Special Theory Relativity

Inertial Frame of Reference: A frame of reference in which Newton’s laws of motion are valid is known as an
inertial frame of reference.
Non-Inertial Frame of Reference: A frame of reference in which Newton’s Laws are not valid is known as a Non-
inertial frame of reference.
Galilean Transformation

𝑍 𝑆 𝑍′ 𝑆 ′
𝑣

𝑥 𝑃

𝑣𝑡 𝑥′

𝑋′
0 0′
𝑋

𝑌 𝑌′
Consider two inertial frames of reference 𝑆, 𝑆 ′ . Frame 𝑆 ′ is moving with a velocity 𝑣 along the positive 𝑋-axis
relative to the frame 𝑆. Let the two frames of reference 𝑆, 𝑆 ′ coincide at time 𝑡 = 0.
Let be the co-ordinates of the point 𝑃 with respect to the frames 𝑆, 𝑆 ′ are 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 and 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ , 𝑡 ′ .
From Figure,
𝑥 = 𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑡
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
Similarly 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦,
𝑧 ′ = 𝑧,
𝑡′ = 𝑡
The above equations are called Galilean Transformation equations.
Inverse Galilean Transformation equations are
𝑥 = 𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑡 ′
𝑦 = 𝑦′
𝑧 = 𝑧′
𝑡 = 𝑡′
 Space interval is invariant under Galilean transformation
 Time interval is invariant under Galilean Transformation.
 Laws of mechanics are invariant under Galilean Transformation.
Lorentz Transformation
Consider two inertial frames of reference 𝑆, 𝑆 ′ . Frame 𝑆 ′ is moving with a velocity 𝑣 along the positive 𝑋-axis
relative to the frame 𝑆. Let the two frames of reference 𝑆, 𝑆 ′ coincide at time𝑡 = 0. Let be the co-ordinates of the
point 𝑃 with respect to the frames 𝑆, 𝑆 ′ are 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 and 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ , 𝑡 ′ .
Let a beam of light is emitted from the origin 𝑂 at time 𝑡 = 𝑜.The beam of light reaches the point 𝑃 after a time.

K.V.Ganesh Kumar, GDC Ganapavaram[Type text] Page 1

 𝑍 𝑆 𝑍′ 𝑆 ′
𝑣

𝑋′
0 0′
𝑋

𝑌 𝑌′
Distance 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
Relative to frame 𝑆, 𝐶= =
Time 𝑡
2 2 2
Distance 𝑥 ′ +𝑦 ′ +𝑧 ′
′
Relative to Frame 𝑆 , 𝐶= =
Time 𝑡
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2
𝐶=
𝑡
𝑐2 𝑡2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 − 𝑐2 𝑡2 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … 1

𝑥′ 2 + 𝑦′ 2 + 𝑧′ 2
𝐶=
𝑡′
2 2 2 2
𝑐2 𝑡′ = 𝑥′ + 𝑦′ + 𝑧′
2 2 2 2
𝑥 ′ + 𝑦 ′ + 𝑧 ′ − 𝑐 2 𝑡 ′ = 0 … … … … … … … … … . .2
From equations 1 and 2
2 2 2 2
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 − 𝑐2 𝑡2 = 𝑥′ + 𝑦′ + 𝑧′ − 𝑐2 𝑡′
𝑦 ′ = 𝑦,
𝑧′ = 𝑧
2 2
𝑥 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 = 𝑥 ′ − 𝑐 2 𝑡 ′ ……………………………………….3
From Galilean Transformation
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 ′ = 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 ……………………….4
Inverse Galilean Transformation
𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑡 ′
𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑣𝑡 ′
𝑥
= 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑣𝑡 ′
𝑘
𝑥
𝑣𝑡 ′ = − 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
𝑘
𝑥
𝑣𝑡 ′ = − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑘𝑣𝑡
𝑘
𝑥 𝑘𝑥
𝑡′ = − + 𝑘𝑡
𝑘𝑣 𝑣

K.V.Ganesh Kumar, GDC Ganapavaram[Type text] Page 2

 𝑥 𝑘𝑥
𝑡 ′ = 𝑘𝑡 + −
𝑘𝑣 𝑣
𝑥 1
𝑡 ′ = 𝑘𝑡 − 𝑘 −
𝑣 𝑘
𝑘𝑥 1
𝑡 ′ = 𝑘𝑡 − 1− 2
𝑣 𝑘
𝑥 1
𝑡 ′ = 𝑘 𝑡 − 1 − 2 … … … … … … … … . .5
𝑣 𝑘
2 2 2 ′2 2 ′2
From equation 3, 𝑥 −𝑐 𝑡 =𝑥 −𝑐 𝑡
2
𝑥 1
𝑥 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 = 𝑘 2 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 2
− 𝑐2 𝑘2 𝑡 − 1− 2
𝑣 𝑘
Comparing the coefficients of 𝑡 2 on both sides,
−𝑐 2 = 𝑘 2 𝑣 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑘 2
𝑐2 = 𝑐2 𝑘2 − 𝑘2𝑣 2
𝑐2 = 𝑘2 𝑐2 − 𝑣2
𝑐2 1
𝑘2 = 2 2
= 2
𝑐 −𝑣 1−𝑣
𝑐2
1
𝑘=
2
1−𝑣
𝑐2
From equation 4,
𝑥 ′ = 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
𝑥′ =
2
1 − 𝑣 𝑐2

From equation 5,
𝑥 1 1 𝑥 𝑐2 − 𝑣2
𝑡′ = 𝑘 𝑡 − 1− 2 = 𝑡− 1−
𝑣 𝑘 2 𝑣 𝑐2
1−𝑣
𝑐2
2 𝑡− 𝑣𝑥
1 𝑥 𝑐 𝑐2
= 𝑡− =
2 𝑣 𝑣2 2
1−𝑣 1−𝑣
𝑐2 𝑐2
𝑡− 𝑣𝑥
𝑡′ = 𝑐2
2
1−𝑣 2
𝑐
Lorentz Transformation Equations
𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
𝑥′ =
2
1−𝑣
𝑐2
′
𝑦 = 𝑦,
𝑧 ′ = 𝑧,
𝑡 − 𝑣𝑥 2
′
𝑡 = 𝑐
2
1−𝑣 2
𝑐

Length Contraction or Lorentz-Fitzgerald Contraction

Consider two inertial frames of reference 𝑆, 𝑆 ′ . Frame 𝑆 ′ is moving with a velocity 𝑣 along the positive 𝑋-axis relative to the frame
𝑆. Let the two frames of reference 𝑆, 𝑆 ′ coincide at time 𝑡 = 0.
Let a rod of length 𝑙 is placed in the reference frame 𝑆 ′ with its length parallel to 𝑋-axis. Co-ordinates of the ends of the rod with
respect to the frames 𝑆, 𝑆 ′ are 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 and 𝑥1′ , 𝑥2′ .

K.V.Ganesh Kumar, GDC Ganapavaram[Type text] Page 3

 𝑍 𝑆 𝑍′ 𝑆 ′
𝑣

𝑥1 ′

𝑥2 ′

𝑋′
0 0′
𝑋
𝑥1

𝑥2

𝑌 𝑌′

Length of the rod in frame 𝑆

𝑙 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Length of the rod in frame 𝑆 ′

𝑙 ′ = 𝑥2′ − 𝑥1′
From Lorentz transformation
𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
𝑥′ =
2
1−𝑣
𝑐2
𝑥2 − 𝑣𝑡 𝑥1 − 𝑣𝑡 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑙 ′ = 𝑥2′ − 𝑥1′ = − =
2 2 2
1−𝑣 1−𝑣 1−𝑣
𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑐2
𝑙
𝑙′ =
2
1−𝑣
𝑐2
2
𝑙 = 𝑙′ 1 − 𝑣
𝑐2

Hence a moving rod appears to be contracted for a stationary observer.

𝑣2
Case (i): 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐 𝑐2
~0
∴ 𝑙 = 𝑙′ 1 = 𝑙′
𝑙 = 𝑙′
2
Case(ii): 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 comparable to 𝑐, 𝑙 = 𝑙 ′ 1 − 𝑣
𝑐2
∴ 𝑙 < 𝑙′
Moving rod appears to be contracted for a stationary observer
𝑣2
Case(iii): 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 = 𝑐, 𝑐2
=1
𝑙 = 𝑙′ 0 = 0

∴𝑙=0
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 > 𝑐, 𝑙 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
 Hence no object can travel faster than the speed of light.

K.V.Ganesh Kumar, GDC Ganapavaram[Type text] Page 4

 Time Dilation
Consider two inertial frames of reference 𝑆, 𝑆 . Frame 𝑆 ′ is moving with a velocity 𝑣 along the positive 𝑋-axis
′

relative to the frame 𝑆. Let the two frames of reference 𝑆, 𝑆 ′ coincide at time 𝑡 = 0.
Let a clock be placed in the frame𝑆.
Time interval in frame 𝑆 is ∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
Time interval in frame 𝑆 ′ is ∆𝑡 ′ = 𝑡2 ′ − 𝑡1 1
From Lorentz Transformation
𝑡 − 𝑣𝑥 𝑐 2
′
𝑡 =
2
1 − 𝑣 𝑐2

𝑡2 − 𝑣𝑥 𝑐 2 𝑡1 − 𝑣𝑥 𝑐 2 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡
∆𝑡 ′ = 𝑡2 ′ − 𝑡1 1 = = = =
2 2 2 2
1 − 𝑣 𝑐2 1 − 𝑣 𝑐2 1 − 𝑣 𝑐2 1 − 𝑣 𝑐2

∆𝑡
∴ ∆𝑡 ′ = 2 = 𝑘∆𝑡
1−𝑣 𝑐2
𝑣2
Case (i): 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐 𝑐2
~0
∴ ∆𝑡 ′ = ∆𝑡
Case(ii): When 𝑣is comparable to 𝑐
∆𝑡 ′ > ∆𝑡
Hence the time interval of a moving observer is more than the time interval of a stationery observer.
𝑣2
Case(iii): 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 = 𝑐, 𝑐 2 = 1
∆𝑡 ′ = ∞
′
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 > 𝑐, ∆𝑡 =Complex Number
 Hence no object can travel faster than the speed of light.
Einstein’s Mass-Energy Equivalence
From Newton’s Second law
𝑑𝑃 𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝐹= = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚 +𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
By Work-Energy theorem, work done is equal to the change in kinetic energy.
𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝐾
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝑑𝐾 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 +𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
= 𝑚 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑚 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2
= 𝑚 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑚
∴ 𝑑𝐾 = 𝑚 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑚
Relativistic mass
𝑚0
𝑚=
2
1 − 𝑣 𝑐2

K.V.Ganesh Kumar, GDC Ganapavaram[Type text] Page 5

 2
𝑚02 𝑚02 𝑚02 𝑐 2
𝑚 = 2 = 2 =
1−𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣2 𝑐2 − 𝑣2
𝑐 2
𝑐2
𝑚2 𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 = 𝑚02 𝑐 2
𝑚2 𝑐 2 − 𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 𝑚02 𝑐 2
2𝑚𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚 − 𝑚2 2𝑣 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 2𝑚 𝑑𝑚 = 0
2𝑚𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑚2 2𝑣 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 2𝑚 𝑑𝑚
𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑚 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑚
𝑑𝐾 = 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚
𝑚
2
𝑑𝐾 = 𝑐 𝑑𝑚
𝑚0
𝐾 = 𝑐2 𝑚 𝑚
𝑚0
2
𝐾 = 𝑐 𝑚 − 𝑚0
The above equation gives the relativistic kinetic energy of a moving body.
Energy at rest is given by
𝑚0 𝑐 2
Total energy
𝐸 = 𝑐 2 𝑚 − 𝑚0 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 = 𝑚𝑐 2
The above equation gives Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence.
Hence Mass and Energy are not two different physical quantities. Mass can be converted in to energy and vice-
versa.
Addition of Velocities or Transformation of Velocities
Consider two inertial frames of reference 𝑆, 𝑆 ′ . Frame 𝑆 ′ is moving with a velocity 𝑣 along the positive 𝑋-axis
relative to the frame 𝑆. Let the two frames of reference 𝑆, 𝑆 ′ coincide at time 𝑡 = 0.
In reference frame 𝑆, an object moves a distance 𝑑𝑥 in time 𝑑𝑡. Similarly in reference frame 𝑆 ′ , the object moves
a distance 𝑑𝑥 ′ in time 𝑑𝑡 ′ .
𝑑𝑥
Velocity in Reference frame 𝑆 𝑢 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 ′
Velocity in Reference frame 𝑆 ′ 𝑢′ =
𝑑𝑡 ′
From Lorentz Transformation
𝑥 ′ = 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
𝑡 ′ = 𝑘 𝑡 − 𝑣𝑥 𝑐 2
From Inverse Lorentz Transformation
′
𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑡 ′ , 𝑡 = 𝑘 𝑡 ′ + 𝑣𝑥 𝑐 2
′
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 ′ + 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 ′ , 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘 𝑑𝑡 ′ + 𝑣𝑑𝑥 𝑐 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 ′ + 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑥 ′ + 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 ′
𝑢= = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑘 𝑑𝑡 ′ + 𝑣𝑑𝑥 ′ ′
𝑑𝑡 ′ + 𝑣𝑑𝑥 𝑐 2
𝑐 2
𝑑𝑥 ′
′ +𝑣
= 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑑𝑥 ′
1+ 2 ′
𝑐 𝑑𝑡
𝑢′ + 𝑣
𝑢= ′
1 + 𝑢 𝑣 𝑐2
The above equation represents the relativistic law of addition of velocities.
Case(i) : When 𝑢′ ≪ 𝑐 , 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐
𝑢′ 𝑣
~0
𝑐2

K.V.Ganesh Kumar, GDC Ganapavaram[Type text] Page 6

 ∴ 𝑢 = 𝑢′ + 𝑣
Case(ii): When 𝑢′ = 𝑐 , 𝑣 = 𝑐
𝑐+𝑐 2𝑐
𝑢= = =𝑐
1 + 𝑐. 𝑐 𝑐 2 2
𝑢=𝑐
Hence addition of velocity of to the velocity of light reproduces the velocity of light.
Michelson-Morley Experiment
M1

𝐴 𝐴′

Ray 1 𝒍

L
S
M2
′
𝐺 𝐷 𝐺 𝐵 𝐵′
M Ray 2

Aim: Aim of Michelson-Morley experiment is to determine the velocity of Earth relative to Ether.
Michelson-Morley Interferometer is shown in figure. Light emitted from the monochromatic source 𝑆 falls
on the half silvered glass plate 𝐺. The glass plate 𝐺 is oriented at an angle of 450 to the incident light. Hence the
light incident on the glass plate 𝐺 is divided in to two perpendicular beams of light. The two beams of light are
reflected back from the two mirrors 𝑀1 , 𝑀2 and meet at 𝐺 to produce interference pattern. The interference
pattern can be observed through the telescope𝑇.
Since the apparatus is moving with a velocity 𝑣 along with the Earth, the optical paths of two beams are not equal.
The two beams are reflected at the points 𝐴′ , 𝐵′ instead of 𝐴, 𝐵 and interfere at 𝐺 ′ .
From ∆ 𝐺𝐴′ 𝐷 𝐺𝐴′ 2 = 𝐴′ 𝐷 2 + 𝐺𝐷 2
𝑐 2 𝑡 2 = 𝑙2 + 𝑣 2 𝑡 2
𝑙2 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 𝑡 2
𝑙2
𝑡2 = 2
𝑐 − 𝑣2
𝑙 𝑙
𝑡= =
𝑐2 − 𝑣2 2
𝑐 1 − 𝑣 𝑐2

−1/2
𝑙 2 𝑙 2
= 1 − 𝑣 𝑐2 = 1 + 𝑣 2𝑐 2
𝑐 𝑐
Hence the time taken by the light beam 1 to reach 𝐺 ′
2𝑙 2
𝑡1 = 2𝑡 = 1 + 𝑣 2𝑐 2
𝑐
Let be 𝑡2 the time taken by the light beam 2 to reach the glass plate 𝐺 ′ .
Velocity of light beam from 𝐺 to 𝐵′ is 𝑐 − 𝑣 and from 𝐵′ to 𝐺 ′ is 𝑐 + 𝑣 .

K.V.Ganesh Kumar, GDC Ganapavaram[Type text] Page 7

 𝑙 𝑙 1 1 2𝑐
𝑡2 = + =𝑙 + =𝑙 2
𝑐−𝑣 𝑐+𝑣 𝑐−𝑣 𝑐+𝑣 𝑐 − 𝑣2
−1
𝑙 2𝑐 2𝑙 2 2𝑙 2
= 1 − 𝑣 𝑐2 = 1 + 𝑣 𝑐2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑣 2
𝑐2 1− 𝑐2

2𝑙 2
𝑡2 = 1 + 𝑣 𝑐2
𝑐
Time lag between the two beams
∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
2𝑙 2 2𝑙 2
= 1 + 𝑣 𝑐2 − 1 + 𝑣 2𝑐 2
𝑐 𝑐
2𝑙 2 2
= 1 + 𝑣 𝑐 2 − 1 − 𝑣 2𝑐 2
𝑐
2𝑙 𝑣 2
=
𝑐 2𝑐 2
𝑙𝑣 2
= 3
𝑐
𝑙𝑣 2
∆𝑡 = 3
𝑐
𝑙𝑣 2 𝑙𝑣 2
Path difference = 𝑐. ∆𝑡 = 𝑐. =
𝑐3 𝑐2
𝑙𝑣 2
Path difference in terms of Wavelength = 2
𝜆𝑐
Mirrors 𝑀1 , 𝑀2 are interchanged by rotating the apparatus by 900
𝑙𝑣 2
Path difference = −
𝜆𝑐 2
𝑙𝑣 2 𝑙𝑣 2 2𝑙𝑣 2
Resultant Path difference = 2
− − =
𝜆𝑐 𝜆𝑐 2 𝜆𝑐 2
2𝑙𝑣 2
Hence Fringe Shift ∆𝑛 = 2
𝜆𝑐
In Michelson-Morley Experiment, 𝑙 = 10𝑚, 𝑣 = 3 × 104 𝑚 𝑠 , 𝜆 = 5000 × 10−10 𝑚, 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
2 × 10 × 3 × 104 2
∴ ∆𝑛 = = 0.4
5000 × 10−10 × 3 × 108 2

Hence a fringe shift of 0.4 was expected. But Michelson-Morley observed a fringe shift of only 0.001. This is known
as Null Result.
Significance of Null Result:
 It is impossible to measure the speed of Earth relative to Ether. Hence the concept of Ether is rejected.
 Speed of light in vacuum is the same for all observers.

K.V.Ganesh Kumar, GDC Ganapavaram[Type text] Page 8