AHMAD DANIEL FAIZ BIN MAHADZIR 2018287652 AAP299D5A

BASEMENT 2
i) The application of caisson/ secant pile for the wall construction.
A caisson is a box-like structure commonly used in civil engineering projects where work is being
carried out in areas submerged in water. Such projects might include:
 Bridge piers.
 Abutments in lakes and rivers.
 Break water and other shore protection works.
 Wharves and docks.
 Large water front structures.
Caissons differ from cofferdams in that cofferdams are removed after completion of the work,
whereas caissons are built to remain in place as a part of the completed structure.
Caissons can be made of materials including timber, steel, masonry and reinforced concrete, and
may be constructed onshore then floated to the required location, where they are sunk into place,
enabling access to the bed and excavation of foundations to the required depth.
They are particularly suitable for the construction of underwater foundations or where the water
is deep, as they are strong enough to withstand significant vertical and horizontal loads, as well
as lateral forces such as waves.
Secant pile walls are formed by constructing intersecting reinforced concrete piles. The piles are
reinforced with either steel rebar or with steel beams and are constructed by drilling under mud.
Primary piles are installed first with secondary piles constructed in between primary piles once
the latter gain sufficient strength. Pile overlap is typically in the order of 3 inches (8 cm). In a
tangent pile wall, there is no pile overlap as the piles are constructed flush to each other.

Diagram 1: Secant pile wall section Diagram 2: Secant pile wall at the site

ii) The application of diaphragm walls for the basement construction.

A diaphragm wall is a structural concrete wall constructed in a deep trench excavation, either cast
in situ or using precast concrete components. Diaphragms walls are often used on congested
sites, close to existing structures, where there is restricted headroom, or where the excavation is
of a depth that would otherwise require the removal of much greater volumes of soil to provide
stable battered slopes.

Diaphragm walls are suitable for most subsoils and their installation generates only a small
amount of vibration and noise, which increases their suitability for works carried out close to
existing structures. In addition, floor slab connections and recessed formwork can be incorporated
into the walls.

The walls generally range in thickness from 500 - 1,500 mm and can be excavated to depths of
over 50 m. Excavation is typically carried out using rope-suspended mechanical or hydraulically-
operated grabs. Specific ground conditions or greater depths may require the use of hydromills –
hydraulically-operated reverse circulation trench cutters – to penetrate into hard rock by ‘cutting’
rather than ‘digging’. Hydromills can achieve depths of up to 80 m.
 Diagram 3: Diaphragm wall

The excavation stability is maintained by the use of a drilling fluid, usually a bentonite slurry. This
is a controlled mixture that has thixotropic properties, meaning that it exerts a pressure in excess
of the earth and hydrostatic pressures on the sides of the excavation. The walls are constructed,
using reinforced or unreinforced concrete, in discrete panel lengths generally ranging between
2.5 - 7 m. Purpose-made stop ends can be used to form the joints between adjacent panels, with
a water bar incorporated across the joints. More complicated arrangements such as ‘L’ or ‘T’-
shaped panels can be constructed where additional bending moment capacity or wall stiffness is
required.

Diagram 4: Diaprhagm wall construction

Precast concrete diaphragm walls have the same advantages but are less flexible in terms of
design. The units are installed in a trench filled with a special mixture of bentonite and cement
with a retarder added to control the setting time. Ground anchors are used to tie the panels or
posts to the retained earth to provide stability.

The high cost of diaphragm walls can make them uneconomic unless they can be incorporated
into part of a building structure. As such, they are suited for deep basements, underground car
parks and rail stations, tunnel approaches, underpasses, deep shafts for tunnel ventilation,
pumping stations, and so on.