vijaipur-
Jagdishpur pipeline with a capacity to handle 33.4 MMSCMD gas. Today the company owns
and operates more than 11000 km long cross country natural Gas Pipeline in India having
presence in 22 states in the country. It also owns and operates more than 2000 km long LPG
pipelines in the country and has the pride to operate one of the world's longest exclusive
LPG pipeline in the country from Jamnagar in Gujarat to Loni in Uttar Pradesh. The company
also owns and operates seven mega LPG recovery plants in the country today and has to its
credit almost 20% of domestic LPG produced and supplied for the domestic usage through
its sisters PSUs like IOCL, BPCL and HPCL. GAIL is one of the major petrochemical
conglomerates in the country today with India's largest gas based petrochemicals in
operation since 1999. In petrochemicals it has its own gas based integrated petrochemical
plant and also the ownership of 70% in dual fuel petrochemicals in Assam, Brahamaputra
Cracker and Polymer Limited and one of the major equity partners in OPal.
2.SWITCHYARD
A usually enclosed area for the switching facilities of a power station

COMPONENTS

1.Electrical Power transformers

2.Instrument transformers

3.Conductors& Insulators

4. Isolators

5.Bus bars

6.Lightning arresters

7.Circuit breakers

8.Relays

9.Capacitor banks and miscellaneous equipment

3.CIRCUIT BREAKER
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect
an electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current from an overload or short circuit.
Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike a fuse, which
operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or
automatically) to resume normal operation.
Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect low-current
circuits or individual household appliance, up to large switchgear designed to protect high
voltage circuits feeding an entire city. The generic function of a circuit breaker, RCD or
a fuse, as an automatic means of removing power from a faulty system is often abbreviated
as OCPD (Over Current Protection Device).

4.ISOLATORS
Circuit breaker always trip the circuit but open contacts of breaker cannot be visible
physically from outside of the breaker , and that is why it is recommended not to touch any
electrical circuit just by switching off the circuit breaker. So for better safety, there must be
some arrangement so that one can see the open condition of the section of the circuit before
touching it. The isolator is a mechanical switch which isolates a part of the circuit from the
system as when required. Electrical isolators separate a part of the system from rest for safe
maintenance

So the definition of isolator can be rewritten as Isolator is a manually operated mechanical

switch which separates a part of the electrical power. Isolators are used to open a circuit
under no load. Its main purpose is to isolate one portion of the circuit from the other and is
not intended to be opened while current is flowing in the line. Isolators are generally used on
both ends of the breaker so that repair or replacement of circuit breaker can be done without
any danger.

Types of Electrical Isolators

There are different types of isolators available depending upon system requirement such as
1. Double Break Isolator
2. Single Break Isolator
3. Pantograph type Isolator.
Depending upon the position in power system, the isolators can be categorized as

1. Bus side isolator – the isolator is directly connected with main bus
2. Line side isolator – the isolator is situated at line side of any feeder
3. Transfer bus side isolator – the isolator is directly connected with transfer bus

Figure of isolator

5.EARTH SWITCH
Even after isolator operation there may be some residual charges on the bus which may
harm the personnel going for maintainence. So before commencing maintainence we have to
ground the isolated bus too to avoid any mis- happening.

Main function of earth switch is to ground the isolated bus/conductor. It is interlinked with
isolator, when isolator opens the circuit, earth switch is closed & when isolator closes the
circuit, earth switch is opened.

So earth switch provides extra safety to the working personnel.

What I described above is for type of maintainence earth switch but now a days high speed
earth switch are also being used in GIS. This high speed earth switch come with high speed
motors and whenever any fault occurs it will ground the faulted part immediately to protect
the equipments.
6.CURRENT TRANSFORMER
A current transformer (CT) is a type of transformer that is used to measure alternating
current (AC). It produces a current in its secondary which is proportional to the current in its
primary.
Current transformers, along with voltage or potential transformers , are instrument
transformers. Instrument transformers scale the large values of voltage or current to small,
standardized values that are easy to handle for instruments and protective relays. The
instrument transformers isolate measurement or protection circuits from the high voltage of
the primary system. A current transformer provides a secondary current that is accurately
proportional to the current flowing in its primary. The current transformer presents a negligible
load to the primary circuit.
Current transformers are the current-sensing units of the power system and are used at
generating stations, electrical substations, and in industrial and commercial electric power
distribution
Like any transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a core and a secondary
winding, although some transformers, including current transformers, use an air core. In
principle, the only difference between a current transformer and a voltage transformer
(normal type) is that the former is fed with a 'constant' current while the latter is fed with
a 'constant' voltage, where 'constant' has the strict circuit theory meaning.
The alternating current in the primary produces an alternating magnetic field in the core,
which then induces an alternating current in the secondary. The primary circuit is largely
unaffected by the insertion of the CT. Accurate current transformers need close coupling
between the primary and secondary to ensure that the secondary current is proportional to
the primary current over a wide current range. The current in the secondary is the current in
the primary (assuming a single turn primary) divided by the number of turns of the secondary.
In the illustration on the right, 'I' is the current in the primary, 'B' is the magnetic field, 'N' is the
number of turns on the secondary, and 'A' is an AC ammeter.
Current transformers typically consist of a silicon steel ring core wound with many turns of
copper wire as shown in the illustration to the right. The conductor carrying the primary
current is passed through the ring. The CT's primary, therefore, consists of a single 'turn'. The
primary 'winding' may be a permanent part of the current transformer, i.e. a heavy copper bar
to carry current through the core. Window-type current transformers are also common, which
can have circuit cables run through the middle of an opening in the core to provide a single-
turn primary winding. To assist accuracy, the primary conductor should be centered in the
aperture.
CTs are specified by their current ratio from primary to secondary. The rated secondary
current is normally standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT secondary
winding will supply an output current of 5 amperes when the primary winding current is 4000
amperes. This ratio can also be used to find the impedance or voltage on one side of the
transformer, given the appropriate value at the other side. For the 4000:5 CT, the secondary
impedance can be found as ZS = NZP = 800ZP, and the secondary voltage can be found
as VS = NVP = 800VP. In some cases, the secondary impedance is referred to the primary
side, and is found as ZS′ = N2ZP. Referring the impedance is done simply by multiplying
initial secondary impedance value by the current ratio. The secondary winding of a CT can
have taps to provide a range of ratios, five taps being common.
Current transformer shapes and sizes vary depending on the end user or switch gear
manufacturer. Low-voltage single ratio metering current transformers are either a ring type or
plastic molded case.
Split-core current transformers either have a two-part core or a core with a removable
section. This allows the transformer to be placed around a conductor without having to
disconnect it first. Split-core current transformers are typically used in low current measuring
instruments, often portable, battery-operated, and hand-held

A CT OPERATING AT 110 CT GRID

7.Voltage Transformer or Potential Transformer Theory
Potential Transformer Definition :
Potential transformer or voltage transformer gets used in electrical power system for stepping
down the system voltage to a safe value which can be fed to low ratings meters and relays.
Commercially available relays and meters used for protection and metering, are designed for
low voltage. This is a simplest form of potential transformer definition.

A voltage transformer theory or potential transformer theory is just like a theory of general
purpose step down transformer. Primary of this transformer is connected across the phase
and ground. Just like the transformer used for stepping down purpose, potential transformer
i.e. PT has lower turns winding at its secondary.

The system voltage is applied across the terminals of primary winding of that transformer,
and then proportionate secondary voltage appears across the secondary terminals of the PT.

The secondary voltage of the PT is generally 110

V. In an ideal potential transformer or voltage transformer, when rated burden gets connected
across the secondary; the ratio of primary and secondary voltages of transformer is equal to
the turns ratio and furthermore, the two terminal voltages are in precise phase opposite to
each other. But in actual transformer, there must be an error in the voltage ratio as well as in
the phase angle between primary and secondary voltages. The errors in potential
transformer or voltage transformer can be best explained by phasor diagram, and this is the
main part of potential transformer theory.

CAPACTIVE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS

A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT or CCVT), is a transformer used in power systems to
step down extra high voltage signals and provide a low voltage signal, for metering or
operating a protective relay

COMPONENTS
In its most basic form, the device consists of three parts: two capacitors across which the
transmission line signal is split, an inductive element to tune the device to the line frequency,
and a voltage transformer to isolate and further step down the voltage for metering devices
or protective relay.
The tuning of the divider to the line frequency makes the overall division ratio less sensitive
to changes in the burden of the connected metering or protection devices. [1] The device has
at least four terminals: a terminal for connection to the high voltage signal, a ground terminal,
and two secondary terminals which connect to the instrumentation or protective relay.
Capacitor C1 is often constructed as a stack of smaller capacitors connected in series. This
provides a large voltage drop across C 1 and a relatively small voltage drop across C 2. As the
majority of the voltage drop is on C 1, this reduces the required insulation level of the voltage
transformer. This makes CVTs more economical than the wound voltage transformers under
high voltage (over 100 kV), as the latter one requires more winding and materials .

APPLICATIONS
The CVT is also useful in communication systems. CVTs in combination with wave traps are
used for filtering high-frequency communication signals from power frequency. [2] This forms
a carrier communication network throughout the transmission network, to communicate
between substations. The CVT is installed at a point after Lightning Arrester and before Wave
trap

8.LIGHTINING ARRESTORS
A lightning arrester (alternative spelling lightning arrestor) (also called lightning diverter) is a
device used on electric power systems and telecommunication systems to protect
the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of lightning. The
typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning
surge (or switching surge, which is very similar) travels along the power line to the arrester,
the current from the surge is diverted through the arrester, in most cases to earth.
In telegraphy and telephony, a lightning arrester is placed where wires enter a structure,
preventing damage to electronic instruments within and ensuring the safety of individuals
near them. Smaller versions of lightning arresters, also called surge protectors, are devices
that are connected between each electrical conductor in power and communications systems
and the Earth. These prevent the flow of the normal power or signal currents to ground, but
provide a path over which high-voltage lightning current flows, bypassing the connected
equipment. Their purpose is to limit the rise in voltage when a communications or power line
is struck by lightning or is near to a lightning strike.
If protection fails or is absent, lightning that strikes the electrical system introduces thousands
of kilovolts that may damage the transmission lines, and can also cause severe damage to
transformers and other electrical or electronic devices. Lightning-produced extreme voltage
spikes in incoming power lines can damage electrical home appliances or even produce
death
Lightning arresters are used to protect electric fences. They consist of a spark gap and
sometimes a series inductor.
Lightning arresters can form part of large electrical transformers and can fragment during
transformer ruptures. High-voltage transformer fire barriers are required to defeat ballistics
from small arms as well as projectiles from transformer bushings and lightning arresters,
per NFPA 850.

9.WAVE TRAP
Wave trap is a parallel tuned inductor - capacitor tank circuit made to be
resonant at desired communication frequency . It reduces corona losses in
transmission lines in power system.

1.Wave trap is installed in the substation for trapping the high frequency
communication signal sent on the line from remote substation and diverting
them to the telecom panel in substation control room. These high frequency
signal should not be coming on the buses as these may damage the
equipments .

2. A wave trap is a device that allow only a particular frequency to pass

through it that it filters the signals coming on to it . So a wave trap is
 connected between buses and the transmission line which allow only 50

Hz signal to pass through it.

3. This is relevant in power carrier communication (PLCC) system for

communication among various substation without dependence on
telecom company network . The signals are primarily teleportation signal
and in addition , voice and data communication signal.

10.LINE MATCHING UNIT

Line Matching Units is a composite unit consisting of Drain Coil, Isolation
transformer with Lightning Arrester on its both the sides, a Tuning Device and
an earth switch. Tuning Device is the combination of R-L-C circuits which act as
filter circuit. LMU is also known as Coupling Device. Together with coupling
capacitor, LMU serves the purpose of connecting effectively the Audio/Radio
frequency signals to either transmission line or PLC terminal and protection of
the PLCC unit from the over voltages caused due to transients on power
system.
11.POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION
Use of PLCC in modern electrical power system is mainly for telemetry and telecontrol. Tele
means remote. Telemetry refers to science of measurement from remote location .
PLCC in modern electrical power system substation is mainly used for following purpose:

Carrier protection relaying of transmission line so that:

Inter trip command can be issued by relay due to tripping of circuit breaker at any one end.

To trip the line circuit breaker nearest to the fault, this is done by:
a) Distance protection relay (V/I characteristics)
b) Differential comparison method
c) Phase comparison method

Station to station communication between operating personnel

Carrier telemetring, electrical quantities that are telemetered are kW, KVA ,KVAR, Voltage
and Power factor etc.
Following methods are used for telemetring as well as telecontrol:

Simplex

Duplex

Multiplex

Time division Multiplex

12.TYPES OF ELECTRICAL FAULTS
Electrical fault is an abnormal condition, caused by equipment failures such as transformers
and rotating machines, human errors and environmental conditions. Theses faults
cause interruption to electric flows, equipment damages Types of Faults
Electrical fault is the deviation of voltages and currents from nominal values or states. Under
normal operating conditions, power system equipment or lines carry normal voltages and
currents which results in a safer operation of the system.
But when fault occurs, it causes excessively high currents to flow which causes the damage
to equipments and devices. Fault detection and analysis is necessary to select or design
suitable switchgear equipments, electromechanical relays, circuit breakers and other
protection devices.
There are mainly two types of faults in the electrical power system. Those are symmetrical
and unsymmetrical faults.

1.Symmetrical faults
These are very severe faults and occur infrequently in the power systems. These are also
called as balanced faults and are of two types namely line to line to line to ground (L-L-L-G)
and line to line to line (L-L-L).

Symmetrical
faults
Only 2-5 percent of system faults are symmetrical faults. If these faults occur, system
remains balanced but results in severe damage to the electrical power system equipments.
Above figure shows two types of three phase symmetrical faults. Analysis of these fault is
easy and usually carried by per phase basis. Three phase fault analysis or information is
required for selecting set-phase relays, rupturing capacity of the circuit breakers and rating of
the protective switchgear.

2.Unsymmetrical faults

These are very common and less severe than symmetrical faults. There are mainly three
types namely line to ground (L-G), line to line (L-L) and double line to ground (LL-G) faults.

Unsymmetric
al faults
Line to ground fault (L-G) is most common fault and 65-70 percent of faults are of this type.

It causes the conductor to make contact with earth or ground. 15 to 20 percent of faults are
double line to ground and causes the two conductors to make contact with ground. Line to
line faults occur when two conductors make contact with each other mainly while swinging of
lines due to winds and 5- 10 percent of the faults are of this type.

These are also called unbalanced faults since their occurrence causes unbalance in the
system. Unbalance of the system means that that impedance values are different in each
phase causing unbalance current to flow in the phases. These are more difficult to analyze
and are carried by per phase basis similar to three phase balanced faults.

Causes of Electrical Faults

1.Weather conditions: It includes lighting strikes, heavy rains, heavy winds, salt deposition
on overhead lines and conductors, snow and ice accumulation on transmission lines, etc.
These environmental conditions interrupt the power supply and also damage electrical
installations.
2.Equipment failures: Various electrical equipments like generators, motors, transformers,
reactors, switching devices, etc causes short circuit faults due to malfunctioning, ageing,
insulation failure of cables and winding. These failures result in high current to flow through
the devices or equipment which further damages it.
3. Human errors: Electrical faults are also caused due to human errors such as selecting
improper rating of equipment or devices, forgetting metallic or electrical conducting parts
after servicing or maintenance, switching the circuit while it is under servicing, etc.
4.Smoke of fires: Ionization of air, due to smoke particles, surrounding the overhead lines
results in spark between the lines or between conductors to insulator. This flashover causes
insulators to lose their insulting capacity due to high voltages.

Effects of electrical faults

1. Over current flow: When fault occurs it creates a very low impedance path for the
current flow. This results in a very high current being drawn from the supply, causing tripping
of relays, damaging insulation and components of the equipments.
2. Danger to operating personnel: Fault occurrence can also cause shocks to
individuals. Severity of the shock depends on the current and voltage at fault location and
even may lead to death.
3.Loss of equipment: Heavy current due to short circuit faults result in the components
being burnt completely which leads to improper working of equipment or device. Sometimes
heavy fire causes complete burnout of the equipments.
and even cause death of humans, birds and animals.

15.RELAYS

Automotive-style miniature relay, dust cover is taken off

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically
operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a separate low-power signal, or
where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long
distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit
and re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone
exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or
other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving
parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated
operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical
circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are
performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".
Magnetic latching relays require one pulse of coil power to move their contacts in one
direction, and another, redirected pulse to move them back. Repeated pulses from the same
input have no effect. Magnetic latching relays are useful in applications where interrupted
power should not be able to transition the contacts.
Magnetic latching relays can have either single or dual coils. On a single coil device, the
relay will operate in one direction when power is applied with one polarity, and will reset when
the polarity is reversed. On a dual coil device, when polarized voltage is applied to the reset
coil the contacts will transition. AC controlled magnetic latch relays have single coils that
employ steering diodes to differentiate between operate and reset commands.

16.MOTOR
Flick a switch and get instant power—how our ancestors would have loved electric motors!
You can find them in everything from electric trains to remote-controlled cars—and you might
be surprised how common they are. How many electric motors are there in the room with you
right now? There are probably two in your computer for starters, one spinning your hard
drive around and another one powering the cooling fan. If you're sitting in a bedroom, you'll
find motors in hair dryers and many toys; in the bathroom, they're in extractor fans, and
electric shavers; in the kitchen, motors are in just about every appliance from clothes
washing machines and dishwashers to coffee grinders, microwaves, and electric can
openers. Electric motors have proved themselves to be among the greatest inventions of all
time. Let's pull some apart and find out how they work!
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

You can figure out the direction in which the wire will jump using a handy (memory aid)
called Fleming's Left-Hand Rule (sometimes called the Motor Rule).

Hold out the thumb, first finger, and second finger of your left hand so all three are at right
angles. If you point the second finger in the direction of the Current (which flows from the
positive to the negative terminal of the battery), and the First finger in the direction of
the Field (which flows from the North to the South pole of the magnet), your thumb will show
the direction in which the wire Moves.

That's...
 1.First finger = Field

2.Second finger = Current

3.Thumb = Motion

Suppose we bend our wire into a squarish, U-shaped loop so there are effectively two
parallel wires running through the magnetic field. One of them takes the electric current
away from us through the wire and the other one brings the current back again. Because
the current flows in opposite directions in the wires, Fleming's Left-Hand Rule tells us the
two wires will move in opposite directions. In other words, when we switch on the
electricity, one of the wires will move upward and the other will move downward.

 If the coil of wire could carry on moving like this, it would rotate continuously—and
we'd be well on the way to making an electric motor. But that can't happen with our
present setup: the wires will quickly tangle up. Not only that, but if the coil could rotate
far enough, something else would happen. Once the coil reached the vertical position,
it would flip over, so the electric current would be flowing through it the opposite way.
Now the forces on each side of the coil would reverse. Instead of rotating continuously
in the same direction, it would move back in the direction it had just come! Imagine an
electric train with a motor like this: it would keep shuffling back and forward on the
spot without ever actually going anywhere.

How an electric motor works—in practice

There are two ways to overcome this problem. One is to use a kind of electric current that
periodically reverses direction, which is known as an alternating current (AC). In the kind of
small, battery-powered motors we use around the home, a better solution is to add a
component called a commutator to the ends of the coil. (Don't worry about the meaningless
technical name: this slightly old-fashioned word "commutation" is a bit like the word
"commute". It simply means to change back and forth in the same way that commute means
to travel back and forth.) In its simplest form, the commutator is a metal ring divided into two
separate halves and its job is to reverse the electric current in the coil each time the coil
rotates through half a turn. One end of the coil is attached to each half of the commutator.
The electric current from the battery connects to the motor's electric terminals. These feed
electric power into the commutator through a pair of loose connectors called brushes, made
either from pieces of graphite (soft carbon similar to pencil "lead") or thin lengths of springy
metal, which (as the name suggests) "brush" against the commutator. With the commutator
in place, when electricity flows through the circuit, the coil will rotate continually in the same

direction

A simple, experimental motor such as this isn't capable of making much power. We can
increase the turning force (or torque) that the motor can create in three ways: either we can
have a more powerful permanent magnet, or we can increase the electric current flowing
through the wire, or we can make the coil so it has many "turns" (loops) of very thin wire
instead of one "turn" of thick wire. In practice, a motor also has the permanent magnet
curved in a circular shape so it almost touches the coil of wire that rotates inside it. The
closer together the magnet and the coil, the greater the force the motor can produce.

Although we've described a number of different parts, you can think of a motor as having just
two essential components:

 There's a permanent magnet (or magnets) around the edge of the motor case that
remains static, so it's called the stator of a motor.
 Inside the stator, there's the coil, mounted on an axle that spins around at high speed
—and this is called the rotor. The rotor also includes the commutator.
17.Transformer
Definition of Transformer
power transformer is a static device which transforms electrical energy from one circuit to
another without any direct electrical connection and with the help of mutual induction
between two windings. It transforms power from one circuit to another without changing its
frequency but may be in different voltage level.

This is a very short and simple definition of transformer, as we will go through this portion of
tutorial related to electrical power transformer, we will understand more clearly and deeply
"what is transformer ?" and basic theory of transformer.

Working Principle of Transformer Electrical

The working principle of transformer is very simple. It depends upon Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. Mutual induction between two or more winding is responsible for
transformation action in an electrical transformer.

Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

According to these Faraday's laws, "Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is
directly proportional to the induced EMF in a conductor or coil".
Basic Theory of Transformer
Say you have one winding which is supplied by an alternating electrical source. The
alternating current through the winding produces a continually changing flux or
alternating flux that surrounds the winding. If any other winding is brought nearer to the
previous one, obviously some portion of this flux will link with the second. As this flux is
continually changing in its amplitude and direction, there must be a change in flux linkage
in the second winding or coil. According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction, there must be an EMF induced in the second. If the circuit of the later winding
is closed, there must be a current flowing through it.

This is the simplest form of an electrical power transformer, and this is the most EMF
Equation of Transformer | Turns Voltage Transformation Ratio of Transformer
EMF Equation of Transformer
EMF Equation of transformer can be established in a very easy way. Actually in electrical
power transformer, one alternating electrical source is applied to the primary winding and
due to this, magnetizing current flowing through the primary winding which produces
alternating flux in the core of transformer. This flux links with both primary and secondary
windings. As this flux is alternating in nature, there must be a rate of change of flux.
According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction if any coil or conductor links with any
changing flux, there must be an induced emf in it.
basic of working principle of transformer As the current source to primary is sinusoidal, the
flux induced by it will be also sinusoidal. Hence, the function of flux may be considered as a
sine function. Mathematically, derivative of that function will give a function for rate of change
of flux linkage with respect to time. This later function will be a cosine function since
d(sinθ)/dt = cosθ. So, if we derive the expression for rms value of this cosine wave and
multiply it with number of turns of the winding, we will easily get the expression for rms value
of induced emf of that winding. In this way, we can easily derive the emf equation of
transformer.
Let's say, T is number of turns in a winding
Φm is the maximum flux in the core in Wb

As per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, Where φ is the

instantaneous flux and represented as, As the

maximum value of cos2πft is 1, the maximum value of induced emf e is,
To obtain the rms value of induced counter emf, divide this
maximum value of e by √2.
Basic Construction Of Transformer
Basically a transformer consists of two inductive windings and a laminated steel core. The
coils are insulated from each other as well as from the steel core. A transformer may also
consist of a container for winding and core assembly (called as tank), suitable bushings to
take our the terminals, oil conservator to provide oil in the transformer tank for cooling
purposes etc. The figure at left illustrates the basic construction of a transformer.

In all types of transformers, core is constructed by assembling

(stacking) laminated sheets of steel, with minimum air-gap between them (to achieve
continuous magnetic path). The steel used is having high silicon content and sometimes heat
treated, to provide high permeability and low hysteresis loss. Laminated sheets of steel are
used to reduce eddy current loss. The sheets are cut in the shape as E,I and L. To avoid high
reluctance at joints, laminations are stacked by alternating the sides of joint. That is, if joints
of first sheet assembly are at front face, the joints of following assemble are kept at back face
 Types Of Transformers
Transformers can be classified on different basis, like types of construction, types of cooling
etc.

(A) On the basis of construction:

 transformers can be classified into two types as; (i) Core type transformer and (ii) Shell type
transformer, which are described below.

1. Core Type Transformer

In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical former wound, mounted on the core limbs
as shown in the figure above. The cylindrical coils have different layers and each layer is
insulated from each other. Materials like paper, cloth or mica can be used for insulation. Low
voltage windings are placed nearer to the core, as they are easier to insulate.

2. Shell Type Transformer

The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with insulation between them. A
shell type transformer may have simple rectangular form (as shown in above fig), or it may
have a distributed form.

B. On the basis of their purpose

1. Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in current) at
secondary.
2. Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase in current) at
secondary.
C.On the basis of type of supply
1. Single phase transformer
2. Three phase transformer
D.On the basis of their use
1. Power transformer: Used in transmission network, high rating
2. Distribution transformer: Used in distribution network, comparatively lower rating than
that of power transformers.
3. Instrument transformer: Used in relay and protection purpose in different instruments in
industries
4. Current transformer (CT)
5.Potential transformer (PT)
E. On the basis of cooling employed
1. Oil-filled self cooled type
2. Oil-filled water cooled type
3. Air blast type (air cooled)

18.Variable Frequency Drive or VFD

It is interesting to know that the first A.C. drive (400 HP) based on thyratron cycloconverter-
fed WRIM was installed in 1932 by F.E. Alexanderson of General Electric in the Logan Power
Station of Pacific Gas and Electric Company. From then industrial drives have evolved
rapidly by dedicated effort of many scientists and engineers all over the world resulting in
development of advanced drive technology such as Variable Frequency Drive(VFD).
VFD is a power electronics based device which converts a basic fixed frequency, fixed
voltage sine wave power (line power) to a variable frequency, variable output voltage used to
control speed of induction motor(s). It regulates the speed of a three phase induction motor
by controlling the frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor.
Since the number of pole is constant the speed N s can be varied by continuously changing
frequency.

Working of Variable Frequency Drive

Any Variable Frequency Drive or VFD incorporates following three stages for controlling a
three phase induction motor.
Rectifier Stage
A full-wave power diode based solid-state rectifier converts three-phase 50 Hz power from a
standard 220, 440 or higher utility supply to either fixed or adjustable DC voltage. The system
may include transformers for high voltage system.

Inverter Stage
Power electronic switches such as IGBT, GTO or SCR switch the DC power from rectifier on
and off to produce a current or voltage waveform at the required new frequency. Presently
most of the voltage source inverters (VSI) use pulse width modulation (PWM) because the
current and voltage waveform at output in this scheme is approximately a sine wave. Power
Electronic switches such as IGBT; GTO etc. switch DC voltage at high speed, producing a
series of short-width pulses of constant amplitude. Output voltage is varied by varying the
gain of the inverter. Output frequency is adjusted by changing the number of pulses per half
cycle or by varying the period for each time cycle.
The resulting current in an induction motor simulates a sine wave of the desired output
frequency. The high speed switching action of a PWM inverter results in less waveform
distortion and hence decreases harmonic losses.
Control System
Its function is to control output voltage i.e. voltage vector of inverter being fed to motor and
maintain a constant ratio of voltage to frequency (V/Hz). It consists of an electronic circuit
which receives feedback information from the driven motor and adjusts the output voltage or
frequency to the desired values. Control system may be based on SPWM (Sine Wave PWM),
SVPWM (Space Vector modulated PWM) or some soft computing based algorithm.

Induction Motor Characteristic under Variable Frequency Drive

In an induction motor induced in stator, E is proportional to the product of the slip frequency
and the air gap flux. The terminal voltage can be considered proportional to the product of
the slip frequency and flux, if stator drop is neglected. Any reduction in the supply frequency
without a change in the terminal voltage causes an increase in the air gap flux which will
cause magnetic saturation of motor. Also the torque capability of motor is decreased. Hence
while controlling a motor with the help of VFD or Variable Frequency Drive we always keep

the V/f ratio constant. Now define variable ‘K’ as,

For operation below K < 1 i.e. below rated frequency we have constant flux operation. For
this we maintain constant magnetization current I m for all operating points. For K > 1 i.e.
above rated frequency we maintain terminal voltage V rated constant. In this field is
weakened in the inverse ratio of per unit frequency ‘K’. For values of K = 1 we have constant
torque operation and above that we have constant power application.
Merits of using Variable Frequency Drives
Energy Saving
Primary function of VFD in industry is to provide smooth control along with energy savings.
The variable speed motor drive system is more efficient than all other flow control methods
including valves, turbines, hydraulic transmissions, dampers, etc. Energy cost savings
becomes more pronounced in variable-torque ID fan and pump applications, where the load’s
torque and power is directly proportional to the square and cube of the speed respectively.

Increased Reliability
Adjustable speed motor-drive systems are more reliable than traditional mechanical
approaches such as using valves, gears, louvers or turbines to control speed and flow. Unlike
mechanical control system they don’t have any moving parts hence they are highly reliable.

Speed Variations
Beyond energy saving, applications such as crushers, conveyors and grinding mills can use
the motor and VFD’s packages to provide optimal speed variations. In some crucial
applications, the operating speed range can be wide, which a motor supplied with a constant
frequency power source cannot provide. In the case of conveyors and mills, a VFD and
motor system can even provide a “crawl” speed foe maintenance purposes eliminating the
need for additional drives.

Extended Machine Life and Less Maintenance

The VFD’s greatly reduce wear to the motor, increase life of the equipment and decrease
maintenance costs. Due to optimal voltage and frequency control it offers better protection to
the motor from issues such as electro thermal overloads, phase faults, over voltage, under
voltage etc. When we start a motor (on load) with help of a VFD, the motor is not subjected to
“instant shock” hence there is less wear and tear of belt, gear and pulley system.

High Power Factor

Power converted to rotation, heat, sound, etc. is called active power and is measured in
kilowatts (kW). Power that charges builds magnetic fields or charges capacitor is called
reactive power and is measured in kVAR. The vector sum of the kW and the kVAR is the
Apparent Power and is measured in KVA. Power factor is the ratio of kW/KVA. Typical AC
motors may have a full load power factor ranging from 0.7 to 0.8. As the motor load is
reduced, the power factor becomes low. The advantage of using VFD’s is that it includes
capacitors in the DC Bus itself which maintains high power factor on the line side of the
Variable Frequency Drive. This eliminates the need of additional expensive capacitor banks.
Slip Power Recovery
The fundamental power given to rotor by stator is called air gap power P g. The mechanical
power developed is given by The term 'sP' is called slip power.

If the slip is very large i.e. speed is low then there is ample waste of power, a common
example is kiln drives of cement industry. This power can be saved through slip recovery
scheme. In this scheme slip power is first collected through brushes of WRIM. This slip
power recovered is then rectified and inverted back to line frequency and is injected into
supply through coupling transformer. The scheme is shown in figure below.

Applications of Variable Frequency Drive

They are mostly used in industries for large induction motor (dealing with variable load)
whose power rating ranges from few kW to few MW.
Variable Frequency Drive is used in traction system. In India it is being used by Delhi
Metro Rail Corporation.
They are also used in modern lifts, escalators and pumping systems.
 Nowadays they are being also used in energy efficient refrigerators, AC’s and Outside-air
Economizer

19.CONCLUSION
Industrial experience is deemed necessary for an engineering student. It is through an
industrial training that one learns how to see the theoretical fundamentals in practical life and
apply the principals learned. We not only learn the engineering basics required but also get
introduced to the latest trends in the industry.
The industrial training at GAIL (PATA) lasted for four weeks ,but in this four weeks itself I was
able to earn a lot of practical knowledge. Also I got chance to clear my concept well. It was
through interaction with highly proficient and experienced professionals I understood the
industrial culture and how they run. All credits goes to GAIL management and officials.
I have hugely benefitted and believe that this will help me in becoming a better professionals.