Modifying Input, Z

Physical Variable, X
Output, O
Measuring
Instrument / Sensor
Variable
Interfering Input, X

Z = Z1  Effect of Modifying input Z

Output

 Temperature is a typical input

Z=0

Input
Example of Desired, Interfering & Modifying Inputs
Strain Gauge
Measures strain of a specimen
Desired Input: Strain
Interfering Input: Temperature
 Change the gauges resistance even if there is no
strain on the gauge
 Changes the gauge resistance due to the strain resulting from the differential
expansion of the gauge and the specimen (since they are made of materials with
different thermal expansion coefficients)
Modifying Input: Temperature
 Change factor is dependent on temperature
Change in gauge resistance= Gauge Factor×Gauge resistance when unstrained×Unit Strain
 Corrective Measurement for Undesired Inputs
Method of Signal Filtering:
 Use filters to block the undesired inputs
 The filters may be applied to input signal as well as output signal

Input Filtering Desired Input I_D TF_D

TF_M,D Final Output

Modifying Input, I_M
Use filter here TF_M,I

Interfering Input, I_I TF_I

Use filter here
 Corrective Measurement for Undesired Inputs
Method of Signal Filtering: Output Filtering

Desired Input I_D TF_D Use filter here

Output O_M
Filtering
TF_M,D Final
O_D
Modifying Input, I_M
Output
TF_M,I
O_I

Use filter here

Interfering Input, I_I TF_I
 Corrective Measurement for Undesired Inputs
Method of Opposing Inputs: Intentionally introduce an input that cancels the
effect of undesired inputs

Desired Input I_D TF_D

Final
Unavoidable Interfering Output
TF_I1
Input, I_I1

Zero Signal
Intentionally Introduced
TF_I2
Interfering Input, I_I2
 Performance Characteristics of Instruments
How do we describe the quality of measurement?
Performance characteristics are quantitative bases for comparing the
performance of an instrument with possible alternatives
Two Classes of characteristics are used to evaluate/compare instruments
Static Characteristics:
 Attributes associated with static measurement
 Set of criteria that are used when we measure a quantity that is constant or
changes very slowly
Dynamic Characteristics:
 Attributes associated with dynamic measurement
 Set of criteria that are used when we measure a quantity that is rapidly varying
with time
Note: Static characteristics also influence the quality of measurement under
dynamic environment. But we treat them separately.
 Static Characteristics of Instruments
Static Characteristics

Desirable Static Undesirable Static

Characteristics Characteristics

• Accuracy • Static Error

Threshold
• Sensitivity • Dead Zone
Hysteresis
• Precision • Drift
 Static Characteristics of Instruments
Static Calibration:
The procedure used to assess the relation between the output and the input of
a instrument if all influencing parameters are controlled within working range
 Calibration is accomplished by applying known magnitudes of the input and
observing the measurement system output.
 Once a measurement device is selected, it must be calibrated against known
standard.

Linear
qout

Nonlinear

qIn
 Static Characteristics of Instruments
Range: The Range of an instrument is the lowest and highest values it can
measure within its specification.
Span : the Span of an instrument is the high end of the range minus the low end
of the range
Resolution: Resolution is the smallest amount of input signal change that the
instrument can detect reliably
Example:
 The lowest point of calibration = a units
 The highest point of calibration = b units
 Instrument’s range : a to b
 Instrument’s span : b – a

Note: We should select instruments such that its range includes all values a
process will normally encounter, including expected (Disturbances and
possible failure)
 Static Characteristics of Instruments
Accuracy: The accuracy of an instrument describes how close the measurement
approaches the true value of the process variable.
Accuracy is expressed in many ways
“Accuracy within ±× %” means “accurate to within ±× % of instrument span at all point
of the scale”
% True value
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 − (𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆)
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
% Full Scale Deflection
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 − (𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆)
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

Example: If a pressure gauge of range 0 – 10 bar has a quoted in accuracy of ±𝟏. 𝟎% of

full-scale reading then the maximum error to be expected in any reading is
0.1 bar
(This means, that the instrument is reading 1 bar the possible error is 10% of this value)
 Static Characteristics of Instruments
Static Error: The difference between the true value of the quantity (under static
condition) and the measured value (value indicated by the instrument)
Static Error is expressed as + a units or – a units
True value + Static Error = Instrument Reading
So, if the static error is positive, the instrument will read HIGH and if the static error is
negative the instrument will read LOW
True value = Instrument Reading + Static Correction
Static Correction = – Static Error

Static Error % span

A typical static error curve may look like this

Measured variable
% span
 Static Characteristics of Instruments
Precision: Ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings within
given accuracy.
This can be best example by an example

Shooting Target
 High Accuracy Signifies that the means is close to the true value
 High precision mean that the standard deviation 𝝈 is small
 Static Characteristics of Instruments
Static Sensitivity: define as Ratio of change in the output or response of
instrument to a change of input or measured variable.
∆𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
∆𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
= 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 Slope of calibration curve

What should be the unit of Static Sensitivity?

Unit of Output / Unit of Input
Linear Nonlinear

qout
∆ 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

∆ 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

qIn
The resistance value of a Resistance Thermometer (RTD) change when the
temperature increases. Therefore, the unit of sensitivity for resistance
thermometer is Ohm/ºC.
For a mercury-in-glass thermometer. If mercury level moves by 1 cm when the
temperature changes by 10 ºC. its sensitivity will be 1 cm/10ºC in other words it is
1mm/ºC.
Example: The output of a platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) is recorded as
follows. Calculate the sensitivity of the RTD.
Input ( ºC ) Output (Ohm)
Answer:
Draw an input versus output graph and the sensitivity is 0 0
the slope of the graph. 100 200
Slope of graph = (400-200)Ohm/(200-100)ºC = 2 Ohm/ºC
200 400
The above data obviously produces a linear relationship. 300 600
For a change in temperature of 100 ºC, the change in
resistance is 200 Ohm.
400 800
Hence the measurement sensitivity = 200/100= 2 Ohm/ºC
 Static Characteristics of Instruments
Dead Zone: is the largest range of value of a measured
variable to which the instrument does not respond.

Hysteresis: is the characteristics loop we find when the

instrument is calibrated first in one direction and
then in the other. This is caused by Friction or
Backlash.
 Static Characteristics of Instruments
Threshold If the input to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, the input will
have to reach a certain minimum level before the change in the instrument
output reading is of a large enough magnitude to be detectable. This minimum
level of input is known as the Threshold of the instrument.
Drift: is the Change in the indicated reading of an instrument over time when the
value of the measuring quantity remains constant.
Zero Drift (Zero Error): The instrument calibration gradually shift by the same
amount. (Cause : Permanent set or Slippage)
See that in some of the instruments like pressure gauge
when these is no pressure input. The instrument still shows of
small positive value which is a Zero error. We should take a
note of this Zero error. So that we can apply the correction
factor to the measured value being indicated by the
instrument.
Magnitude of Zero Error
Span Drift (Sensitivity Drift): A gradual change in
which the calibration from zero upward
changes a proportional amount (this may
be cause by gradual change in the spring
characteristics of the instrument.
Zonal Drift: can be viewed as combination of zero
drift as well as span drift or sensitivity drift.
(Zero Drift + Span Drift)

If the instrument had no Zero Error this point

should have coincided with the origin and if
the instrument had no Sensitivity Drift but
only Zero Drift this line would have been
parallel to the Nominal Characteristics line.
Example : A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20°C and has
the following deflection/load characteristic.
It is then used in an environment at a
temperature of 30°C and the following
deflection/ load characteristic is
measured.
Determine the zero drift and sensitivity
drift per °C change in ambient
temperature.
Solution
At 20°C, deflection/load characteristic is a straight line. Sensitivity = 20 mm/kg.
At 30°C, deflection/load characteristic is still a straight line. Sensitivity = 22 mm/kg.
Bias (zero drift) = 5mm (the no-load deflection)
Sensitivity drift = 2 mm/kg
Zero drift/°C = 5/10 D 0.5 mm/°C
Sensitivity drift/°C = 2/10 = 0.2 (mm per kg)/°C