Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

SEDIMENTATION
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Sedimentation (Clarifiers and Thickeners)

• Gravity separation under hindered settling conditions is
often used
– to convert a dilute slurry of fine particles into a clarified liquid and
a concentrated suspension
• The process is carried out in large open tanks called
thickeners or clarifiers
• The concentrated suspension, or sludge, may have to be
filtered to produce a drier product
– but the cost of the filtration step is much lower than if the original
slurry had been filtered directly
• The clarified liquid is free or nearly free of suspended
particles
– it may be reused as process water or discharged as waste
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Sedimentation (Clarifiers and Thickeners)

 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Sedimentation (Clarifiers and Thickeners)

 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Sedimentation (Clarifiers and Thickeners)

• In order to obtain the largest possible throughput from a
thickener of given size
– the rate of sedimentation should be as high as possible
• In many cases, the rate may be artificially increased by
– the addition of small quantities of an electrolyte
• which causes precipitation of colloidal particles
and the formation of flocs
– The suspension is also frequently heated
• because this lowers the viscosity of the liquid
• encourages the larger particles in the suspension
to grow in size at the expense of the more soluble
small particles
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Sedimentation (Clarifiers and Thickeners)

• The thickener frequently incorporates a slow stirrer
– which causes a reduction in the apparent viscosity of the
suspension and also aids in the consolidation of the sediment
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Flocculation
• If the solids in a suspension are mainly individual
particles only a few micrometers in diameters
– the gravity settling rate would be very low and perhaps too low
for practical operations
• In many suspension, the particles from agglomerates or
clusters of particles that settle at reasonable rates
• Agglomeration is sometimes promoted by adding
flocculating agents including strong electrolytes
– which reduces the repulsive forces between the charged
particles
• Flocculation is also carried out by adding inexpensive
material such as lime, alumina, or sodium silicate
– which forms loose agglomerates that carry fines down with them
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Flocculation
• Flocculated particles have different settling
characteristics from suspension of dispersed dense
solids
• The aggregates have a high porosity and retain a
considerable amount of water that accompanies the flocs
when they settle
• The aggregates are loosely bonded, and the sludge at
the bottom of the settler compresses under the weight of
additional solids
• Because the size, shape and effective density of the
flocs are not readily definable
– it is not possible to predict the settling rate or the sludge density
from theories or general correlations
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Flocculation
• The thickener design is generally based on
measurements of the settling rates obtained from batch
tests in the laboratory
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Batch Sedimentation or Zone Settling

• The most commonly encountered form of hindered
settling occurs at very high particle concentrations
– where the suspension tends to settle in masses with distinct
interfaces between the settling solids
– the clear liquid above it, this is termed as zone settling
• Four zones are distinctly observable in a typical settling
process
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Batch Sedimentation or Zone Settling

 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Batch Sedimentation or Zone Settling

 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Batch Sedimentation or Zone Settling

 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Clarifier and Thickener Design

• The principal quantities to be specified in designing a
thickener are the cross sectional area and the depth
• The area is usually based on data from batch settling
tests
– even though such tests do not stimulate very well the action in a
continuous thickener
• In a continuous thickener
– the depth of the layer is usually constant, at least for a short time
– but some liquid is flowing downward with the solid
– and the rest is flowing upward in clarification zone
• The design is based on a one-dimensional analysis
assuming upward flow in the clarifier and downward flow
in the settling zone
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Clarifier and Thickener Design

• In a continuous thickener, the area required for
thickening must be such that
– the total solids flux (volumetric flow rate per unit area) at any
level does not exceed the rate at which the solids can be
transmitted downward
• If no solids escape in the overflow, this flux must be
constant at all depths below the feed point
• In the design of a thickener
– it is therefore necessary to establish the concentration at which
the total flux is a minimum in order to calculate the required area
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Clarifier and Thickener Design

• The total flux, Ψt, may be expressed as
– the product of the volumetric rate per unit area at which
thickened suspension is withdrawn (uu) and its volumetric
concentration, Cu

 t = uu Cu
– This flux must also be equal to the volumetric rate per unit area
at which solids are fed to the thickener
Q0
t = C0
A
– Where, Q0 is the volumetric feed rate of suspension, A is the
area of the thickener, and C0 is the volumetric concentration of
solids in the feed
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Clarifier and Thickener Design

• At any horizontal plane of a continuous thickener
operating under steady state conditions
– the total flux of solids Ψt is made up of two components
• Settling flux
– That attribute to the sedimentation of solids in the liquid – as
measured in the batch sedimentation experiment
 = uc C
– Where uc is the sedimentation velocity of solids at a
concentration C
• Transport flux
– That arising from the bulk downward flow of the suspension
which is drawn off as underflow from the base of the thickener
 u = uu C
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Clarifier and Thickener Design

• Thus the total flux:  t =  +  u =  + uu C
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Clarifier and Thickener Design

• Figure shows a typical plot of sedimentation flux, Ψ,
against volumetric concentration, C
• This relationship needs to be based on experimental
measurements of uc as a function of C
• The curve must always pass through a maximum, and
usually exhibits a point of inflexion at high concentration
• At a given withdrawal rate per unit area (uu) the bulk flux
(Ψu) is given by a straight line, of slope uu, passing
through the origin
• The total solid flux Ψt, obtained as the summation of the
two curves, passes through a maximum, followed by a
minimum (ΨtL) at a higher concentration (CL)
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Clarifier and Thickener Design

• For all concentrations exceeding CM, ΨtL is the
parameter which determines the capacity of the
thickener when operating at the fixed withdrawal rate uu
• It should be noted that, because no further
sedimentation occurs below the level of the exit of the
thickener
– there will at that position be a discontinuity
– the solids concentration will undergo a step change from its
value in the suspension to that in the underflow (Cu)
• It is now necessary to determine the limiting total flux,
ΨtL for a specified concentration Cu of underflow
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Clarifier and Thickener Design

• The required area of the thickener is then calculated by
Q0C0
A=
 tL
• A simple differentiation of equation for total flux at a fixed
value of uu  t 
= + uu
C C
• The minimum value of Ψt( = ΨtL ) occurs when ∂Ψt/∂C =
0; 
= −uu
C
• If a tangent is drawn from the point on the abscissa
corresponding to the required underflow concentration
Cu
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Clarifier and Thickener Design

• It will meet the Ψ curve at a concentration value CL at
which Ψt has the minimum value, ΨtL
• It will intersect the ordinate axis at a value equal to ΨtL
• From the geometry
 tL L
= where, L is the value of  at C L
Cu Cu − C L
 L = ucLC L
 1 1 
C − C 
A = Q0C0  L u

 ucL 
 
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Clarifier and Thickener Design

– Where ucL is the value of uc at the concentration CL. Thus the
• Minimum necessary area of the thickener may be
obtained from the maximum value of
 1 1   1 1 
C C−  C C− 
 L u
 which will be designated  L u

 uc   uc 
   
max
• Concentration can also be expressed as mass per unit
volume (using c in place of C)

 (1 / c) − (1 / cu )
A = Q0 c0  
 u c  max
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Clarifier and Thickener Design

• Overflow
– The liquid flow rate in the overflow (Q’) is the difference between
that in the feed and in the underflow
Q' = Q0 (1 − C0 ) − (Q0 − Q' )(1 − Cu )
Q' C
= 1− 0
Q0 Cu

• At any depth below the feed point, the upward liquid

velocity must not exceed the settling velocity of the
particles (uc)
– Where the concentration is C, the required area is therefore
given by:
1  C
• A = Q0 1 − 
uc  Cu 
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Clarifier and Thickener Design

• It is therefore necessary to calculate the maximum value
of A for all the values of C which may be encountered
• Equation can usually be rearranged in terms of the mass
ratio of liquid to solid in the feed (Y) and the
corresponding value (U) in the underflow
1− C  1 − Cu 
Y= and U =
C s Cu  s
1 1
then : C = Cu =
1 + Y (s /  ) 1 + U (s /  )
Q0  1 + U (  s /  )  Q0 (Y − U )C s
and : A = 1 − =
uc  1 + Y (s /  )  uc 
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Clarifier and Thickener Design

• The values of A should be calculated for the whole range
of concentrations present in the thickener
• the design should then be based on the maximum value
so obtained
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Problem
• A slurry containing 5 kg of water per kg of solids is to be
thickened to a sludge containing 1.5 kg of water per kg
of solids in a continuous operation. Laboratory tests
using five different concentrations of the slurry yielded
the following results. Calculate the minimum area of a
thickener to effect the separation of 1.33 kg of solids per
second.
Concentration (kg water/kg solids) 5.0 4.2 3.7 3.1 2.5

Rate of Sedimentation (mm/s) 0.2 0.12 0.094 0.07 0.05

 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

• Figure shows the typical characteristic settling curve for

concentrated suspensions where the interface varies
with time
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

• The slope at any point along the curve is equal to the

velocity at which the interface at that particular point
subsides
• The surface area is a function of both of the clarification
and thickening capacities of the system
• The design surface area is usually specified by
comparing the area based on clarification with that
computed on the basis of thickening
• The larger of the two is accepted as the controlling
requirement
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

• Clarification Area (Ac)

– The area required for clarification is given by
Q
Ac =
vh
where, Ac = Clarification area
Q = Overflow rate
vh = Subsidence velocity in hindered settling
• Thickening Area (At)
– The area for thickening is given by
Qt tu
At =
Ho
where, At=Surface area required for thickening
Qt = Inflow rate of suspension entering
tu = time required to attain Cu
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

• The value of tu can be determined by first constructing a

horizontal line at the depth Hu, which is the final height of
the sludge zone
• A simple material balance gives:
H oCo = H u Cu

H o Co
Hu =
Cu
 Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

Problem
• A settling test conducted in a 40 cm high cylindrical jar
gave the curve shown in Fig. The initial concentration of
solids was 3000 mg/l. Determine the thickener area if an
under flow concentration of 20,000 mg/l is desired. The
sludge is to be settled in a continuous flow unit operated
at a rate of 0.03 m3/s.
Selected Chemical Engineering Operations

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