Or

gani
zat
ional
Behav
ior

SEMESTER1

UNI
T1

I
ntr
oduct
iont
oOr
gani
zat
ional
Behav
ior

1. Descr
ibet
hechar
act
eri
sti
cs,
conceptandnat
ureofOB

2. Expl
aint
hedi
sci
pli
nescont
ri
but
ingf
orOB.

3. Di
scusst
hei
mpor
tanceofOBf
oral
lmanager
s.

4. Whatar
ethedet
ermi
nant
sofOB?

5. Expl
ainaboutt
heConcept
ual
foundat
ionofOB

6. Tr
ace t
he dev
elopmentof OB i
n hi
stor
icalper
spect
ive wi
thr
efer
ence t
o
Hawt
hor
neSt
udy

7. Chal
l
engesandoppor
tuni
ti
esi
nOB

8. Di
ver
sit
yandi
tsi
mpor
tancei
nor
gani
zat
ions

9. Di
scuss t
he f
act
orsl
eadi
ng t
ojob sat
isf
act
ion.Li
stt
he measur
es ofj
ob
sat
isf
act
ion.

UNI
T2

At
ti
tude,
Per
sonal
i
tyandPer
cept
ion

1. Expl
aint
heconceptandi
mpor
tanceofper
cept
ion

2. Expl
ainel
abor
atel
yaboutt
heper
cept
ionpr
ocess

3. Expl
aint
hef
act
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngper
cept
ion

4. Wr
it
eanot
eonPer
cept
ual
Err
ors.

5. Howt
oov
ercomeper
cept
ual
err
ors?
 6. Enumer
atet
heconceptandpr
ocessofat
ti
tude

7. Wr
it
eabr
iefnot
eoni
mpor
tanceofat
ti
tude

8. HowAt
ti
tudei
sfor
med?

9. Expl
aint
het
ypesofat
ti
tude

10. Cl
ari
fyt
hepr
ocessofmeasur
ementofat
ti
tudeofempl
oyees

11. Wr
it
eanot
eoncomponent
sofAt
ti
tudewi
thexampl
es.

12. Expl
aint
het
ypesofper
sonal
i
tywi
thexampl
es

13. I
ll
ust
rat
ethet
heor
iesofper
sonal
i
tywi
thr
efer
encet
oMBTIandBi
g5Theor
y

14. Wr
it
eanot
eonmeasur
ingper
sonal
i
ty.

15. Howdoy
ouenhanceper
sonal
i
ty?

16. Whatar
ethef
act
orsaf
fect
ingper
sonal
i
ty?

17. Wr
it
e a not
e on Lear
ning Theor
ies – Cl
assi
cal Condi
ti
oni
ng Theor
y&
Rei
nfor
cementTheor
y
18. Expl
aint
hebehav
ior
alappl
i
cat
ionofper
cept
ion,
lear
ning,
att
it
udeandper
sonal
i
ty
i
nmanagement
.

UNI
T3
Mot
ivat
ion/Gr
oupDy
nami
cs
1. Wr
it
eabr
iefnot
eonmot
ivat
ionconcept

2. Enumer
atet
het
ypesofmot
ivat
ioni
ndet
ail

3. Di
ff
erent
iat
emonet
aryandnon-
monet
arymot
ivat
ion

4. Di
scusst
het
heor
iesofmot
ivat
ioni
ncl
udi
ngMasl
ow’
sTheor
y,ERG.GoalSet
ti
ng,
MBO,
Her
zber
gtheor
yandt
heor
yXandt
heor
yY

5. Whypeopl
ejoi
ngr
oups?

6. Expl
aingr
oupdy
nami
cs.Ex
plai
nthest
agesofgr
oupdev
elopment

7. Expl
aini
ndet
ail
thet
ypesofgr
oupsi
nor
gani
zat
ions

8. Wr
it
eanot
eont
ypesoft
eamsi
nor
gani
zat
ions.
9. Def
ine a gr
oup and gr
oup St
ruct
ure.Di
scuss t
he f
act
ors det
ermi
ning gr
oup
st
ruct
ure

10. Def
inet
het
erm gr
oupdy
nami
cs.Expl
aint
heat
tr
ibut
esofgr
oupdy
nami
cs

11. Expl
aini
ndet
ail
thegr
oupdeci
sionmaki
ngpr
ocess

12. St
atet
hemer
it
sanddemer
it
sofgr
oupdeci
sion

13. Expl
ainpunct
uat
edequi
l
ibr
ium model

14. I
ll
ust
rat
etheanal
ysi
sofi
nter
per
sonal
rel
ati
onshi
p

15. Suggestt
heappr
oachesf
ordev
elopi
ngi
nter
per
sonal
rel
ati
onshi
p

16. Whyi
siti
mpor
tantf
oramanagert
oknowgr
oupbehav
ior
?

17. How t
oincr
easegr
oupcohesi
veness?How cangr
oupdeci
sionbemademor
e
ef
fect
ive?

18. Expl
aingr
oupnor
msandi
tsi
mpacti
nor
gani
sat
ion

19. Expl
aint
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenGr
oupCohesi
venessandempl
oyeepr
oduct
ivi
ty.

20. Wr
it
eanot
eonI
mpr
essi
onManagement
.

UNI
T4
Leader
shi
p
1. Expl
aint
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenmanager
sandl
eader
s.
2. Di
scusst
het
heor
iesofl
eader
shi
p

3. Di
scusst
hedi
ff
erentst
ylesofl
eader
shi
p

4. Wr
it
eashor
tnot
eonTr
ansact
ional
,Tr
ansf
ormat
ional
andChar
ismat
icLeader
shi
p

5. Expl
aint
hev
ari
oust
rai
tsofl
eader
shi
p

UNI
T5
Power
/Pol
i
tics/Or
gani
sat
ionConf
li
ct

1. Enumer
atet
hesour
ces/
basesofor
gani
zat
ional
power
2. Descr
ibet
hecl
assi
fi
cat
ionofor
gani
zat
ional
power

3. Expl
aini
ndet
ail
aboutor
gani
zat
ional
powerandpol
i
tics

4. Whati
sthecausesandconsequencesf
oror
gani
zat
ional
pol
i
tics?

5. Expl
ainhowor
gani
zat
ional
pol
i
ticsar
emanaged/
tact
ics

6. Expl
aint
heconceptandsour
cesofor
gani
zat
ional
conf
li
ct

7. Di
scusscl
assi
fi
cat
ionofconf
li
cts

8. Expl
aint
hepr
ocessofconf
li
cts

9. Di
scussont
hef
unct
ional
i
tyanddy
sfunct
ional
i
tyofconf
li
ct

10. Def
ineconf
li
ct.El
abor
ateont
her
olesofconf
li
cti
nOB

11. Howt
odoy
ousol
veor
gani
zat
ional
conf
li
ct?
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

UNI
T1

I
ntr
oduct
iont
oOr
gani
zat
ional
Behav
ior

1. Descr
ibet
hechar
act
eri
sti
cs,
conceptandnat
ureofOB

O.
B.i
sthest
udyofhumanbehav
iouratwor
kinor
gani
zat
ions.
Kei
thDav
is&J.
W.Newst
rom hasdef
inedOr
gani
sat
ionalBehav
iourast
hest
udyand
appl
i
cat
ionofknowl
edgeabouthowpeopl
eactwi
thi
ntheor
gani
sat
ions.

ConceptofOB
TheconceptofOBi
sbasedont
wokeyel
ement
snamel
y:

 Nat
ureofpeopl
e

 Nat
ureoft
heor
gani
zat
ion

Nat
ureofPeopl
e:
I
nsi
mpl
ewor
ds,nat
ureofpeopl
eist
hebasi
cqual
i
tiesofaper
son.Att
heor
gani
zat
ional
l
evel
,somemaj
orf
act
orsaf
fect
ingt
henat
ureofpeopl
ehav
ebeenhi
ghl
i
ght
ed.Theyar
e:

I
ndi
vi
dualDi
ff
erence:I
tist
hemanager
ialappr
oacht
owar
dseachempl
oyeei
ndi
vi
dual
l
y,
t
hati
sone-
on-
oneappr
oachandnott
hest
ati
sti
calappr
oach,
thati
s,av
oidanceofsi
ngl
e
r
ule.Exampl
e:Managershoul
dnotbebi
asedt
owar
dsanypar
ti
cul
arempl
oyeer
ather
shoul
dtr
eatt
hem equal
l
yandt
rynott
ojudgeany
oneonanyot
herf
act
orapar
tfr
om t
hei
r
wor
k.

Per
cept
ion:I
tisauni
queabi
l
ityt
oobser
ve,
li
stenandconcl
udesomet
hing.I
tisbel
i
evi
ng
i
noursenses.I
nshor
t,t
hewaywei
nter
prett
hingsandhav
eourpoi
ntofv
iew i
sour
per
cept
ion.Exampl
e:Amant
hinksl
ateni
ghtpar
ti
esspoi
lyout
hwhi
l
eAnami
kat
hinks
l
ateni
ghtpar
ti
esar
eawayofmaki
ngnewf
ri
ends.Her
eweseebot
hAmanandAnami
ka
hav
edi
ff
erentper
cept
ionaboutt
hesamet
hing.

Mot
ivat
edbehav
ior
:Iti
sthebehav
iori
mpl
ant
edorcausedbysomemot
ivat
ionf
rom
someper
son,gr
ouporev
enasi
tuat
ion.I
nanor
gani
zat
ion,wecanseet
wodi
ff
erent
t
ypesofmot
ivat
edempl
oyees:
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

Posi
ti
vemot
ivat
ion:Encour
agi
ngot
her
stochanget
hei
rbehav
iororsaycompl
eteat
ask
byl
uri
ngt
hem wi
thpr
omot
ionsoranyot
herpr
ofi
ts.Exampl
e:“
Ify
oucompl
etet
his,y
ou
wi
l
lgai
nthi
s.”

Negat
ivemot
ivat
ion:For
cingorwar
ningot
her
stochanget
hei
rbehav
iorel
set
her
ecan
beser
iousconsequences.Exampl
e:“
Ify
oudon’
tcompl
etet
his,
youwi
l
lbedepr
ivedf
rom
t
heof
fi
ce.
”

Val
ueofper
son:Empl
oyeeswantt
obev
aluedandappr
eci
atedf
ort
hei
rski
l
lsand
abi
l
iti
esf
oll
owedbyoppor
tuni
ti
eswhi
chhel
pthem dev
elopt
hemsel
ves.

Nat
ureofOr
gani
zat
ion:I
tdef
inest
hechar
act
eroft
hecompanybyact
ingasami
rr
or
r
efl
ect
ionoft
hecompany
.Wecanunder
standt
henat
ureofanyf
ir
m wi
thi
tssoci
al
sy
stem,
themut
ual
int
eresti
tshar
esandt
hewor
ket
hics.

Soci
alsy
stem:Ev
eryor
gani
zat
ionsoci
ali
zeswi
thot
herf
ir
ms,t
hei
rcust
omer
s,orsi
mpl
y
t
heout
erwor
ld,
andal
lofi
tsempl
oyees-t
hei
rownsoci
alr
olesandst
atus.

Mut
uali
nter
est
:Ev
eryor
gani
zat
ionneedspeopl
eandpeopl
eneedor
gani
zat
ionst
o
sur
viv
eandpr
osper
.Basi
cal
l
yit
’samut
ualunder
standi
ngbet
weent
heor
gani
zat
ionand
t
heempl
oyeest
hathel
pbot
hreacht
hei
rrespect
iveobj
ect
ives.

Et
hics:Theyar
ethemor
alpr
inci
plesofani
ndi
vi
dual
,gr
oup,
andor
gani
zat
ion.I
nor
dert
o
at
tr
actandkeepv
aluabl
eempl
oyees,et
hicalt
reat
menti
snecessar
yandsomemor
al
st
andar
dsneedt
obeset
.

Accor
dingl
y,t
hescopeofOBi
ntegr
ates3concept
srespect
ivel
y

I
ndi
vi
dual
s:Or
gani
zat
ionsar
etheassoci
ati
onsofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.I
ndi
vi
dual
sdi
ff
eri
nmany
r
espect
s.Thest
udyofi
ndi
vi
dual
s,t
her
efor
e,i
ncl
udesaspect
ssuchasper
sonal
i
ty,
per
cept
ion,
att
it
udes,
val
ues,
jobsat
isf
act
ion,
lear
ningandmot
ivat
ion.

Gr
oupsofI
ndi
vi
dual
s:Gr
oupsi
ncl
udeaspect
ssuchasgr
oupdy
nami
cs,gr
oupconf
li
cts,
communi
cat
ion,
leader
shi
p,powerandpol
i
ticsandt
hel
i
ke.

Or
gani
sat
ion:I
tincl
udesOr
gani
sat
ionalCul
tur
e,Wor
kSt
ress,Or
gani
sat
ionalChange&
Dev
elopment
.

Nat
ureofOr
gani
sat
ional
behav
iour
:

ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS
ASepar
ateFi
eldofSt
udyandnotaDi
sci
pli
neOnl
y:Or
gani
sat
ional
behav
iourhasamul
ti
-i
nter
disci
pli
nar
y or
ient
ati
on and i
s,t
hus,notbased on a speci
fi
ctheor
eti
cal
backgr
ound.Ther
efor
e,i
tisbet
terr
easonabl
etocal
lO.
B.asepar
atef
iel
dofst
udyr
ather
t
hanadi
sci
pli
neonl
y.

An I
nter
disci
pli
nar
y Appr
oach: Or
gani
zat
ional behav
iour i
s essent
ial
l
y an
i
nter
disci
pli
nar
yappr
oacht
ost
udyhumanbehav
iouratwor
k.I
ttr
iest
oint
egr
atet
he
r
elev
antknowl
edge dr
awn f
rom r
elat
ed di
sci
pli
nes l
i
ke psy
chol
ogy
,soci
ologyand
ant
hropol
ogy t
o mak
ethem appl
i
cabl
eforst
udy
ing and anal
yzi
ng or
gani
zat
ional
behav
iour
.

AnAppl
i
edSci
ence:Thev
erynat
ureofO.
B.i
sappl
i
ed.WhatO.
B.basi
cal
l
ydoesi
sthe
appl
i
cat
ionofv
ari
ousr
esear
chest
osol
vet
heor
gani
zat
ional
probl
emsr
elat
edt
ohuman
behav
iour
.Thebasi
cli
neofdi
ff
erencebet
weenpur
esci
enceandO.
B.i
sthatwhi
l
ethe
f
ormerconcent
rat
esoff
undament
alr
esear
ches,t
hel
att
erconcent
rat
esonappl
i
ed
r
esear
ches.O.
B.i
nvol
vesbot
happl
i
edr
esear
chandi
tsappl
i
cat
ioni
nor
gani
zat
ional
anal
ysi
s.Hence,
O.B.canbecal
l
edbot
hsci
enceaswel
lasar
t.

ANor
mat
iveSci
ence:Or
gani
zat
ionalBehav
iouri
sanor
mat
ivesci
enceal
so.Whi
l
ethe
posi
ti
vesci
encedi
scussesonl
ycauseef
fectr
elat
ionshi
p,O.
B.pr
escr
ibeshow t
he
f
indi
ngsofappl
i
edr
esear
chescanbeappl
i
edt
osoci
all
yacceptor
gani
zat
ionalgoal
s.
Thus,O.
B.deal
swi
th whati
saccept
ed byi
ndi
vi
dual
sand soci
etyengaged i
n an
or
gani
zat
ion.
Humani
sti
c and Opt
imi
sti
c Appr
oach:Or
gani
zat
ionalBehav
iourappl
i
es humani
sti
c
appr
oacht
owar
dspeopl
ewor
kingi
ntheor
gani
zat
ion.I
t,deal
swi
tht
het
hinki
ngand
f
eel
i
ngofhumanbei
ngs.O.
B.i
sbasedont
hebel
i
eft
hatpeopl
ehav
eani
nnat
edesi
ret
o
bei
ndependent
,cr
eat
iveandpr
oduct
ive.I
tal
sor
eal
i
zest
hatpeopl
ewor
kingi
nthe
or
gani
zat
ioncanandwi
l
lact
ual
i
zet
hesepot
ent
ial
sift
heyar
egi
venpr
opercondi
ti
ons
andenv
ironment
.

ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

2. Expl
aint
hedi
sci
pli
nescont
ri
but
ingf
orOB.
Psy
chol
ogy
:Psy
chol
ogyi
s an appl
i
ed sci
ence,whi
ch at
tempt
sto expl
ain human
behav
iouri
n a par
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ion and pr
edi
cts act
ions ofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.Var
ious
psy
chol
ogi
calt
est
sar
econduct
edi
ntheor
gani
zat
ionsf
orsel
ect
ionofempl
oyees,
measur
ingper
sonal
i
tyat
tri
but
esandapt
it
ude.
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

Soci
ology
:Sci
enceofSoci
ologyst
udi
est
hei
mpactofcul
tur
eongr
oupbehav
iourand
hascont
ri
but
edt
oal
argeext
entt
othef
iel
dofgr
oup-
dynami
cs,r
olest
hati
ndi
vi
dual
pl
aysi
nthe
or
gani
zat
ion,communi
cat
ion,nor
ms,st
atus,power
,conf
li
ctmanagement
,for
mal
or
gani
zat
iont
heor
y,gr
ouppr
ocessesandgr
oupdeci
sion-
maki
ng.

Soci
alpsy
chol
ogy
:Wor
king or
gani
zat
ionsar
efor
malassembl
yofpeopl
ewho ar
e
assi
gnedspeci
fi
cjobsandpl
ayav
italr
olei
nfor
mul
ati
nghumanbehav
iour
.Iti
sa
subj
ectwher
econceptofpsy
chol
ogyandsoci
ologyar
ebl
endt
oachi
evebet
terhuman
behav
iouri
nor
gani
zat
ion.Thef
iel
dhascont
ri
but
edt
omanagechange,gr
oupdeci
sion-
maki
ng,communi
cat
ionandabi
l
ityofpeopl
eint
heor
gani
zat
ion,t
omai
ntai
nsoci
al
nor
ms.

Ant
hropol
ogy
:Iti
saf
iel
dofst
udyr
elat
ingt
ohumanact
ivi
ti
esi
nvar
iouscul
tur
aland
env
ironment
alf
ramewor
ks.I
tunder
standsdi
ff
erencei
n behav
iourbased on v
alue
sy
stem ofdi
ff
erentcul
tur
es ofv
ari
ous count
ri
es.The st
udyi
s mor
erel
evantt
o
or
gani
zat
ional
behav
iourt
odayduet
ogl
obal
i
zat
ion,
mer
ger
sandacqui
sit
ionsofv
ari
ous
i
ndust
ri
es.Manager
swi
l
lhav
etodealwi
thi
ndi
vi
dual
sandgr
oupsbel
ongi
ngt
odi
ff
erent
et
hni
ccul
tur
esandex
erci
seadequat
econt
rolorev
enchannel
i
zebehav
iouri
nthe
desi
reddi
rect
ionbyappr
opr
iat
elymani
pul
ati
ngv
ari
ouscul
tur
alf
act
ors.

3. Di
scusst
hei
mpor
tanceofOBf
oral
lmanager
s.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethei
mpor
tanceofst
udy
ingor
gani
sat
ional
behav
iour
:

 Descr
ibehowpeopl
ebehav
eunderav
ari
etyofcondi
ti
on

 Under
standwhypeopl
ebehav
east
heydo

 Pr
edi
ctf
utur
eempl
oyeebehav
iour

 Peopl
e who ar
etr
ained t
o wor
ktoget
hert
end t
o be happi
erand mor
e
pr
oduct
ive.

 Empl
oyeeswhobel
i
evet
heyhav
ebeent
reat
edunf
air
lyar
emor
eli
kel
yto
st
eal
andr
ejectt
hepol
i
ciesoft
hei
ror
gani
zat
ions.
 Peopl
e who ar
e mi
str
eat
ed byt
hei
rsuper
visor
s hav
e mor
e ment
aland
phy
sicali
l
lnessest
hant
hosewhoar
etr
eat
edwi
thki
ndness,di
gni
ty,and
r
espect
.
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS
 Peopl
ewhoar
esat
isf
iedwi
tht
hewayt
heyar
etr
eat
edont
hei
rjobsar
emor
e
pl
easantt
owor
kwi
thandl
essl
i
kel
ytoqui
t.
 Compani
es whose manager
s accur
atel
y appr
aise t
he wor
k of t
hei
r
subor
dinat
esenj
oyl
owercost
sandhi
gherpr
oduct
ivi
ty.

4. Whatar
ethedet
ermi
nant
sofOB

Det
ermi
nant
sofOr
gani
sat
ional
Behav
iour
:

1)Peopl
e

2)St
ruct
ure

3)Technol
ogy

4)Env
ironment

Peopl
e:I
tconsi
stsofi
ndi
vi
dual
sandgr
oupsi
nanor
gani
sat
ion.Gr
oupsmaybe
f
ormalori
nfor
mal
,smal
lorl
arge.Peopl
ear
edy
nami
cinnat
ureast
heyi
nter
actwi
th
eachot
herandal
soi
nfl
uenceeachot
her
.Gr
oupsmayf
orm,
changeanddi
ssol
ve.

St
ruct
ure:I
nanor
gani
sat
ion,st
ruct
uredef
inest
her
olesandr
elat
ionshi
pofpeopl
e.
I
tleadst
odi
vi
si
onofwor
ki.
e.somemaybesuper
visor
s,assi
stant
sorcol
l
eagues.
Thest
ruct
urecl
ari
fi
est
heaut
hor
it
y,r
esponsi
bil
i
tyandr
elat
ionshi
ps.

Technol
ogy
:Itpr
ovi
dest
heeconomi
candphy
sicalr
esour
cest
omakepeopl
ewor
k
i
nanor
gani
sat
ion.Thenat
ureoft
echnol
ogydependsont
het
asksandscal
eof
oper
ati
ons.Technol
ogymayputr
est
ri
cti
onsont
hef
reedom ofpeopl
e.

Env
ironment
:Ther
ear
emanyf
orcessuchaspeopl
e’
sat
ti
tude,
mot
ives,
pol
i
ciesand
wor
kingcondi
ti
onsi
nanor
gani
sat
ionwhi
chf
ramet
heenv
ironment
.Thesef
orces
i
nfl
uenceanor
gani
sat
ioni
nmanyway
s.Si
mil
arl
ytheor
gani
sat
ional
sohasan
i
nfl
uenceov
ert
heenv
ironment
.
5. Expl
ainaboutt
heConcept
ualf
oundat
ionof
OBConceptofOB
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

TheconceptofOBi
sbasedont
wokeyel
ement
snamel
y:

Nat
ureofpeopl
e

Nat
ureoft
heor
gani
zat
ion

Nat
ureofPeopl
e:
I
n si
mpl
e wor
ds,nat
ure ofpeopl
eist
he basi
c qual
i
ties ofa per
son.Att
he
or
gani
zat
ionall
evel
,somemaj
orf
act
orsaf
fect
ingt
henat
ureofpeopl
ehav
ebeen
hi
ghl
i
ght
ed.Theyar
e:

I
ndi
vi
dualDi
ff
erence:I
tist
hemanager
ialappr
oach t
owar
dseach empl
oyee
i
ndi
vi
dual
l
y,t
hati
sone-
on-
oneappr
oachandnott
hest
ati
sti
calappr
oach,t
hati
s,
av
oidanceofsi
ngl
erul
e.Exampl
e:Managershoul
dnotbebi
asedt
owar
dsany
par
ti
cul
arempl
oyeer
athershoul
dtr
eatt
hem equal
l
yandt
rynott
ojudgeany
one
onanyot
herf
act
orapar
tfr
om t
hei
rwor
k.

Per
cept
ion:I
tisauni
queabi
l
ityt
oobser
ve,l
i
stenandconcl
udesomet
hing.I
tis
bel
i
evi
ngi
noursenses.I
nshor
t,t
hewaywei
nter
prett
hingsandhav
eourpoi
ntof
v
iew i
sourper
cept
ion.Exampl
e:Amant
hinksl
ateni
ghtpar
ti
esspoi
lyout
hwhi
l
e
Anami
kat
hinksl
ateni
ghtpar
ti
esar
eawayofmaki
ngnewf
ri
ends.Her
ewesee
bot
hAmanandAnami
kahav
edi
ff
erentper
cept
ionaboutt
hesamet
hing.

Mot
ivat
edbehav
ior
:Iti
sthebehav
iori
mpl
ant
edorcausedbysomemot
ivat
ion
f
rom someper
son,
grouporev
enasi
tuat
ion.I
nanor
gani
zat
ion,
wecanseet
wo
di
ff
erentt
ypesofmot
ivat
edempl
oyees:

oPosi
ti
ve mot
ivat
ion:Encour
agi
ng ot
her
sto change t
hei
rbehav
iororsay
compl
eteat
askbyl
uri
ngt
hem wi
thpr
omot
ionsoranyot
herpr
ofi
ts.Exampl
e:“
If
y
oucompl
etet
his,
youwi
l
lgai
nthi
s.”

oNegat
ivemot
ivat
ion:For
cingorwar
ningot
her
stochanget
hei
rbehav
iorel
se
t
her
ecanbeser
iousconsequences.Exampl
e:“
Ify
oudon’
tcompl
etet
his,
youwi
l
l
bedepr
ivedf
rom t
heof
fi
ce.
”
 Val
ueofper
son:Empl
oyeeswantt
obev
aluedandappr
eci
atedf
ort
hei
rski
l
ls
andabi
l
iti
esf
oll
owedbyoppor
tuni
ti
eswhi
chhel
pthem dev
elopt
hemsel
ves.

Nat
ureofOr
gani
zat
ion:I
tdef
inest
hechar
act
eroft
hecompanybyact
ingasami
rr
or
r
efl
ect
ionoft
hecompany
.Wecanunder
standt
henat
ureofanyf
ir
m wi
thi
tssoci
al
sy
stem,
themut
ual
int
eresti
tshar
esandt
hewor
ket
hics.

Soci
alsy
stem:Ev
eryor
gani
zat
ionsoci
ali
zeswi
thot
herf
ir
ms,
thei
rcust
omer
s,or
si
mpl
ytheout
erwor
ld,
andal
lofi
tsempl
oyees-t
hei
rownsoci
alr
olesandst
atus.
Mut
uali
nter
est
:Ev
eryor
gani
zat
ionneedspeopl
eandpeopl
eneedor
gani
zat
ions
t
o sur
viv
e and pr
osper
.Basi
cal
l
yit
’s a mut
ualunder
standi
ng bet
ween t
he
or
gani
zat
ionandt
heempl
oyeest
hathel
psbot
hreacht
hei
rrespect
iveobj
ect
ives.

Et
hics:Theyar
ethemor
alpr
inci
plesofani
ndi
vi
dual
,gr
oup,andor
gani
zat
ion.I
n
or
dert
oat
tractandkeepv
aluabl
eempl
oyees,
ethi
calt
reat
menti
snecessar
yand
somemor
alst
andar
dsneedt
obeset
.

Accor
dingl
y,t
hescopeofOBi
ntegr
ates3concept
srespect
ivel
y

I
ndi
vi
dual
s:Or
gani
zat
ionsar
etheassoci
ati
onsofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.I
ndi
vi
dual
sdi
ff
eri
n
many r
espect
s.The st
udy ofi
ndi
vi
dual
s,t
her
efor
e,i
ncl
udes aspect
s such as
per
sonal
i
ty,
per
cept
ion,
att
it
udes,
val
ues,
jobsat
isf
act
ion,
lear
ningandmot
ivat
ion.

Gr
oups ofI
ndi
vi
dual
s:Gr
oups i
ncl
ude aspect
s such as gr
oup dy
nami
cs,gr
oup
conf
li
cts,
communi
cat
ion,
leader
shi
p,powerandpol
i
ticsandt
hel
i
ke.

Or
gani
sat
ion:I
tincl
udesOr
gani
sat
ionalCul
tur
e,Wor
kSt
ress,Or
gani
sat
ionalChange
&Dev
elopment
.

6. Tr
acet
hedev
elopmentofOBi
nhi
stor
ical
per
spect
ive

Cl
assi
cal
Admi
nist
rat
ionTheor
y:Cl
assi
cal
View(
Ear
ly1900s-
1920)

Bur
eaucr
acy
:

 MaxWeber(
fat
herofmoder
nsoci
ology
)

 St
ri
ctchai
nofcommand,
det
ail
edr
ules,
highspeci
ali
zat
ion,
cent
ral
i
zedpower
,
 andsel
ect
ionandpr
omot
ionbasedont
echni
cal
compet
ence

Sci
ent
if
icmanagement
:Focussesonwor
ker&machi
ner
elat
ionshi
p.
 Fr
eder
ick Tay
lor
(1911)
-Fat
her of Sci
ent
if
ic Management - Publ
i
shed-
Pr
inci
plesofSci
ent
if
icManagement
 Fr
eder
ickW.Tay
lorr
est
edhi
sphi
l
osophyonf
ourbasi
cpr
inci
ples:1.t
he
dev
elopmentofat
ruesci
enceofmanagement
,sot
hatt
hebestmet
hodf
or
per
for
ming each t
askcoul
d bedet
ermi
ned.2.t
hesci
ent
if
icsel
ect
ion of
wor
ker
s,sot
hateachwor
kerwoul
dbegi
venr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ort
het
askf
or
whi
chheorshei
sbestsui
ted.3.t
hesci
ent
if
iceducat
ionanddev
elopmentof
t
hewor
kerand4.t
heI
nti
mat
e,f
ri
endl
ycooper
ati
onbet
weenmanagement
andl
abour
.
 Gi
l
ber
th-“
onebestway
”ofdoi
ngwor
k-Mot
ionst
udy&t
imest
udy

 Henr
yGant
t(
1861-
1919)
-Gant
tchar
tsHenr
y f
ocused on mot
ivat
ional
schemes,
leader
shi
pandmanagementski
l
ls

Admi
nist
rat
iveManagement
:
 Henr
iFay
ol(
1941-
1924)
,popul
ari
zedt
he conceptoft
he “
uni
ver
sal
i
tyof
managementpr
inci
ples”-Fat
herofModer
nManagement
.
 At
tempt
sto pr
escr
ibet
he“
cor
rect
”wayt
o managean or
gani
zat
ion and
achi
evei
tsgoal
s
 Hi
ghspeci
ali
zat
ionofl
abour(
eachdeptt
endedt
oit
sownbusi
ness,and
deci
sionmaki
ngwascent
ral
i
zed)

Neocl
assi
cal
SchoolHumanr
elat
ions Chest
er Bar
nar
d(1886-
1961)HumanRel
ati
onsMov
ement
:
 Adv
ocat
est
hatmanagementst
ylest
hatar
emor
epar
ti
cipat
iveandor
ient
ed
t
owar
dsempl
oyeeneeds.
 Hawt
hor
neWor
ksoft
heWest
ernEl
ect
ri
cCompany
;1924-
1932

 I
nit
iat
edasanat
temptt
oinv
est
igat
ehowchar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hewor
kset
ti
ng
af
fectempl
oyeef
ati
gueandper
for
mance(
i.
e.,
li
ght
ing)
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

El
tonMay
oandt
heHawt
hor
neExper
iment
s1924–1933
TheHawt
hor
neExper
iment
sconduct
edbyEl
tonMay
oandhi
sassoci
atesatt
heWest
ern
El
ect
ri
c Company pr
ovi
ded new i
nsi
ght
sint
othe human behav
iour
.Many oft
he
exper
iment
swer
eper
for
medatt
heWest
ernEl
ect
ri
c’
sHawt
hor
nepl
antnearChi
cago.
May
o’sf
indi
ngsi
ntheseexper
iment
smar
kedt
hebegi
nni
ngoft
heHumanRel
ati
onsEr
a.
Thest
udi
esat
tempt
edt
oinv
est
igat
ether
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hephy
sicalcondi
ti
onsat
t
hewor
kpl
aceandt
hepr
oduct
ivi
tyofwor
ker
s.Ther
esear
cher
sdi
vi
dedt
heempl
oyees
i
ntot
wogr
oups.Onegr
oupcal
l
edt
het
estgr
oupwassubj
ect
edt
ochangesi
nli
ght
ing.
Thel
i
ght
ingcondi
ti
onf
ort
heot
hergr
oupcal
l
edt
hecont
rolgr
oupr
emai
nedconst
ant
t
hroughoutt
he st
udy
.When t
he t
estgr
oup’
sli
ght
ing condi
ti
ons wer
eimpr
oved,
pr
oduct
ivi
tyi
ncr
easedasexpect
ed.Whatsur
pri
sedt
her
esear
cher
smostwast
hef
act
t
hatpr
oduct
ivi
tycont
inuedt
oincr
easeev
enwhent
hel
i
ght
ingwasr
educed.Fur
ther
,to
addt
othemy
ster
y,t
hecont
rolgr
oup’
sout
putal
soi
ncr
easedast
het
estgr
oup’
sli
ght
ing
condi
ti
onswer
echanged,t
hought
her
ewasnochangei
nthel
i
ght
ingcondi
ti
onsf
ort
he
cont
rolgr
oup.Asar
esul
t,f
ort
hef
ir
stt
ime,i
twasr
eal
i
zedt
hatsomet
hingi
naddi
ti
ont
o
l
i
ght
ingwasi
nfl
uenci
ngt
hewor
ker
’sper
for
mance.I
nanot
hersetofexper
iment
s,t
he
changes,i
ntheper
for
manceofagr
oupofwor
ker
swer
eobser
vedbychangi
ngt
he
v
ari
ouswor
krel
atedf
act
orssuchas;I
ncr
easi
ngt
hewages;I
ntr
oduci
ngr
estper
iods;
andReduci
ngt
hewor
kday
sandwor
kweek;Wor
ker
swer
eal
soal
l
owedt
ochooset
hei
r
ownr
estper
iodsandt
ohav
easayi
nal
lthesechanges.Theseexper
iment
srev
eal
edt
hat
f
inanci
ali
ncent
ivesal
onewer
enotcausi
ngt
hepr
oduct
ivi
tyi
mpr
ovement
s.I
twasf
ound
t
hatacompl
exsetofat
ti
tudeswer
eresponsi
blef
ort
hepr
oduct
ivi
tyi
ncr
ease.Empl
oyer
s
dev
elopgr
oupnor
msatt
hewor
kpl
ace.Thet
estandt
hecont
rolgr
oupsdev
elopedsome
gr
oupunder
standi
ngt
hatmot
ivat
edt
hem t
oper
for
m wel
l
.Thef
actt
hatempl
oyees
woul
dwor
khar
dift
heywer
econv
incedt
hatsuper
visor
spayspeci
alat
tent
iont
othei
r
wel
far
ewasal
somadeabundant
lycl
ear
.Thi
sisof
tenr
efer
redast
heHawt
hor
neEf
fect
.
Anot
herconcl
usi
onoft
hest
udi
eswast
hati
nfor
malwor
kgr
oupsexi
sti
nthewor
kpl
ace.
Thei
nfor
malgr
oupshel
pthei
ndi
vi
dual
sshar
ecommonv
alues,under
standi
ng and
bel
i
efs.Thesei
nfor
malgr
oupsexer
tsi
gni
fi
canti
nfl
uenceont
heempl
oyees.I
tisour
commonknowl
edget
hatmanyat
imewef
indi
ntheor
gani
sat
ionshow empl
oyees
associ
ati
onsandf
ri
endshi
pswi
thcowor
ker
sinf
luencet
hei
rat
ti
tudet
owar
dst
hewor
k
and t
he super
ior
s.The cont
ri
but
ion oft
he Human Rel
ati
ons mov
ementi
s qui
te
si
gni
fi
canti
nthatt
hei
ndi
vi
dualandt
hei
mpactofhi
sassoci
ati
onwi
thagr
ouphad
r
ecei
veddueat
tent
ion.Empl
oyeepr
oduct
ivi
tywasv
iewedasaf
unct
ionoft
he

ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

humanr
elat
ionsatwor
krat
hert
hananengi
neer
ingpr
obl
em.El
tonMay
o’sst
udi
esi
n
f
act
,cont
ri
but
edt
oat
hor
oughchangei
ntheat
ti
tudeandappr
oacht
owar
dst
rai
ning.

Chest
erBar
nar
d:

 3t
op f
unct
ions ofexecut
ives-1.Est
abl
i
sh and mai
ntai
n an ef
fect
ive
communi
cat
ionsy
stem 2.Hi
reandr
etai
nef
fect
iveper
sonnel3.Mot
ivat
e
t
hoseper
sonnel
 Hegav
e‘Accept
anceTheor
yofAut
hor
it
y

Moder
nmanagementappr
oach

Sy
stem t
heor
y Cont
ingencyv
iew Behav
iour
alappr
oachQuant
it
ati
veappr
oach

Sy
stem appr
oachEmer
geddur
ing1940sandWor
ld War
-2i
tcan be def
ined as
“
essent
ial
l
yasetorassembl
yoft
hingsi
nter
connect
ionori
nter
dependent
,soast
o
f
orm acompl
exuni
tes” Anydegr
eeofchangewi
l
laf
fectsomeot
hersy
stem.
Fi
rst
lyappl
i
edi
nthef
iel
dsofsci
enceandengi
neer
ingsy
stem.

Cont
ingencyVi
ew(
mid1960s)Al
socal
l
edSi
tuat
ionalappr
oachEmphasi
zest
hef
it
b/
w or
gani
sat
ionpr
ocessandt
hechar
act
eri
sti
coft
hesi
tuat
ion.I
tassumest
hat
manager
ial
behav
iouri
sdependentonwi
dev
ari
etyofel
ement
s.

Behav
ior
alappr
oachI
tisi
mpr
ovedandmor
emat
urev
ersi
onoft
hehumanr
elat
ions
appr
oach.Sci
ent
ist
sli
keDougl
asMcGr
egor
,Abr
aham Masl
ow,
Kur
tLewi
n,Chest
er
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS
Bar
nar
d,Mar
yPar
kerFol
l
etet
ccont
ri
but
edt
othi
sbehav
iour
alappr
oachhencet
hey
ar
ecal
l
edBehav
iour
alsci
ent
ist
s. Thei
rcont
ri
but
ionshel
pedi
nunder
standi
ngOB.

Quant
it
ati
veappr
oach Al
so cal
l
ed t
hemanagementsci
enceappr
oach I
t
ga
ine
dmoment
um dur
ing2ndwor
ldwart
oseeksol
uti
onst
ocompl
expr
obl
emsi
n
war
far
e The sci
ent
ist
s engaged f
ort
his pur
pose wer
e known as Oper
ati
ons
Resear
cht
eams(
‘.
’iti
ncl
udedconst
ruct
ionofmat
hemat
icalmodel
stosi
mul
atet
he
pr
obl
em)

7. Whatar
ethechal
l
engesandoppor
tuni
ti
esofOB?
 I
mpr
ovi
ngPeopl
eSki
l
ls
 I
mpr
ovi
ngQual
i
tyandPr
oduct
ivi
ty
 Managi
ngWor
kfor
ceDi
ver
sit
y
 Respondi
ngt
oGl
obal
i
zat
ion
 Empower
ingPeopl
e
 Copi
ngwi
thTempor
ari
ness
 St
imul
ati
ngI
nnov
ati
onandChange
 Emer
genceoft
hee-
organi
zat
ion
 I
mpr
ovi
ngEt
hical
Behav
ior

I
mpr
ovi
ngPeopl
eSki
l
ls:
Technol
ogi
calchanges,st
ruct
uralchanges,env
ironment
alchangesar
eaccel
erat
edata
f
ast
err
atei
nbusi
nessf
iel
d.Unl
essempl
oyeesandexecut
ivesar
eequi
ppedt
opossess
t
her
equi
redski
l
lst
oadaptt
hosechanges,t
heachi
evementoft
het
arget
edgoal
scannot
beachi
evedi
nti
me.Ther
etwodi
ff
erentcat
egor
iesofski
l
ls– manager
ialski
l
lsand
t
echni
calski
l
ls.Someoft
hemanager
ialski
l
lsi
ncl
udel
i
steni
ngski
l
ls,mot
ivat
ingski
l
ls,
pl
anni
ngandor
gani
zi
ngski
l
ls,l
eadi
ngski
l
ls,pr
obl
em sol
vi
ngski
l
l,deci
sionmaki
ngski
l
ls
et
c.
These ski
l
ls can be enhanced byor
gani
zi
ng a ser
ies oft
rai
ning and dev
elopment
pr
ogr
ammes,
car
eerdev
elopmentpr
ogr
ammes,
induct
ionandsoci
ali
zat
ionet
c.

I
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
orManager
s: 
Desi
gni
nganef
fect
iveper
for
manceappr
aisalsy
stem wi
th
bui
l
t-i
ntr
aini
ngf
aci
l
iti
eswi
l
lhel
pupgr
adet
heski
l
lsoft
heempl
oyeest
ocopeupt
he
demandsoft
heext
ernalenv
ironment
.Thel
owerl
evelcadr
einmanagementi
srequi
redt
o
possessmor
eoft
echni
cal
ski
l
ls.
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

Ast
heymov
etowar
dsupwar
ddi
rect
ion,t
hei
rrol
eswi
l
lber
emar
kabl
ychangedand
expect
edt
ohav
emor
eofhumanr
elat
ionsandconcept
ual
ski
l
ls.

I
mpr
ovi
ngQual
i
tyandPr
oduct
ivi
ty:
Qual
i
tyi
stheext
entt
owhi
cht
hecust
omer
soruser
sbel
i
evet
hepr
oductorser
vice
sur
passest
hei
rneedsandexpect
ati
ons.Forexampl
e,acust
omerwhopur
chasesan
aut
omobi
l
ehascer
tai
nexpect
ati
on,oneofwhi
chi
sthatt
heaut
omobi
l
eengi
newi
l
lst
art
wheni
tist
urnedon.I
ftheengi
nef
ail
stost
art
,thecust
omer
’sexpect
ati
onswi
l
lnothav
e
beenmetandt
hecust
omerwi
l
lper
cei
vet
hequal
i
tyoft
hecaraspoor
.Demi
ngdef
ined
qual
i
tyasapr
edi
ctabl
edegr
eeofuni
for
mit
yanddependabi
l
ity
,atl
owcostandsui
tedt
o
t
hemar
ket
.Jur
andef
inedi
tasf
it
nessf
oruse.Thekeydi
mensi
onsofqual
i
tyasf
oll
ows.
Per
for
mance:
 
Pri
mar
yoper
ati
ngchar
act
eri
sti
csofapr
oductsuchassi
gnalcov
erage,
audi
oqual
i
ty,
displ
ayqual
i
tyet
c.

 Feat
ures:
 
Secondar
y char
act
eri
sti
cs,added f
eat
ures,such as cal
cul
ator
s,and
al
arm cl
ockf
eat
uresi
nhandphone
 Conf
ormance:
 
Meet
ingspeci
fi
cat
ionsori
ndust
ryst
andar
ds,wor
kmanshi
poft
he
degr
eet
owhi
chapr
oduct
’sdesi
gnoroper
ati
ngchar
act
eri
sti
csmat
chpr
eest
abl
i
shed
st
andar
ds
 Rel
i
abi
l
ity
: 
Thepr
obabi
l
ityofapr
oduct
’sf
ail
i
ngwi
thi
ntaspeci
fi
edper
iodoft
ime
 Dur
abi
l
ity
:Iti
sameasur
eofpr
oduct
’sl
i
fehav
ingbot
heconomi
candt
echni
cal
di
mensi
on
 Ser
vices:
 
Resol
uti
onofpr
obl
em andcompl
aint
s,easeofr
epai
r
 Response:
 
Humant
ohumani
nter
face,
suchast
hecour
tesyoft
hedeal
er
 Aest
het
ics:
 
Sensor
ychar
act
eri
sti
cssuchext
eri
orf
ini
sh
 Reput
ati
ons:
 
Pastper
for
manceandot
heri
ntangi
bles,
suchasbei
ngr
ankedf
ir
st.

Mor
eandmor
emanager
sar
econf
ront
ingt
omeett
hechal
l
engest
oful
fi
llt
hespeci
fi
c
r
equi
rement
s ofcust
omer
s.I
n or
dert
oimpr
ove qual
i
ty and pr
oduct
ivi
ty,t
hey ar
e
i
mpl
ement
ingpr
ogr
amsl
i
ket
otalqual
i
tymanagementandr
eengi
neer
ingpr
ogr
amst
hat
r
equi
reext
ensi
veempl
oyeei
nvol
vement
.

Tot
alQual
i
tyManagement(
TQM)
: 
Iti
saphi
l
osophyofmanagementt
hati
sdr
ivenbyt
he
const
antat
tai
nmentofcust
omersat
isf
act
iont
hrought
hecont
inuousi
mpr
ovementofal
l
or
gani
zat
ional
process.ThecomponentofTQM ar
e(a)i
ntensef
ocusoft
hecust
omer
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS
(
b)concer
nforcont
inuali
mpr
ovement(
c)i
mpr
ovementi
nthequal
i
tyofev
ery
thi
ngt
he
or
gani
zat
iondoes(
d)accur
atemeasur
ementand(
e)empower
mentofempl
oyees.

Reengi
neer
ing:
 
Thi
sref
erst
odi
scr
etei
nit
iat
ivest
hatar
eint
endedt
oachi
ever
adi
cal
l
y
r
edesi
gnedandi
mpr
ovedwor
kpr
ocessi
naboundedt
imef
rame.Busi
nessPr
ocess
Reengi
neer
ingempl
oyeesast
ruct
uralmet
hodol
ogyt
hatr
educeswor
kpr
ocesst
othei
r
essent
ialcomposi
teact
ivi
stand pr
ovi
descostper
for
mancemat
ri
cest
ofaci
l
itat
ea
busi
ness case f
or dr
amat
ici
mpr
ovement
s.Bot
hfunct
ionaland cr
oss-
funct
ional
pr
ocessesar
eev
aluat
edt
hroughwor
kfl
ow anal
ysi
sandact
ivi
tybasedcost
ing.I
nmany
cases,t
he appl
i
cat
ion ofnew t
echnol
ogyand i
ndust
ri
es bestpr
act
ices wi
l
lenabl
e
quant
um i
mpr
ovementi
nanor
gani
zat
ion’
scostandper
for
mance.

I
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
orManager
s: 
Today
’smanager
sunder
standt
hatanyef
for
tst
oimpr
ove
qual
i
tyandpr
oduct
ivi
tymusti
nfl
uencet
hei
rempl
oyees.Theseempl
oyeeswi
l
lnotonl
ybe
amaj
orf
orcei
ncar
ryi
ngoutchanges,
buti
ncr
easi
ngl
ywi
l
lpar
ti
cipat
eact
ivel
yinpl
anni
ng
t
hose changes.Manager
s wi
l
lput maxi
mum ef
for
tin meet
ing t
he cust
omer
’s
r
equi
rement
sbyi
nvol
vi
ngev
ery
onef
rom al
lthel
evel
sandacr
ossal
lfunct
ions.Regul
ar
communi
cat
ions(
bot
hfor
mal
l
yandi
nfor
mal
l
y)wi
thal
lthest
affatal
ll
evel
sismust
.
Twowaycommuni
cat
ionsatal
llev
elsmustbepr
omot
ed.I
dent
if
yingt
rai
ningneedsand
r
elat
ingt
hem wi
thi
ndi
vi
dualcapabi
l
iti
esandr
equi
rement
sismust
.Topmanagement
’s
par
ti
cipat
ion and commi
tmentand a cul
tur
e ofcont
inuous i
mpr
ovementmustbe
est
abl
i
shed.

Managi
ngWor
kfor
ceDi
ver
sit
y:
Thi
sref
erst
oempl
oyi
ngdi
ff
erentcat
egor
iesofempl
oyeeswhoar
ehet
erogeneousi
n
t
erms of gender
,race, et
hni
cit
y,r
elat
ion, communi
ty, phy
sical
l
y di
sadv
ant
aged,
homosexual
s,el
der
lypeopl
eet
c.Thepr
imar
yreasont
oempl
oyhet
erogeneouscat
egor
y
ofempl
oyeesi
stot
apt
het
alent
sandpot
ent
ial
i
ties,har
nessi
ngt
hei
nnov
ati
veness,
obt
aini
ngsy
ner
get
icef
fectamongt
hedi
vor
cewor
kfor
ce.I
ngener
al,
empl
oyeeswant
edt
o
r
etai
nthei
rindi
vi
dualandcul
tur
ali
dent
it
y,v
aluesandl
i
fest
ylesev
ent
hought
heyar
e
wor
king i
nthe same or
gani
zat
ion wi
th common r
ules and r
egul
ati
ons.The maj
or
chal
l
engef
oror
gani
zat
ionsi
stobecomemor
eaccommodat
ingt
odi
ver
segr
oupsof
peopl
ebyaddr
essi
ngt
hei
rdi
ff
erentl
i
fest
yles,
fami
l
yneedsandwor
kst
yles.

I
mpl
i
cat
ions f
orManager
s: 
Manager
s hav
eto shi
ftt
hei
rphi
l
osophy f
rom t
reat
ing
ev
ery
oneal
i
ket
orecogni
zi
ngi
ndi
vi
dualdi
ff
erencesandr
espondi
ngt
othosedi
ff
erences
i
nway
sthatwi
l
lensur
e
empl
oyeer
etent
ionandgr
eat
erpr
oduct
ivi
tywhi
l
e,att
hesamet
imenotdi
scr
imi
nat
ing.I
f
wor
kfor
cedi
ver
sit
yismanagedmor
eef
fect
ivel
y,t
hemanagementi
sli
kel
ytoacqui
re
mor
ebenef
it
ssuchascr
eat
ivi
tyandi
nnov
ati
onaswel
lasi
mpr
ovi
ngdeci
sionmaki
ng
ski
l
lsbypr
ovi
dingdi
ff
erentper
spect
ivesonpr
obl
ems.I
fdi
ver
sit
yisnotmanagedpr
oper
ly
andshowedbi
asest
ofav
oronl
yaf
ew cat
egor
iesofempl
oyees,t
her
eispot
ent
ialf
or
hi
ghert
urnov
er,
mor
edi
ff
icul
tyi
ncommuni
cat
ingandmor
eint
erper
sonal
conf
li
cts.

Respondi
ngt
oGl
obal
i
zat
ion:
Today
’sbusi
nessi
smost
lymar
ketdr
iven;wher
evert
hedemandsexi
sti
rr
espect
iveof
di
stance,l
ocat
ions,cl
i
mat
iccondi
ti
ons,t
hebusi
nessoper
ati
onsar
eexpandedt
ogai
n
t
hei
rmar
ketshar
eandt
oremai
nint
het
opr
anket
c.Busi
nessoper
ati
onsar
enol
onger
r
est
ri
ctedt
oapar
ti
cul
arl
ocal
i
tyorr
egi
on.Company
’spr
oduct
sorser
vicesar
espr
eadi
ng
acr
osst
henat
ionsusi
ngmasscommuni
cat
ion,i
nter
net
,fast
ert
ranspor
tat
ionet
c.An
Aust
ral
i
anwi
nepr
oducernow sel
l
smor
ewi
net
hrought
heI
nter
nett
hant
hroughout
let
s
acr
osst
hecount
ry.Mor
ethan95%ofNoki
ahandphonesar
ebei
ngsol
dout
sideoft
hei
r
homecount
ryFi
nland.Japanesecar
sar
ebei
ngsol
dindi
ff
erentpar
tsofgl
obe.Sr
iLankan
t
eai
sexpor
tedt
omanyci
ti
esacr
osst
hegl
obe.Execut
ivesofMul
ti
nat
ionalCor
por
ati
on
ar
ever
ymobi
l
eandmov
efr
om onesubsi
diar
ytoanot
hermor
efr
equent
ly.

I
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
orManager
s: 
Global
i
zat
ionaf
fect
samanager
ial
ski
l
lsi
natl
eastt
woway
s:i
)
anExpat
ri
atemanagerhav
etomanageawor
kfor
cet
hati
sli
kel
ytohav
ever
ydi
ff
erent
needs,
aspi
rat
ionsandat
ti
tudesf
rom t
heonest
hatt
heyar
eusedt
omanagei
nthei
rhome
count
ri
es.i
i
)Under
standi
ngt
hecul
tur
eofl
ocalpeopl
eandhowi
thasshapedt
hem and
accor
dingl
ylear
ntoadaptonesmanagementst
ylet
othesedi
ff
erencesi
sver
ycr
it
icalf
or
t
hesuccessofbusi
nessoper
ati
ons.Oneoft
hemai
nper
sonal
i
tyt
rai
tsr
equi
red f
or
expat
ri
atemanager
sist
ohav
esensi
ti
vi
tyt
ounder
standt
hei
ndi
vi
dualdi
ff
erencesamong
peopl
eandexhi
bitt
oler
ancet
oit
.

Empower
ingPeopl
e
Themai
nissuei
sdel
egat
ingmor
epowerandr
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
othel
owerl
evelcadr
eof
empl
oyees and assi
gni
ng mor
efr
eedom t
o make choi
ces aboutt
hei
rschedul
es,
oper
ati
ons,pr
ocedur
es and t
he met
hod of sol
vi
ng t
hei
r wor
k-r
elat
ed pr
obl
ems.
Encour
agi
ngt
heempl
oyeest
opar
ti
cipat
einwor
krel
ateddeci
sionwi
l
lsi
zabl
yenhance
t
hei
rcommi
tmentatwor
k.Empower
menti
sdef
inedasput
ti
ngempl
oyeesi
nchar
geof
whatt
hey do by el
i
cit
ing some sor
tofowner
shi
pint
hem.Manager
s ar
e doi
ng
consi
der
abl
yfur
therbyal
l
owi
ng empl
oyeesf
ullcont
roloft
hei
rwor
k.An i
ncr
easi
ng
numberofor
gani
zat
ionsar
eusi
ngsel
f-
managedt
eams,wher
ewor
ker
soper
atel
argel
y
wi
thoutboss.Duet
othei
mpl
ement
ati
onofempower
mentconcept
sacr
ossal
lthel
evel
s,
t
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenmanager
sandt
heempl
oyeesi
sreshaped.Manager
swi
l
lactas
coaches,adv
isor
s,sponsor
s,f
aci
l
itat
orsandhel
pthei
rsubor
dinat
est
odot
hei
rtaskwi
th
mi
nimal
gui
dance.

I
mpl
i
cat
ions f
orManager
: 
The execut
ive mustl
ear
nto del
egat
ethei
rtasks t
othe
subor
dinat
esandmaket
hem mor
eresponsi
blei
nthei
rwor
k.Andi
nsodoi
ng,manager
s
hav
etol
ear
n how t
o gi
ve up cont
roland empl
oyees hav
etol
ear
n how t
otake
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ort
hei
rwor
kandmakeappr
opr
iat
edeci
sion.I
fal
ltheempl
oyeesar
e
empower
ed,i
tdr
ast
ical
l
ychangest
het
ypeofl
eader
shi
pst
yles,powerr
elat
ionshi
ps,t
he
waywor
kisdesi
gnedandt
hewayor
gani
zat
ionsar
est
ruct
ured.

Copi
ngwi
th‘
Tempor
ari
ness”
I
nrecentt
imes,t
hePr
oductl
i
fecy
clesar
esl
i
mmi
ng,t
hemet
hodsofoper
ati
onsar
e
i
mpr
ovi
ng,andf
ashi
onsar
echangi
ngv
eryf
ast
.Int
hoseday
s,t
hemanager
sneededt
o
i
ntr
oducemaj
orchangepr
ogr
amsonceort
wiceadecade.Today
,changei
sanongoi
ng
act
ivi
tyf
ormostmanager
s.Theconceptofcont
inuousi
mpr
ovementi
mpl
i
esconst
ant
change.I
nyest
ery
ear
s,t
her
eusedt
obeal
ongper
iodofst
abi
l
ityandoccasi
onal
l
y
i
nter
rupt
edbyshor
tper
iodofchange,butatpr
esentt
hechangepr
ocessi
sanongoi
ng
act
ivi
tyduet
ocompet
it
ivenessi
ndev
elopi
ngnew pr
oduct
sandser
viceswi
thbet
ter
f
eat
ures.Ev
ery
onei
ntheor
gani
zat
ionf
acest
odayi
soneofper
manentt
empor
ari
ness.
Theact
ual
jobst
hatwor
ker
sper
for
m ar
einaper
manentst
ateoff
lux
.So,
wor
ker
sneedt
o
cont
inual
l
yupdat
ethei
rknowl
edgeandski
l
lst
oper
for
m newj
obr
equi
rement
s.

I
mpl
i
cat
ions f
or Manager
: 
Manager
s and empl
oyees must l
ear
n t
o cope wi
th
t
empor
ari
ness.Theyhav
etol
ear
ntol
i
vewi
thf
lexi
bil
i
ty,spont
anei
ty,andunpr
edi
ctabi
l
ity
.
Theknowl
edgeofOr
gani
zat
ionalBehav
iorwi
l
lhel
punder
standbet
tert
hecur
rentst
ateof
awor
kwor
ldofcont
inualchange,t
hemet
hodsofov
ercomi
ngr
esi
stancet
ochange
pr
ocess,t
heway
sofcr
eat
ing abet
teror
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
ethatf
aci
l
itat
eschange
pr
ocesset
c.

St
imul
ati
ngI
nnov
ati
onandChange
Today
’ssuccessf
ulor
gani
zat
ionsmustf
ost
eri
nnov
ati
onandbepr
ofi
cienti
nthear
tof
change;ot
her
wiset
heywi
l
lbecomecandi
dat
esf
orext
inct
ioni
nduecour
seoft
imeand
v
ani
shedf
rom t
hei
rfi
eldofbusi
ness.Vi
ctor
ywi
l
lgot
othoseor
gani
zat
ionst
hatmai
ntai
n
f
lex
ibi
l
ity
,cont
inual
l
yimpr
ovet
hei
rqual
i
ty,andbeatt
hecompet
it
iont
othemar
ketpl
ace
wi
th a const
antst
ream ofi
nnov
ati
ve pr
oduct
sand ser
vices.Forexampl
e,Compaq
succeededbycr
eat
ingmor
epower
fulper
sonalcomput
ersf
ort
hesameorl
essmoney
t
hanI
BNM orAppl
e,andbyput
ti
ngt
hei
rpr
oduct
stomar
ketqui
ckert
hant
hebi
gger
compet
it
ors.Amazon.
com i
sput
ti
ngal
otofi
ndependentbookst
oresoutofbusi
nessasi
t
pr
ovesy
oucansuccessf
ull
ysel
lbooksf
rom anI
nter
netwebsi
te.

I
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
orManager
s: 
Someoft
hebasi
cfunct
ionsofbusi
nessar
ebei
ngdi
spl
aced
duet
otheadv
entofanewsy
stemsandpr
ocedur
es.Forexampl
e–booksar
ebei
ngsol
d
onl
ythr
oughi
nter
net
.Int
ernetsel
l
inganor
gani
zat
ion’
sempl
oyeescanbet
hei
mpet
usf
or
i
nnov
ati
onandchange;ot
her
wiset
heycanbeamaj
orhi
ndr
ance.Thechal
l
engef
or
manager
sist
ost
imul
ateempl
oyeecr
eat
ivi
tyandt
oler
ancef
orchange.

Emer
genceofE-
Organi
zat
ion
E-Commer
ce:
 
Itr
efer
stot
he busi
ness oper
ati
ons i
nvol
vi
ng el
ect
roni
c mode of
t
ransact
ions.I
tencompassespr
esent
ingpr
oduct
sonwebsi
tesandf
il
li
ngor
der
.Thev
ast
maj
ori
tyofar
ti
cl
esand medi
aat
tent
iongi
vent
o usi
ng t
heI
nter
neti
nbusi
nessar
e
di
rect
edaton-
li
neshoppi
ng.I
nthi
spr
ocess,t
hemar
ket
ingandsel
l
ingofgoodsand
ser
vicesar
ebei
ngcar
ri
edoutov
ert
heI
nter
net
.Ine-
commer
ce,
thef
oll
owi
ngact
ivi
ti
esar
e
bei
ngt
akenpl
acequi
teof
ten-t
het
remendousnumber
sofpeopl
ewhoar
eshoppi
ngon
t
he I
nter
net
,busi
ness houses ar
e set
ti
ng up websi
tes wher
etheycan sel
lgoods,
conduct
ingt
hef
oll
owi
ngt
ransact
ionssuchasget
ti
ngpai
dandf
ulf
il
li
ngor
der
s.I
tisa
dr
amat
icchangei
nthewayacompanyr
elat
est
oit
scust
omer
s.Atpr
esente-
commer
ce
i
sexpl
odi
ng.Gl
obal
l
y,e-
commer
cespendi
ngwasi
ncr
easi
ngatat
remendousr
atef
rom
US$111bi
l
li
oni
n1999t
oUS$1.
3tr
il
li
onby2003.

E-
busi
ness:
 
Itr
efer
stot
hef
ull
breadt
hofact
ivi
ti
esi
ncl
udedi
nasuccessf
ulI
nter
netbased
ent
erpr
ise.As such,e-
commer
ce i
s a subsetofe-
busi
ness.E-
busi
ness i
ncl
udes
dev
elopi
ngst
rat
egi
esf
orr
unni
ngI
nter
net
-basedcompani
es,cr
eat
ingi
ntegr
atedsuppl
y
chai
ns,col
l
abor
ati
ngwi
thpar
tner
stoel
ect
roni
cal
l
ycoor
dinat
edesi
gnandpr
oduct
ion,
i
dent
if
yingadi
ff
erentki
ndofl
eadert
oruna‘
vi
rt
ual
’busi
ness,f
indi
ngski
l
ledpeopl
eto
bui
l
dandoper
atei
ntr
anet
sandwebsi
tes,
andr
unni
ngt
hebackr
oom ort
headmi
nist
rat
ive
si
de.E-
busi
nessi
ncl
udest
hecr
eat
ion ofnew mar
ket
sand cust
omer
s,buti
t’
sal
so
concer
nedwi
tht
heopt
imum way
stocombi
neComput
ers,t
heWebandAppl
i
cat
ion
Sof
twar
e.Asi
zabl
enumberofmul
ti
nat
ionalcor
por
ati
onsar
esel
l
inggoodsandser
vices
v
iat
heI
nter
net
.

Gr
owt
hrat
eofe-
busi
ness:
 
Theappl
i
cat
ionofI
nter
netoper
ati
onsar
eini
ti
all
ycov
ersa
smal
lpar
toft
hebusi
ness.Att
hispoi
nt,t
hei
re-
commer
ceoper
ati
onsar
esecondar
yto
t
hei
rtr
adi
ti
onalbusi
ness.Ani
ncr
easi
ngl
ypopul
arappl
i
cat
ionofe-
busi
nessi
smer
ely
usi
ngt
heI
nter
nett
obet
termanageanongoi
ngbusi
ness.Lat
er,
ther
ear
emi
l
li
onsoff
ir
ms
t
hatar
enowsel
l
ingany
thi
ngov
ert
heI
nter
net
,butt
heyar
eusi
nge-
busi
nessappl
i
cat
ions
t
oimpr
ovecommuni
cat
ionswi
thi
nter
nalandex
ter
nalst
akehol
der
sandt
obet
terper
for
m
t
radi
ti
onalbusi
nessf
unct
ions.Somecompani
esar
eput
ti
ngmaxi
mum ef
for
tini
mpr
ovi
ng
i
tsi
nter
nalef
fi
ci
encyandpr
ovi
dingsuppor
ttoi
tswi
de-
reachi
ngdeal
ernet
wor
kandt
oon-
l
i
nesel
l
ersbycr
eat
ingashar
edandi
ntegr
atednet
wor
k.Thecompani
eswant
edt
omake
cr
easi
ng

E-
Organi
zat
ions:
 
Thi
s embr
aces e-
commer
ce and e-
busi
ness. St
ate and cent
ral
gov
ernment
s,muni
ci
palcor
por
ati
onsar
eusi
ngt
heI
nter
netf
orext
endi
ngal
lthepubl
i
c
ut
il
it
yser
vicesmor
eef
fi
cient
lyt
hroughi
nter
net
.
I
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
orManager
s:Theempl
oyeesmustacqui
reski
l
ls,knowl
edge,at
ti
tudesi
n
l
ear
ningnewt
echnol
ogy
,ov
ercomi
nganyr
esi
stance

I
mpr
ovi
ngEt
hical
behav
ior
:
Thecompl
exi
tyi
nbusi
nessoper
ati
onsi
sfor
cingt
hewor
kfor
cet
ofaceet
hicaldi
l
emmas,
wher
etheyar
erequi
redt
odef
iner
ightandwr
ongconducti
nor
dert
ocompl
etet
hei
r
assi
gnedact
ivi
ti
es.Forexampl
e,Shoul
dtheempl
oyeesofchemi
calcompanybl
ow t
he
whi
stl
eift
heyuncov
ert
hedi
schar
gingi
tsunt
reat
edef
fl
uent
sint
other
iverar
epol
l
uti
ng
i
ts wat
err
esour
ces? Do manager
s gi
ve an i
nfl
ated per
for
mance ev
aluat
ion t
o an
empl
oyeet
heyl
i
ke,knowi
ngt
hatsuchanev
aluat
ioncoul
dsav
ethatempl
oyee’
sjob?The
gr
oundr
ulesgov
erni
ngt
heconst
it
uent
sofgoodet
hicalbehav
iorhasnotbeencl
ear
ly
def
ined.Di
ff
erent
iat
ing r
ightt
hingsf
rom wr
ong behav
iorhasbecomemor
ebl
urr
ed.
Fol
l
owi
ng unet
hicalpr
act
iceshav
ebecomea common pr
act
icesuch assuccessf
ul
execut
ives who use i
nsi
deri
nfor
mat
ion f
orper
sonalf
inanci
algai
n,empl
oyees i
n
compet
it
orbusi
nesspar
ti
cipat
ingi
nmassi
vecov
er-
upsofdef
ect
ivepr
oduct
set
c.

I
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
orManager
s: 
Manager
smustev
olv
ecodeofet
hicst
ogui
deempl
oyees
t
hroughet
hicaldi
l
emmas.Or
gani
zi
ngsemi
nar
s,wor
kshops,t
rai
ningpr
ogr
amswi
l
lhel
p
i
mpr
oveet
hicalbehav
iorofempl
oyees.Ret
aini
ngconsul
tant
s,l
awy
ers,v
olunt
aryser
vice
or
gani
zat
ionst
oassi
stt
hecompanyi
ndeal
i
ngwi
thet
hicali
ssueswi
l
lensur
eposi
ti
ve
et
hicalbehav
ior
.Manager
sneedt
ocr
eat
eanet
hical
l
yheal
thycl
i
mat
eforhi
sempl
oyees
wher
etheycandot
hei
rwor
kpr
oduct
ivel
yandconf
rontami
nimaldegr
eeofambi
gui
ty
r
egar
dingwhatconst
it
utesr
ightandwr
ongbehav
ior
.

8.Di
ver
sit
yandi
tsi
mpor
tancei
nor
gani
zat
ions
Di
ver
sit
yint
he wor
kpl
ace 
means t
hata companyempl
oys a 
wide r
ange ofdi
ver
se
i
ndi
vi
dual
s. 
I
not
herwor
ds,
adi
ver
sewor
kfor
cei
ncl
udes 
peopl
ewi
thdi
ff
erentchar
act
eri
sti
cs.
 
Di
ver
sit
yint
hewor
kpl
acemeanst
hatacompany
’swor
kfor
cei
ncl
udespeopl
eof
 var
ying
gender
,age,r
eli
gion,r
ace,et
hni
cit
y,cul
tur
albackgr
ound,sexualor
ient
ati
on,r
eli
gion,
l
anguages,
educat
ion,
abi
l
iti
es,
etc.
 
Her
eist
hel
i
stoft
he 
top10benef
it
s ofdi
ver
sit
yint
hewor
kpl
ace:
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
ybenef
it#1:
Var
iet
yofdi
ff
erentper
spect
ives
Di
ver
sit
yint
hewor
kpl
aceensur
esav
ari
etyof
 di
ff
erentper
spect
ives.
 
Si
ncedi
ver
sit
yint
hewor
kpl
acemeanst
hatempl
oyeeswi
l
lhav
edi
ff
erent
 char
act
eri
sti
cs
and backgr
ounds,t
heyar
eal
so mor
eli
kel
yto hav
eav
ari
etyofdi
ff
erent
 ski
l
lsand
exper
iences.
Consequent
ly,empl
oyeesi
nacompanywi
thhi
gherwor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
ywi
l
lhav
eaccess
t
oa 
var
iet
yofdi
ff
erentper
spect
ives,
whi
chi
shi
ghl
ybenef
ici
alwheni
tcomest
opl
anni
ng
andexecut
ingabusi
nessst
rat
egy
. 
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
ybenef
it#2:
Incr
easedcr
eat
ivi
ty
Di
ver
sit
yint
hewor
kpl
acel
eadst
o i
ncr
easedcr
eat
ivi
ty.
Peopl
e wi
th di
ff
erent
 backgr
ound 
tend t
o hav
e di
ff
erent
 exper
iences 
and t
hus
di
ff
erent
 per
spect
ives.Exposur
etoav
ari
etyof
 di
ff
erentper
spect
ivesandv
iews 
l
eadst
o
hi
ghercr
eat
ivi
ty.
 
Wheny
ouputt
oget
herpeopl
ewhoseet
hesamet
hingi
ndi
ff
erentway
s,y
ouar
emor
e
l
i
kel
ytogeta 
mel
ti
ngpotoff
resh,new i
deas,t
husi
mpr
ovi
ngt
hecr
eat
ivi
tyofy
our
wor
kfor
ce.
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
ybenef
it#3:
Higheri
nnov
ati
on
Di
ver
sit
yint
hewor
kpl
acel
eadst
o hi
gheri
nnov
ati
onr
ate.
Accor
ding t
o Josh Ber
sinr
esear
ch,i
ncl
usi
ve compani
esar
e 1.
7ti
mesmor
eli
kel
y 
to
be 
i
nnov
ati
on 
l
eader
sint
hei
rmar
ket
. 
I
nadi
ver
sewor
kpl
ace,empl
oyeesar
eexposedt
o mul
ti
pleper
spect
ivesandwor
ldv
iews.
When t
hese v
ari
ous per
spect
ives 
combi
ne,t
hey of
ten come t
oget
heri
n nov
el 
way
s,
openi
ngdoor
sto 
i
nnov
ati
on.
 
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
ybenef
it#4:
Fast
erpr
obl
em-
sol
vi
ng
Compani
eswi
thhi
gherwor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
y sol
vepr
obl
emsf
ast
er.
Empl
oyeesf
rom di
ver
sebackgr
oundshav
edi
ff
erentexper
iencesandv
iews,
whi
chi
swhy
t
heyar
eabl
etowi
l
l 
bri
ngdi
ver
sesol
uti
ons 
tot
het
abl
e.Thus,t
hebestsol
uti
oncanbe
chosen 
sooner
,whi
chl
eadst
o f
ast
er 
probl
em-
sol
vi
ng.
 
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
ybenef
it#5:
Bet
terdeci
sionmaki
ng
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
yleadst
o bet
terdeci
sionmaki
ng 
resul
ts.
A 
whi
te paper f
rom onl
i
ne deci
sion-
maki
ng pl
atf
orm 
Clov
erpop 
has f
ound a 
dir
ect
l
i
nk 
bet
ween wor
kpl
ace di
ver
sit
yand deci
sion-
maki
ng.Resear
cher
sfound t
hatwhen
di
ver
se t
eams made a busi
ness deci
sion,t
hey
 out
per
for
med 
i
ndi
vi
dual deci
sion-
maker
s upt
o87% 
oft
het
ime.
 
Whenempl
oyeeswi
thdi
ff
erentbackgr
oundandper
spect
ivescomet
oget
her
,theycome
up wi
th 
mor
e sol
uti
ons, whi
ch l
eads t
o mor
e i
nfor
med 
and i
mpr
oved deci
sion-
maki
ng 
processandr
esul
ts.
 
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
ybenef
it#6:
Incr
easedpr
ofi
ts
Compani
eswi
thgr
eat
erwor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
yachi
eve 
great
erpr
ofi
ts.
 
McKi
nsey&Company
,agl
obalmanagementconsul
ti
ngf
ir
m,conduct
ed 
resear
ch 
whi
ch
i
ncl
uded180compani
esi
nFr
ance,Ger
many
,theUni
tedKi
ngdom,andt
heUni
tedSt
ates.
Theyf
oundoutt
hatcompani
eswi
thmor
edi
ver
set
opt
eamswer
eal
so 
topf
inanci
al
per
for
mer
s.
Compani
es wi
th di
ver
se wor
kfor
ce make 
bet
terdeci
sions f
ast
er,whi
ch gi
ves t
hem
a 
ser
iousadv
ant
age 
overt
hei
rcompet
it
ors.Asar
esul
t,compani
eswi
thdi
ver
sit
yint
he
wor
kpl
aceachi
eve 
bet
terbusi
nessr
esul
tsandr
eapmor
epr
ofi
t.
 
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
ybenef
it#7:
Higherempl
oyeeengagement
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
yleadst
o hi
gherempl
oyeeengagement
.
Del
oit
te 
conduct
ed a 
resear
ch 
whi
ch capt
ured t
he v
iews and exper
iences of1,
550
empl
oyeesi
nthr
eel
argeAust
ral
i
anbusi
nessesoper
ati
ngi
nmanuf
act
uri
ng,r
etai
land
heal
thcar
e.Thi
sresear
ch showed t
hat
 engagementi
s an out
come ofdi
ver
sit
yand
i
ncl
usi
on.
The 
l
ink 
bet
weenwor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
yandempl
oyeeengagementi
spr
ett
y st
rai
ght
for
war
d 
-whenempl
oyeesf
eel
 
incl
uded,
theyar
emor
e engaged.
 
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
ybenef
it#8:
Reducedempl
oyeet
urnov
er
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
yisbenef
ici
alf
or 
empl
oyeer
etent
ion.
Compani
eswi
thdi
ver
sewor
kfor
cear
egener
all
ymor
e i
ncl
usi
ve 
ofdi
ff
erenti
ndi
vi
dual
char
act
eri
sti
csandper
spect
ives.
 
Di
ver
sit
yand i
ncl
usi
on i
nthe wor
kpl
ace cause al
lempl
oyees t
ofeel
 
accept
ed and
v
alued.
 When empl
oyees f
eelaccept
ed and v
alued,t
hey ar
e al
so 
happi
er 
i
nthei
r
wor
kpl
aceand 
stayl
onger
 wi
thacompany
.Asar
esul
t,compani
eswi
thgr
eat
erdi
ver
sit
y
i
nthewor
kpl
acehav
e l
owert
urnov
er 
rat
es.
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
ybenef
it#9:
Bet
tercompanyr
eput
ati
on
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
yboost
sthecompany
’s 
reput
ati
onandbr
and.
 
Compani
eswhoar
ededi
cat
edt
obui
l
dingandpr
omot
ingdi
ver
sit
yint
hewor
kpl
acear
e
seenas 
good,
mor
e human 
and 
soci
all
yresponsi
ble 
organi
zat
ions.
Wor
kpl
ace di
ver
sit
yal
so makes y
ourcompanyl
ook mor
e i
nter
est
ing.Fi
nal
l
y,i
fyou
pr
esentadi
ver
sewor
kfor
ce,y
ouwi
l
lmakei
teasi
erf
ormanydi
ff
erentpeopl
eto 
rel
ate 
to
y
ourcompanyandy
ourbr
and,openi
ngdoor
sto 
new mar
ket
s,cust
omer
sandbusi
ness
par
tner
s.
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
ybenef
it#10:
Impr
ovedhi
ri
ngr
esul
ts
Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
yleadst
o bet
terhi
ri
ngr
esul
ts.
Di
ver
sit
yint
hewor
kpl
aceboost
sacompany
’s 
empl
oyerbr
and 
andpr
esent
sacompany
asamor
e desi
rabl
epl
acet
owor
k.Wor
kpl
acedi
ver
sit
yisan 
especi
all
y 
benef
ici
alasset
f
or 
att
ract
ing 
topt
alentf
rom 
div
erset
alentpool
s.
Accor
ding t
o a sur
vey conduct
ed by
 Gl
assdoor
, 
67% ofj
ob seeker
s sai
d a di
ver
se
wor
kfor
cei
s i
mpor
tantwhenconsi
der
ingj
obof
fer
s.
9.Di
scusst
hef
act
orsl
eadi
ngt
ojobsat
isf
act
ion.Li
stt
hemeasur
esofj
obsat
isf
act
ion
Sour
cesofj
obsat
isf
act
ionSev
eralj
obel
ementcont
ri
but
etoj
obsat
isf
act
ion.
Themost
i
mpor
tantamongstt
hem ar
ewagest
ruct
ure,nat
ureofwor
k,pr
omot
ionchances,qual
i
ty
ofsuper
ior
,wor
kgr
oupandwor
kingcondi
ti
ons
I
. Wages-Wagespl
ayasi
gni
fi
cantr
olei
ninf
luenci
ngj
obsat
isf
act
ion.Thi
sis
becauseof2r
eason.Fi
rst
,moneyi
sani
nst
rumenti
nful
fi
ll
i
ngone’
sneeds,
and
t
wo,empl
oyeesof
tenseepayasar
efl
ect
ionofmanagement
’sconcer
nfor
t
hem.Empl
oyeewantapaysy
stem whi
chi
ssi
mpl
e,f
airandi
nli
newi
tht
hei
r
expect
ati
ons.Whenpayi
sseenasf
air
,basedonj
obdemands,i
ndi
vi
dualski
l
l
l
evel
,andcommuni
typayst
andar
ds,sat
isf
act
ioni
sli
kel
ytor
esul
t.Whatneeds
emphasi
sist
hat
,iti
snott
heabsol
utepayt
hatmat
ter
s,r
atheri
tisone’
s
per
cept
ionoff
air
ness.
I
I. Nat
ureofwor
ks-Mostempl
oyeescr
avei
ntel
l
ect
ualchal
l
engesonj
obs.They
t
endt
opr
eferbei
nggi
venoppor
tuni
ti
est
ouset
hei
rski
l
lsandabi
l
iti
esandbei
ng
of
fer
edav
ari
etyoft
asks,f
reedom andf
eedbackonhow wel
ltheyar
edoi
ng.
Thesechar
act
eri
sti
csmakej
obsment
all
ychal
l
engi
ng.Jobst
hathav
etool
i
ttl
e
chal
l
engecr
eat
ebor
edom.Butt
oomuchchal
l
engecr
eat
esf
rust
rat
ionanda
f
eel
i
ng of f
ail
ure.Under condi
ti
ons of moder
ate chal
l
enge,empl
oyees
exper
iencepl
easur
eandj
obsat
isf
act
ion.
I
II
. Pr
omot
ions-Pr
omot
ional
oppor
tuni
ti
esaf
fectj
obsat
isf
act
ionconsi
der
abl
y.The
desi
ref
orpr
omot
ioni
sgener
all
yst
rongamongempl
oyeesasi
tinv
olv
eschange
i
njobcont
ent
,pay
,responsi
bil
i
ty,
independence,
stat
usandt
hel
i
ke.Anav
erage
empl
oyeei
nat
ypi
calgov
ernmentor
gani
zat
ioncanhopet
ogett
woort
hree
pr
omot
ionsi
nhi
sent
ir
eser
vice,t
houghchancesofpr
omot
ionar
ebet
teri
nthe
pr
ivat
esect
or.I
tisnosur
pri
set
hatt
heempl
oyeet
akespr
omot
ionast
he
 ul
ti
mat
eachi
evementi
nhi
scar
eerandwheni
tisr
eal
i
zed,hef
eel
sext
remel
y
sat
isf
ied.
I
V. Super
visi
ons-
Ther
eisaposi
ti
ver
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hequal
i
tyofsuper
visor
and j
ob sat
isf
act
ion.Super
visor who est
abl
i
shs a suppor
ti
ve per
sonal
r
elat
ionshi
p wi
th subor
dinat
es and t
akes a per
sonali
nter
est i
nthem,
cont
ri
but
est
othei
rempl
oyeesat
isf
act
ion.Onr
eal
i
zingt
her
oleofsuper
visi
oni
n
cr
eat
ingsat
isf
act
ion,anumberorsuper
visor
yrol
eshav
ebeensuggest
edf
or
t
hepur
pose.Someoft
hesuper
visor
yrol
esar
e:a.Mai
ntai
nopenl
i
nesof
communi
cat
ionb.Cr
eat
eagoodphy
sical
env
ironment
.c.Remedysub-
standar
d
condi
ti
ons.d.Tr
ansf
erdi
scont
entempl
oyees.e.Changet
heper
cept
ionof
di
ssat
isf
ied empl
oyees.f
.Di
spl
ay concer
nforempl
oyees.g.Gi
ve ampl
e
r
ecogni
ti
on.h.Al
l
ow f
orpar
ti
cipat
ivei
n management
.i.Pr
act
ice good
managementj
.Conductmor
alebui
l
dingpr
ogr
ams.
V. Wor
kGr
oup-Wor
kGr
oupdoesser
veasasour
ceofsat
isf
act
iont
oindi
vi
dual
empl
oyees.I
tdoes so,pr
imar
il
y by pr
ovi
ding t
he gr
oup member
,wi
th
oppor
tuni
ti
esf
ori
nter
act
ion,wi
theachot
her
.Iti
swel
lknownt
hat
,formany
empl
oyees,wor
kfi
l
lst
heneedf
orsoci
ali
nter
act
ion.Thewor
kgr
oupi
saev
en
st
rongersour
ce ofsat
isf
act
ion when member
shav
e si
mil
arat
ti
tudesand
v
alues.Hav
ingpeopl
ear
oundwi
thsi
mil
arat
ti
tudescausesl
essf
ri
cti
ononday
t
odaybasi
s.Co-
wor
ker
’swi
thsi
mil
arat
ti
tudesandv
aluescanpr
ovi
desome
conf
ir
mat
ionofpeopl
e’
ssel
fconcept
.
VI
. Wor
kingcondi
ti
on-Wor
kingcondi
ti
ont
hatar
ecompat
ibl
ewi
thanempl
oyee’
s
phy
sicalcomf
ortand t
hatf
aci
l
itat
e doi
ng a good j
ob,cont
ri
but
etoj
ob
sat
isf
act
ion.Temper
atur
e,humi
dit
y,v
ent
il
ati
on,l
i
ght
ingandnoi
se,hour
sof
wor
k,cl
eanl
i
nessofwor
kpl
aceandadequat
etool
sandequi
pmentar
ethe
f
eat
ureswhi
chaf
fectj
obsat
isf
act
ion.Theassumpt
iont
hatwor
kingcondi
ti
on
andsat
isf
act
ionar
eint
err
elat
edcont
radi
ctst
het
wo-
fact
ort
heor
yofmot
ivat
ion.
Accor
dingt
othi
stheor
y,wor
kingcondi
ti
onsar
eapar
tofmai
ntenancef
act
or
whi
ch,when pr
ovi
ded,hel
premov
e di
ssat
isf
act
ion.And t
he opposi
te of
di
ssat
isf
act
ioni
snodi
ssat
isf
act
ion,butnotsat
isf
act
ion.Thus,whi
l
ewor
king
condi
ti
onconst
it
uteasour
ceofj
obsat
isf
act
iont
heyar
ear
elat
ivel
ymi
nor
sour
ce.Gener
all
y,unl
esswor
kingcondi
ti
onsar
eei
therext
remel
ygoodorbad,
t
hey ar
etaken f
orgr
ant
ed by mostempl
oyees.Onl
y when empl
oyees
t
hemsel
veschangej
obsorwhenwor
kingcondi
ti
onschangedr
amat
ical
l
yov
er
 t
ime.(
e.g.
;mov
ingi
ntonew f
aci
l
iti
es)dowor
kingcondi
ti
onsassumemor
e
r
elev
ance.I
not
herwor
ds,al
lwor
ker
sar
enotsat
isf
ying di
ssat
isf
act
ionby
f
avour
abl
eorunf
avour
abl
ewor
kenv
ironment
.

UNI
T2

At
ti
tude,
Per
sonal
i
tyandPer
cept
ion

1.Expl
aint
heconceptandi
mpor
tanceofper
cept
ion

I
tisapr
ocesswher
eindi
vi
dual
ssel
ect
,or
gani
ze&i
nter
prett
hei
rsensor
yst
imul
ati
on
i
ntomeani
ngf
uli
nfor
mat
ion.

I
tisv
eryi
mpor
tanti
nest
abl
i
shi
ngdi
ff
erentr
oleofper
cept
ionsl
i
ke:

 Under
standi
ngt
het
askst
obeper
for
med.

 Under
standi
ngassoci
atedi
mpor
tanceoft
asksal
l
ott
ed.

 Under
standi
ngpr
efer
redbehav
iort
ocompl
eter
espect
ivet
asks.

 Cl
ari
fyi
ngr
oleper
cept
ions.

Forexampl
e,ev
erymemberi
nagr
ouphast
obecl
earr
egar
dingt
her
oleal
l
ott
edt
o
t
hem.Pr
ogr
ammerwr
it
est
hecode,
test
erchecksi
t,et
c.

2.Expl
ainel
abor
atel
yaboutt
heper
cept
ionpr
ocess
Per
cept
ualpr
ocesspr
esent
sthr
eebasi
csubpr
ocessesorel
ement
sofper
cept
ion.
These ar
e exi
stence ofst
imul
i
,per
cept
ualmechani
sm,and per
cept
ualout
put
s.
Per
cept
ualout
put
sal
ongwi
thot
herdet
ermi
nant
sofhumanbehav
ioraf
fectandshape
behav
ior
.

Per
cept
ualI
nput
s:Per
cept
uali
nput
smaybei
nthef
orm ofobj
ect
s,ev
ent
s,orpeopl
e.
Thus ev
ery
thi
ng i
nthe set
ti
ng wher
e ev
ent
s occur
,orwhi
ch cont
ri
but
es t
othe
occur
renceofev
ent
s,canbet
ermedasper
cept
uali
nput
.Fur
thert
hechar
act
eri
sti
csof
st
imul
iar
eimpor
tantast
heseaf
fectt
heext
entt
owhi
cht
heper
cei
veri
sat
tr
act
edt
o
t
hesewhi
chaf
fect
sthesel
ect
ionofst
imul
iforper
cept
ional
ongwi
thot
herv
ari
abl
es
af
fect
ing sel
ect
ion ofst
imul
ili
ke l
i
ke per
cei
ver
’s char
act
eri
sti
cs and si
tuat
ional
v
ari
abl
es.Whent
heper
cei
veri
nter
act
swi
thast
imul
us,
sensat
iont
akespl
acewhi
ch,
we
hav
eseenear
li
erst
art
sper
cept
ual
process.

Per
cept
ualMechani
sm:Per
cept
ualmechani
sm i
nvol
vest
hreeel
ement
s-sel
ect
ionof
st
imul
i
,or
gani
zat
ionofst
imul
i
,andi
nter
pret
ati
onofst
imul
i
.

Sel
ect
ionofst
imul
i
:Af
terr
ecei
vi
ngt
hest
imul
ifr
om t
heenv
ironment
,somear
esel
ect
ed
f
orf
urt
herpr
ocessi
ngwhi
l
eot
her
sar
escr
eenedoutbecausei
tispossi
blef
oraper
son
t
osel
ect
edal
lst
imul
iwhi
chheseesi
ntheenv
ironment
.Ther
ear
etwot
ypesoff
act
ors
whi
chaf
fectsel
ect
ionofst
imul
i
.Thesear
eext
ernalandr
elat
edt
ost
imul
iandi
nter
nal
r
elat
edt
otheper
cei
ver
.These
ext
ernalandi
nter
nalf
act
orsar
eofsev
eralt
ypes.Weshal
ldi
scusst
hesef
act
orsand
t
hei
rimpactont
hesel
ect
ionofst
imul
ii
nthesubsequentsect
ionoft
hischapt
erdeal
i
ng
wi
thper
cept
ual
sel
ect
ivi
ty.

Or
gani
zat
ionofSt
imul
i
:Af
tert
hest
imul
iar
erecei
ved,
thesear
eor
gani
zedi
nsomef
orm
i
nor
dert
omakesenseoutoft
hat
.Thev
ari
ousf
ormsofor
gani
zi
ngst
imul
iar
efi
gur
e-
gr
oundper
cept
ual
groupi
ng,
simpl
i
ficat
ion,
andcl
oser
.

I
nter
pret
ati
onofSt
imul
i
:Theper
cept
uali
nput
sthathav
ebeenor
gani
zedwi
l
lhav
etobe
i
nter
pret
edbyt
heper
cei
versot
hathecansenseandext
ractsomemeani
ngofwhati
s
goi
ngoni
nthesi
tuat
ion.Peopl
eint
erpr
ett
hemeani
ngofwhatt
heyhav
esel
ect
ivel
y
per
cei
vedandor
gani
zedi
nter
msoft
hei
rownassumpt
ionsofpeopl
e,t
hingsand
si
tuat
ion.Theyal
sobecomej
udgment
alaswel
landt
endt
oint
erpr
ett
het
hingas
good/
bad,beaut
if
ul/
ugl
yandsoonwhi
char
equi
ter
elat
ivet
erms.I
nsuchapr
ocess,
t
her
e ar
e chances ofmi
sint
erpr
etat
ion.I
nter
pret
ati
on of st
imul
iis af
fect
ed by
char
act
eri
sti
cs of st
imul
i
,si
tuat
ions under whi
ch per
cept
ion t
akes pl
ace,and
char
act
eri
sti
csoft
heper
cei
ver
.Thesef
act
orsal
soaf
fectt
het
otal
per
cept
ual
process.

Per
cept
ualOut
put
s:Basedonper
cept
ualmechani
sm whi
chendswi
thi
nter
pret
ati
onof
st
imul
i
,per
cept
ualout
put
semer
ge.Theseout
put
smaybei
nthef
orm ofcov
ertact
ions
dev
elopmentofat
ti
tudes,opi
nions,bel
i
efs,i
mpr
essi
on aboutt
he st
imul
iunder
consi
der
ati
on.Theseout
put
sal
ongwi
thot
herf
act
orsaf
fect
inghumanbehav
iormay
r
esul
tinov
ertbehav
ior
.Forov
ertbehav
iort
ooccur
,per
cept
ioni
snott
hesol
edeci
der
t
houghi
tisi
mpor
tant
.Forexampl
e,whenaper
sonseesanadv
ert
isementofapr
oduct
,
hemayper
cei
vet
hatt
hepr
oducti
sgood.Thi
sper
cept
ion,
howev
er,
maynotbeenough
f
ort
heper
sont
obuyt
hepr
oduct(
over
tbehav
ior
).Theact
ualbuy
ingmaydependont
he
av
ail
abi
l
ityoft
hepr
oduct
,per
cei
ver
’sneedf
orpr
oductandhi
spr
opensi
tyandcapaci
ty
t
ospendmoneyf
orbuy
ingt
hepr
oduct
.

3.Expl
aint
hef
act
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngper
cept
ion

Fact
orst
hati
nfl
uenceper
cept
ion:
  Per
cei
ver
sChar
act
eri
sti
c:(
Age,
att
it
ude,
val
ues,
bel
i
efs,
per
sonal
i
ty,
Exper
ience)

 Per
cei
ve’
s/Tar
get
s Char
act
eri
sti
cs: (
Nat
ure,Si
ze,Locat
ion,Sound,Mot
ion,
Di
stance)
 Si
tuat
ional
Fact
ors:
(Ti
me,
Wor
k&Soci
alSet
ti
ngs)

Phy
siol
ogi
cal
(bi
ologi
cal
,neur
ologi
cal
)Inf
luences

 Senses,age,heal
th,f
ati
gue,hunger
,bi
ologi
cal
cy
clesSoci
alI
nfl
uences
 Cul
tur
alDi
ff
erences

 Nonv
erbal
behav
ior
s,odor
s,speech,
sil
ence,
space

 Soci
alRol
es

 Sexr
oles,
genderr
oles,
occupat
ional
rol
es

 Sel
f-
Concept

 Sel
f-
est
eem

4.Wr
it
eanot
eonPer
cept
ual
Err
ors

I
tisasi
tuat
ionwher
etheper
cei
verper
cei
vesapar
ti
cul
arper
sonoraphenomenoni
na
waywhi
chi
sdi
ff
erentf
rom t
her
eal
i
tyduet
ovar
iousr
easons.

Var
ioust
ypesofPer
cept
ual
Err
orsar
easf
oll
ows:
  SELECTI
VEPERCEPTI
ON:Whenpeopl
etendt
oseeonl
yaf
ew qual
i
tiesand
j
udget
heper
soncompl
etel
y
 HALOEFFECT:
Judgi
ngani
ndi
vi
dual
onl
yononepar
ti
cul
art
rai
t/
char
act
eri
sti
cs

 STEREOTYPI
NG:Whenpeopl
ebel
i
evet
hatal
lmember
sofaspeci
fi
cgr
oupwi
l
l
hav
ecommonchar
act
eri
sti
cs.
 SI
MILAR TO MEEFFECT/
PROJECTI
ON:Whenpeopl
efi
ndsi
mil
arqual
i
tiesi
n
ot
heri
ndi
vi
dual
s,t
heyt
endt
ofav
ort
hem.
 CONTRASTEFFECTS/
RECENCY:
Mostr
ecenti
nfor
mat
iondomi
nat
esper
cept
ion

 EXPECTANCYERRORS:
Ifourpr
iorexpect
ati
onshav
eabi
asper
cept
ion
 PYGMALI
ON EFFECT:Peopl
ehol
ding ahi
ghexpect
ati
onofanot
hert
end t
o
i
mpr
ovet
hati
ndi
vi
dual
per
for
mance
 GOLEM EFFECT:
Ifani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sbel
i
efi
snegat
ive

 PERSON SENSI
TIVI
TYBI
AS:Thet
endencyf
orpeopl
etogi
vet
ool
i
ttl
ecr
edi
tto
ot
her
swhent
hingsar
egoi
ngpoor
lyandt
oomuchcr
edi
twhent
hingsar
egoi
ng
wel
l
.
 REBOUNDEFFECT:Thet
endencyt
othi
nkaboutsomet
hingwheny
out
ry
i
ntent
ional
l
ynott
othi
nkabouti
t

5.Howt
oov
ercomeper
cept
ual
err
ors
Not
e:Expl
ainhowt
oav
oidper
cept
ual
err
ors

6.Enumer
atet
heconceptandpr
ocessofat
ti
tude

At
ti
tudes:
Feel
i
ngs,
thought
s&behav
ior
alt
endenci
est
owar
dsaspeci
fi
cobj
ect/
sit
uat
ion

Component
sofat
ti
tude

AFFECTI
VE:EMOTI
ON/
FEELI
NGassoci
atedwi
tht
heat
ti
tude.
(Li
kes/
disl
i
kes)Eg:Idon’
t
l
i
kemyboss.

COGNI
TIVE:BELI
EFassoci
atedwi
tht
heat
ti
tudebasedonexper
ience,
misunder
standi
ng
orr
umor
s.Eg:
Mybossi
sunf
air
BEHAVI
ORAL:Thewayt
hatani
ndi
vi
dualI
NTENDSTOBEHAVEt
owar
dsanobj
ectora
si
tuat
ion.
Eg:
Iam goi
ngt
orequestf
orat
ransf
erorr
esi
gn.

Changi
ngAt
ti
tudeofEmpl
oyees:

 Gi
veaccur
atei
nfor
mat
ion,
feedback

 Resol
vedi
scr
epanci
es

 Posi
ti
vewor
kingcondi
ti
ons

 Useoff
ear

 Copt
ingappr
oach:
Inv
olv
epeopl
ewhoar
edi
ssat
isf
iedi
nimpr
ovi
ngt
hings

7.Wr
it
eabr
iefnot
eoni
mpor
tanceofat
ti
tude

At
ti
tudeshel
ppr
edi
ctwor
kbehav
ior
:E.
g.Af
teri
ntr
oduci
ngapar
ti
cul
arpol
i
cy,
iti
sfound
f
rom anat
ti
tudesur
vey
,thatt
hewor
ker
sar
enott
oohappyabouti
t.
Dur
ingt
hel
ater
weeki
ti
s
f
oundt
hatt
heat
tendanceoft
heempl
oyeesdr
opsshar
plyf
rom t
hepr
evi
ousst
andar
d.
Her
emanagementmayconcl
udet
hatanegat
iveat
ti
tudet
owar
dnewwor
krul
esl
edt
o
i
ncr
easedabsent
eei
sm

At
ti
tudeshel
ppeopl
etoadaptt
othei
rwor
kenv
ironment
:Wel
l
-tr
eat
edempl
oyeest
endt
o
dev
elopaposi
ti
veat
ti
tudet
owar
dst
hei
rjob,managementandt
heor
gani
zat
ioni
n
gener
alwhi
l
eil
l
-tr
eat
edor
gani
zat
ionalmember
sdev
elopanegat
iveat
ti
tude.I
not
her
wor
ds,
att
it
udeshel
pempl
oyeesadj
ustt
othei
renv
ironmentandf
orm abasi
sforf
utur
e
behav
ior
.

At
ti
tudeshel
ppeopl
etor
etai
nthei
rdi
gni
tyandsel
f-i
mage.

At
ti
tudespr
ovi
dei
ndi
vi
dual
swi
thabasi
sforexpr
essi
ngt
hei
rval
ues.Forexampl
e,a
managerwhov
alueshar
dandsi
ncer
ewor
kwi
l
lbemor
evocal
agai
nstanempl
oyeewho
i
shav
ingav
erycasual
appr
oacht
owar
dswor
k
At
ti
tudespr
ovi
dest
andar
dsandf
ramesofr
efer
encet
hatal
l
ow peopl
etounder
stand,
andper
cei
vet
hewor
ldar
oundhi
m.

Empl
oyees’at
ti
tudescanbechangedandsomet
imesi
tisi
nthebesti
nter
est
sof
management
stot
ryt
odoso
8.HowAt
ti
tudei
sfor
med?

Di
rectper
sonalexper
ience– Thequal
i
tyofaper
son’
sdi
rectexper
iencewi
tht
he
at
ti
tudeobj
ectdet
ermi
neshi
sat
ti
tudet
owar
dsi
t.

Associ
ati
on–Anewat
ti
tudeobj
ectmaybeassoci
atedwi
thanol
dat
ti
tudeobj
ectand
t
heat
ti
tudet
owar
dst
hel
atermaybet
ransf
err
edt
owar
dst
hef
ormer

Soci
all
ear
ning– At
ti
tudesar
eal
so l
ear
ntf
rom ot
her
sEx.Fr
om par
ent
s,t
eacher
s,
super
visor
s,et
c.Ani
ndi
vi
dualmayl
ear
nbyhav
ingcont
actwi
thot
her
sorev
enwat
chi
ng
model
sov
ert
heTV

Fact
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngt
hef
ormat
ionofat
ti
tudes

 Per
sonalExper
iences:Peopl
efor
m at
ti
tudesbycomi
ngi
ndi
rectcont
actwi
than
at
ti
tudeobj
ect
.Byt
het
imeaper
songoesf
orwor
kinaspeci
fi
edOr
gani
sat
ion,
he
hol
dsmany
at
ti
tudest
owar
dthet
ypeoft
hej
obt
hati
saccept
abl
etohi
m,t
heexpect
edpay
,
wor
king condi
ti
ons and super
visi
on.Thr
ough j
ob exper
iences t
heydev
elop
at
ti
tudesaboutsuchf
act
orsassal
ary
,per
for
mancer
evi
ews,j
obdesi
gn,wor
k
gr
oup,
aff
il
iat
ionandmanager
ial
capabi
l
iti
eset
c
 Fami
l
yfact
ors:
Thef
ami
l
ychar
act
eri
sti
csi
nfl
uencet
hei
ndi
vi
dual
’
sear
lyat
ti
tude
pat
ter
ns.Resear
cher
shav
efoundahi
ghdegr
eeofr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenpar
ent
s
andchi
l
dreni
nat
ti
tudest
hant
heyf
oundbet
weenchi
l
drenandt
hei
rpeer
s.They
al
soempi
ri
cal
l
yobser
vedl
ow cor
rel
ati
onbet
weenat
ti
tudesoft
hechi
l
drenand
t
hei
rteacher
s.
 Associ
ati
on:Peopl
ear
ehi
ghl
yinf
luencedbyt
hemaj
orgr
oupsorassoci
ati
onst
o
whi
cht
heybel
ong.Geogr
aphi
cregi
on,
rel
i
gion,
educat
ional
backgr
ound,
race,
sex
,
ageandi
ncome-cl
ass–al
lst
rongl
yinf
luenceat
ti
tudes.Thenear
ert
hegr
oupt
he
st
rongeri
sthegr
oupi
nfl
uenceont
heat
ti
tudesoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.
 PeerGr
oups:Aspeopl
eappr
oacht
hei
radul
thood,t
heyi
ncr
easi
ngl
yrel
yont
hei
r
 peergr
oupsf
orappr
oval/
att
it
ude.hecul
tur
e,l
anguage,andt
hest
ruct
ureof
soci
ety
,al
lpr
ovi
deani
ndi
vi
dualwi
tht
heboundar
iesofhi
sini
ti
alat
ti
tudes.Att
he
v
eryear
lyageani
ndi
vi
duali
staughtt
hatcer
tai
nat
ti
tudesar
eaccept
abl
eand
cer
tai
not
her
sar
enon-accept
abl
eint
hesoci
ety
.
 Model
s: Some of t
he at
ti
tudes ar
e dev
eloped t
hrough i
mit
ati
on of
model
s.Chi
l
drenar
eof
tenqui
teobser
vantabouthow t
hei
rpar
ent
sreactt
o
di
ff
erentpeopl
e and si
tuat
ions.
Theyl
ear
n bywat
chi
ng whom t
hei
rpar
ent
’s
r
espect
,whi
cht
heyt
reatwi
thcondescensi
on,whom t
heyr
egar
dasf
ri
ends,and
whom t
heydi
sl
ike.Suchev
aluat
ionsmay
beacqui
redwi
thoutt
hechi
l
d’sdi
rect
ly
i
nter
act
ingwi
thsuchpeopl
e.
 I
nst
it
uti
onalFact
ors:Manyi
nst
it
uti
onalf
act
orsf
unct
ionassour
cesandsuppor
t
ofourat
ti
tudesandbel
i
efs.Forexampl
e,whenpeopl
ecomei
ntot
hist
empl
e,
t
heybowdownt
opr
ay,
sitwi
thheadsbowed.Thei
rcl
othesar
ecl
eanandf
reshl
y
washed.Theent
ir
epr
ocessi
sdev
otedt
ori
tual
.

9.Expl
aint
het
ypesofat
ti
tude

JobSat
isf
act
ion:
Howonef
eel
sabouthi
sjob

JobI
nvol
vement
:degr
eet
owhi
cht
heempl
oyeei
spsy
chol
ogi
cal
l
yconnect
edt
ohi
sjob

Or
gInv
olv
ement
:degr
eet
owhi
cht
heempl
oyeei
spsy
chol
ogi
cal
l
yconnect
edt
ohi
sor
g
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS
Jobsat
isf
act
ioni
srel
atedt
ogener
alat
ti
tudet
owar
dst
hej
ob.Aper
sonhav
ingahi
gh
l
evelofsat
isf
act
ionwi
l
lgener
all
yhol
daposi
ti
veat
ti
tudewhi
l
edi
ssat
isf
iedpeopl
ewi
l
l
gener
all
ydi
spl
aynegat
ive at
ti
tude t
owar
ds l
i
fe.When we t
alk aboutat
ti
tude,we
gener
all
yspeakaboutj
obsat
isf
act
ionbecauset
heyar
eint
er-
rel
atedi
nor
gani
zat
ional
behav
iour
.

Jobi
nvol
vement
:Jobi
nvol
vementr
efer
stot
hedegr
eet
owhi
chaper
soni
dent
if
ies
hi
msel
f(psy
chol
ogi
cal
l
y)wi
thhi
sjob,act
ivel
ypar
ti
cipat
esandconsi
der
shi
sper
cei
ved
per
for
mance l
eveli
mpor
tantt
o sel
f-
wor
th.(
Robbi
ns)
.Hi
gh l
evelofi
nvol
vement
i
ndi
cat
est
hatt
hei
ndi
vi
dualcar
esf
orhi
sjobt
hathasani
mpactonhi
ghpr
oduct
ivi
ty.
Hi
ghert
hej
obsat
isf
act
ion,
lowerwi
l
lbeabsent
eei
sm andempl
oyeet
urnov
er.

Or
gani
zat
ionalcommi
tment
:Or
gani
zat
ionalcommi
tmentr
efer
stodegr
eet
owhi
chan
empl
oyee i
dent
if
ieshi
msel
fwi
tht
he or
gani
zat
ionalgoal
sand wi
shest
o mai
ntai
n
member
shi
pint
heor
gani
zat
ion.Hewant
sto“
bel
ong”t
otheor
gani
zat
ionandt
ake
anact
ivepar
tint
hei
tsf
unct
ioni
ng.Absent
ingorr
esi
gni
ngf
rom t
hej
obv
ersusj
ob
sat
isf
act
ioni
sapr
edi
ctorofor
gani
zat
ionalcommi
tment
.Theconcepthasbeenv
ery
popul
ari
nther
ecentt
imes.Or
gani
zat
ionalcommi
tmentdependsuponj
obenr
ichment
f
act
oranddegr
eet
owhi
cht
hewor
ker
senj
oyaut
onomyandf
reedom ofact
ionwhi
l
e
per
for
ming.

10.
Clar
if
ythe pr
ocess of measur
ementof at
ti
tude of
empl
oyeesMeasur
ingat
ti
tude:
 Quest
ionnai
re

 Bi
pol
arScal
e

 Li
ker
tScal
e:5boxes(f
rom st
rongl
yagr
eet
ost
rongl
ydi
sagr
ee)

 Thur
stoneScal
e:11St
atement
s–Ranki
ng(
mostf
avor
abl
etounf
avor
abl
e)–Av
g
i
staken.
 Gut
tmansScal
e:Cumul
ati
veScal
e

 Bogar
dusSoci
alDi
stanceScal
e:7poi
ntscal
e(l
argenumberofst
atement
s)
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

11.
Expl
aincomponent
sofat
ti
tude.

Thr
eecomponent
s-ABCModel
.

Af
fect
,Behav
iour
,andCogni
ti
on

COGNI
TIVEr
esponsei
sacogni
ti
veev
aluat
ionoft
heent
it
ythatconst
it
utesani
ndi
vi
dual
sbel
i
efsaboutt
heobj
ect
.(Fr
om br
ain-myj
obi
sint
erest
ing)
.“C”componenti
ncl
udet
he
bel
i
efs,
opi
nionsandi
nfor
mat
iont
heper
sonhasaboutt
heobj
ectoft
heat
ti
tude.

AFFECTI
VE-r
esponsei
sanemot
ionalr
esponset
hatexpr
essesani
ndi
vi
dualsdegr
eeof
pr
eferencef
oranent
it
y.-Foranexampl
e:f
rom hear
t,Il
ovemyj
ob.-I
tist
heper
sons
emot
ionsorf
eel
i
ngsaboutobj
ectoft
hatat
ti
tude.

BEHAVI
OURAL–i
ntent
ioni
sav
erbali
ndi
cat
ionort
ypi
calbehav
iour
alt
endencyofan
i
ndi
vi
dual
.(I
ntent
iont
oactIam goi
ngt
ogett
owor
kear
lywi
thasmi
l
eonmyf
ace)

12.
Whati
sper
sonal
i
tyshapi
ng?Enumer
atet
het
ypesofper
sonal
i
tyshapi
ng

Per
sonal
i
ty:
Tot
alwayi
nwhi
chani
ndi
vi
dual
react
s&i
nter
act
swi
thot
her
s

 -
Phy
sical
Att
ri
but
es–Looks&Act
s

 -
Ment
alAt
tri
but
es–Feel
&Thi
nk

I
tist
hewayi
nwhi
chani
ndi
vi
dualr
eact
s&i
nter
act
swhi
chr
efl
ect
sit
sbehav
iour&
char
act
eri
sti
cs.Theuni
que& r
elat
ivel
yst
abl
epat
ter
nsofbehav
iour
,thought
sand
emot
ionsshownbyi
ndi
vi
dual
sar
etheper
sonal
i
ty.

Under
standi
ngdi
ff
erentper
sonal
i
tyt
rai
tshel
pst
heor
gani
sat
ioni
nvar
iousway
ssuchas:

 Hel
pst
omot
ivat
etheempl
oyees

 Reducet
urnov
ers
  Decr
easeconf
li
ctsandi
mpr
ovecol
l
abor
ati
on

 Pr
eventbur
nout
s

 Hel
pyoucommuni
cat
eef
fect
ivel
ywi
thy
ourwor
kfor
ce

Not
e:Pl
easer
efert
hedi
ff
erentt
ypesofper
sonal
i
tyf
rom di
ff
erentt
heor
iesofper
sonal
i
ty.
13.
Il
lust
rat
ethet
heor
iesofper
sonal
i
ty

Tr
aitTheor
yofPer
sonal
i
ty:I
nor
dert
ounder
standani
ndi
vi
dual
,wemustbr
eakdown
behav
iourpat
ter
nint
oaser
iesofobser
vabl
etr
ait
s.Combi
ningt
heset
rai
tswi
l
lfor
m an
i
ndi
vi
dual
’
sper
sonal
i
ty.

Popul
archar
act
eri
sti
cs ort
rai
tsi
ncl
ude shy
ness,aggr
essi
veness,submi
ssi
veness,
l
azi
ness,
ambi
ti
on,
loy
alt
y,andt
imi
dit
y.

Thet
rai
ttheor
yisbasedont
hreeassumpt
ions:

 Tr
ait
sar
ecommont
omanyi
ndi
vi
dual
sandv
aryi
nabsol
uteamountbet
ween
i
ndi
vi
dual
 Tr
ait
s ar
erel
ati
vel
y st
abl
e and exer
tfai
rl
y uni
ver
salef
fect
s on behav
iour
r
egar
dlessofenv
ironment
alsi
tuat
ion.
 Tr
ait
scanbei
nfer
redf
rom t
hemeasur
ementofbehav
ior
ali
ndi
cat
ors

Si
gmundFr
eud'
sTheor
y

Humanbehav
iori
sther
esul
toft
hei
nter
act
ionsamongt
hreecomponentpar
tsoft
he
mi
nd:
thei
d,ego,
andsuper
ego.

TheI
d:i
sconcer
nedwi
thi
nst
antgr
ati
fi
cat
ionofbasi
cphy
sicalneedsandur
ges.I
t
oper
atesent
ir
elyunconsci
ousl
y(out
sideofconsci
oust
hought
).

TheEgo:Theegoi
sther
ati
onal
,pr
agmat
icpar
tofourper
sonal
i
ty.I
tispar
tl
yconsci
ous
andpar
tl
yunconsci
ous

Thesuper
egoi
sconcer
nedwi
thsoci
alr
ulesandmor
als—si
mil
art
owhatmanypeopl
e
cal
lthei
r"consci
ence"ort
hei
r"mor
alcompass.
"Itdev
elopsasachi
l
dlear
nswhatt
hei
r
 cul
tur
econsi
der
sri
ghtandwr
ong

The i
d,ego,and super
ego ar
ein const
antconf
li
ctand t
hatadul
tper
sonal
i
tyand
behav
iourar
eroot
edi
nther
esul
tsoft
hesei
nter
nal
str
uggl
es

Hol
l
andst
ypol
ogyofper
sonal
i
ty

Li
nki
ngper
sonal
i
tywi
thOccupat
ions

 Real
i
sti
c–phy
sical
act
ivi
ti
es–Mechani
c

 I
nvest
igat
ive–i
nvol
vet
hinki
ng–Economi
c

 Soci
al–Hel
pingot
her
s–Teacher

 Conv
ent
ional
–Rul
eRegul
ated–Account
ant

 Ent
erpr
isi
ng–v
erbal
l
yinf
luenceot
her
s–Lawy
er,
publ
i
crel
ati
ons

 Ar
ti
sti
c–Cr
eat
ive–I
nter
iordecor
ator
,wr
it
er

14.
Measur
ementofPer
sonal
i
ty

My
ersBr
iggst
ypei
ndi
cat
or(
mbt
i)

MBTI–At
ool
tomeasur
eper
sonal
i
ty)16Di
sti
nctTy
pes
Thi
sisa popul
arquest
ionnai
re wi
th 100 i
temsand i
swi
del
yused t
o under
stand
per
sonal
i
tiesi
nor
gani
zat
ions.Basedont
hecl
assi
calwor
kofCar
lJung,t
heMy
ers—
Br
iggsTy
peI
ndi
cat
or(
MBTI
)askspeopl
ehow t
heyusual
l
yfeeloracti
npar
ti
cul
ar
si
tuat
ions.Basedont
heanswer
srecei
ved,peopl
ear
edi
ff
erent
iat
edi
nter
msoff
our
gener
aldi
mensi
ons:sensi
ng.i
ntui
ti
ng,j
udgi
ng and per
cei
vi
ng.Hi
ghestand l
ower
posi
ti
onsi
neachoft
hedi
mensi
onsar
eusedt
ocl
assi
fypeopl
eint
osi
xteendi
ff
erent
cat
egor
ies.TheMBTIi
sapopul
ari
nst
rumentusedt
oassessper
sonal
i
tyt
ypes.I
tis
wi
del
yusedi
nsel
ect
ionpr
ocess.Asmanyast
womi
l
li
onpeopl
ear
erepor
tedt
obet
aki
ng
i
teachy
eari
ntheU.
S.Resear
chsuggestt
hatt
heMBTIi
sav
eryusef
ulmet
hodf
or
det
ermi
ningcommuni
cat
ionst
ylesandi
nter
act
ionpr
efer
ences.I
nter
msofper
sonal
i
ty
at
tr
ibut
es,
howev
er,
doubt
sexi
staboutt
hev
ali
dit
yandt
hest
abi
l
ityoft
hei
nst
rument
.
  Soci
abl
e-Ext
rov
ert
 I
ntr
over
t-Qui
te

 Pr
act
ical
–Sensi
ng

 I
ntui
ti
ve-Unconsci
ousPr
ocess

 Logi
cal
-Thi
nki
ng

 Feel
i
ng-Emot
ions

 Wor
kSt
ruct
ured-Judge

 Per
cei
vi
ng-Fl
exi
ble

Bi
gfi
ve-
per
sonal
i
tymodel

 EXTROVERSI
ON:
Out
goi
ng&Soci
abl
e

 AGREEABLENESS:
Cooper
ati
ve(
Aper
son’
sabi
l
ityt
ogetal
ongwi
theachot
her
)

 OPENNESSTOEXPERI
ENCES:
Imagi
nat
ive(
Aper
sonsr
angeofi
nter
est
s)

 CONSCI
ENTI
OUSNESS:Responsi
ble(
Thenumberofgoal
sthataper
sonf
ocuses
on)

 EMOTI
ONALSTABI
LITY:
Cal
m(Aper
son’
sabi
l
ityt
ocopeupwi
thSt
ress)

1.Ext
rov
ersi
on:Ref
erst
othe t
endency t
o be soci
abl
e,f
ri
endl
y,and expr
essi
ve.
Ext
rav
ersi
on,
orposi
ti
ve af
fect
ivi
ty,i
s one oft
he Bi
g Fi
ve per
sonal
i
tyt
rai
ts,and descr
ibes t
he
pr
edi
sposi
ti
on
ofi
ndi
vi
dual
stoexper
ienceposi
ti
veemot
ionalst
atesandf
eelgoodaboutt
hemsel
ves
andt
he
wor
ld.Ext
rov
ert
s ar
e mor
e soci
abl
e,af
fect
ionat
e,and f
ri
endl
ythan i
ntr
over
ts and
exper
ience
hi
gherl
evel
sofj
obsat
isf
act
ion.

2.Emot
ionalSt
abi
l
ity
:Ref
erst
othet
endencyt
oexper
ienceposi
ti
veemot
ionalst
ates.
Anot
her
Bi
g Fi
vet
rai
t,neur
oti
cism,ornegat
ive af
fect
ivi
ty,r
efer
sto peopl
e’
s di
sposi
ti
ons t
o
exper
ience
negat
iveemot
ional
stat
es,
feel
dist
ressed,
andv
iewt
hewor
ldar
oundt
hem negat
ivel
y.

3.Agr
eeabl
eness:
Bei
ngcour
teous,
for
giv
ing,
tol
erant
,tr
ust
ing,
andsel
f-
hear
ted.
Agr
eeabl
enessi
saBi
gFi
vet
rai
tcapt
uri
ngt
hedi
sti
nct
ionbet
weeni
ndi
vi
dual
swhoget
al
ong
wel
lwi
thot
her
sandt
hosewhodonot
.Indi
vi
dual
shi
ghi
nagr
eeabl
enessar
ecar
ing,
af
fect
ionat
e,and l
i
kabl
e,wher
easi
ndi
vi
dual
slow i
nthi
sdi
mensi
onar
eant
agoni
sti
c,
mi
str
ust
ful
,
unsy
mpat
het
ic,anduncooper
ati
ve.Agr
eeabl
enessi
sli
kel
ytocont
ri
but
etobei
ngat
eam
pl
ayer
andi
shel
pful
inf
ost
eri
nggoodwor
kingr
elat
ionshi
ps.

4.Consci
ent
iousness:I
sexhi
bit
edbyt
hosewhoar
edescr
ibedasdependabl
e,or
gani
zed,
and
r
esponsi
ble.

TheBi
gFi
vet
rai
tofconsci
ent
iousnessr
efer
stot
heext
entt
owhi
chani
ndi
vi
duali
s
car
eful
,
scr
upul
ous,
andper
sev
eri
ng.I
ndi
vi
dual
shi
ghont
hisdi
mensi
onar
eor
gani
zedandsel
f-
di
sci
pli
ned,wher
easi
ndi
vi
dual
slow i
nconsci
ent
iousnessmayl
ackdi
rect
ionandsel
f-
di
sci
pli
ne.
Consci
ent
iousnesshasbeenf
oundt
obeagoodpr
edi
ctorofper
for
mancei
nmanyj
obsi
n
a
wi
dev
ari
etyofor
gani
zat
ions.

5.Opennesst
oExper
ience:Ref
lect
stheext
entt
owhi
chani
ndi
vi
dualhasbr
oadi
nter
est
s
and
i
swi
l
li
ngt
obear
isk-
taker
.Opennesst
oexper
iencei
sat
rai
tthatr
efer
stot
heext
entt
o
whi
chan
i
ndi
vi
duali
sor
igi
nal
,i
sopent
oawi
dev
ari
etyofst
imul
i
,hasbr
oadi
nter
est
s,andi
swi
l
li
ng
t
o
t
aker
isks,
rat
hert
hanbei
ngnar
row-
mindedorcaut
ious.Foropennesst
oexper
iencet
obe
 t
ransl
atedi
ntocr
eat
iveandi
nnov
ati
vebehav
iori
nor
gani
zat
ions,t
heor
gani
zat
ionmust
r
emov
e
obst
acl
est
oinnov
ati
on

TheBi
gFi
veModel
Stabi
l
ityandv
ali
dit
yoft
heMBTImaybei
ndoubt
,butt
hesamecannot
besai
dfort
hef
ive-
fact
ormodel
ofper
sonal
i
ty—popul
arl
ycal
l
edt
he“
BigFi
ve”
.

Agr
eeabl
enessr
efer
stoaper
son’
sabi
l
ityt
ogetal
ongwi
thot
her
s.Hi
ghagr
eeabl
epeopl
e
v
aluehar
monymor
ethant
heyv
aluehav
ingt
hei
rsayort
hei
rway
.Theyar
ecooper
ati
ve
andt
rust
ingot
her
s.Peopl
ewhol
ow onagr
eeabl
enessf
ocusmor
eont
hei
rownneeds
t
hant
heneedsofar
eot
her
s.

Consci
ent
iousnessr
efer
stot
henumberofgoal
sonwhi
chaper
sonf
ocuses.A hi
gh
consci
ent
iousnessper
sonf
ocusesonr
elat
ivel
yfewgoal
satonet
ime.Heorshei
sli
kel
y
t
o be or
gani
sed;Sy
stemat
ic,car
eful
,thor
ough,r
esponsi
ble,sel
f-
disci
pli
ned,and
achi
evement
-or
ient
ed.Aper
sonwi
thl
owconsci
ent
ioust
endst
ofocusonamor
enumber
ofgoal
satonet
ime.Consequent
ly,t
hei
ndi
vi
duali
smor
edi
sor
gani
zed,car
elessand
i
rr
esponsi
ble,
aswel
lasl
esst
hor
oughandsel
f-
disci
pli
ned.

Emot
ionalst
abi
l
ityf
ocusesonani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sabi
l
ityt
ocopeupt
hest
ress.Thei
ndi
vi
dual
wi
thposi
ti
veemot
ionalst
abi
l
ityt
endst
obecal
m,ent
husi
ast
icandsecur
e.Heorshewi
th
negat
ivescor
etendst
obener
vous,
depr
essedandi
nsecur
e.

Ext
rov
ersi
onr
efl
ect
saper
son’
scomf
ortl
evelwi
thr
elat
ionshi
ps.Ext
rov
ert
sar
esoci
abl
e,
t
alkat
ive,
asser
ti
veandopent
oest
abl
i
shi
ngnewr
elat
ionshi
ps.I
ntr
over
tsar
elesssoci
abl
e,
l
esst
alkat
ive,
lessasser
ti
veandmor
erel
uct
antt
obegi
nnewr
elat
ionshi
ps.

Opennessaddr
essesone’
srangeofi
nter
est
s.Ext
remel
yopenpeopl
ear
efasci
nat
edby
nov
elt
yandi
nnov
ati
on.Theyar
ewi
l
li
ngt
oli
stent
onew i
deasandt
ochanget
hei
rown
i
deas,bel
i
efsandat
ti
tudesi
nresponset
onew i
nfor
mat
ion.Ont
heot
herhand,peopl
e
wi
thl
owl
evel
sofopennesst
endt
obel
essPer
sonal
i
tyAndAt
ti
tude

15.
Howcany
ouenhancey
ourper
sonal
i
ty?

Bea bet
terl
i
stener
. 
Jacquel
i
neKennedyOnassi
swasconsi
der
ed oneoft
hemost
char
mingwomeni
nthewor
ldbecauseshecul
ti
vat
edt
heski
l
lofbei
nganexcept
ional
l
i
stener
.Shewasknownf
ort
hewayshewoul
dlookaper
soni
ntheey
es,hangont
hei
r
ev
erywor
d,andmaket
hem f
eeli
mpor
tant
.Ther
eisnot
hingmor
eappeal
i
ngt
hanhav
ing
someonel
i
stent
oyoui
ntent
lymaki
ngy
ouf
eel
li
key
ou'
ret
heonl
yper
soni
nthewor
ld.
Readmor
eandexpandy
ouri
nter
est
s.Themor
eyour
eadandcul
ti
vat
enewi
nter
est
s,t
he
mor
e i
nter
est
ing 
you ar
eto ot
her
s.When y
ou meetnew peopl
eitgi
ves y
ou t
he
oppor
tuni
tyt
oshar
ewhaty
ouknowandt
oexchangey
ourv
iewswi
tht
hem.

 
Beagoodconv
ersat
ional
i
st.
 Thi
srel
atest
ohowmuchy
our
eadandknow.
 Oncey
ouhav
e
mucht
ocont
ri
but
e,l
ear
nhowt
otal
kabouti
twi
thot
her
s.Noonecanr
eadaboutorknow
ev
ery
thi
ng,soi
t'
sref
reshi
ngt
olear
nfr
om ot
her
sthoset
hingswedon'
thav
ethet
imet
o
aboutr
eadour
sel
ves.I
fyouhappent
obeshy
,joi
nagr
oupl
i
keToast
mast
erst
hat
encour
agesy
out
otal
kaboutwhaty
ouknow.

Hav
eanOpi
nion.
Ther
eisnot
hingmor
eti
resomet
hant
ryi
ngt
otal
ktosomeonewhohas
no opi
niononany
thi
ng.A conv
ersat
ionhasnowher
eto go i
fyouhav
enot
hing t
o
expoundon.I
f,howev
er,y
ouhav
eanuncommonpoi
ntofv
iewordi
ff
eri
ngopi
nion,y
ou
ar
emor
eint
erest
ingandst
imul
ati
ngt
obewi
thsoci
all
y(unl
essy
ou'
reaknow-
it
-al
l
,of
cour
se)
.Auni
queout
lookexpandsev
ery
one'
s 
per
spect
ive.

MeetNewPeopl
e. 
Maket
heef
for
ttomeetnewpeopl
eespeci
all
ythoseunl
i
key
ou.I
tnot
onl
yexposesy
out
odi
ff
erentcul
tur
esandal
ter
nat
iveway
sofdoi
ngt
hings,i
tbr
oadens
y
ourhor
izons.

Bey
our
sel
f.
 Thenextmostt
ir
esomet
hing af
terhav
ing no opi
nionsi
str
ying t
o be
somet
hingy
ou'
renot
.Mol
dingy
our
sel
finor
dert
ofi
tin,
orbeaccept
ed,
usual
l
ybackf
ir
es.
Si
nceeachofusi
s uni
que,expr
essi
ngt
hatuni
quenessi
swhatmakesusi
nter
est
ing.
At
tempt
ingt
obeacar
boncopyofsomeoneel
senotonl
yfal
l
sfl
at,butr
eveal
sal
ackof
aut
hent
ici
ty.

Hav
eaposi
ti
veout
lookandat
ti
tude.
 Whowant
stobear
oundpeopl
ewhoar
enegat
ive,
compl
ainal
ot,orhav
enot
hinggoodt
osay
?Inf
act
,mostofusr
unwhenweseet
hem
comi
ng.I
nst
ead,bet
heki
ndofupbeatper
sonwhol
i
ght
supar
oom wi
thy
ourener
gy
wheny
ouent
eri
t.Doi
tbyl
ooki
ngf
ort
hebesti
npeopl
eandt
hings.Smi
l
ewar
mly
,spr
ead
goodcheer
,andenl
i
venot
her
swi
thy
ourpr
esence.

Bef
unandseet
hehumor
oussi
deofl
i
fe.
 Ev
ery
oneenj
oyst
he 
companyofsomeonewho
makest
hem l
augh,orsmi
l
e,sol
ookf
ort
he 
humor
ous,qui
rkysi
dei
nasi
tuat
ion-t
her
e
al
way
sisone.Comi
crel
i
efi
samuchwel
comeandneededdi
ver
sionatt
imes.Wheny
ou
 canaddf
unandl
i
ght
hear
tednesst
oanot
her
wisedul
lorgl
oomyset
ti
ng,ot
her
swi
l
l
nat
ural
l
ybeat
tract
edt
oyou,
nott
oment
iongr
atef
ul.

Besuppor
ti
veofot
her
s. 
Bei
ngsuppor
ti
vei
spr
obabl
ythemostendear
ingqual
i
tyy
oucan
i
ntegr
atei
ntoy
ourper
sonal
i
ty.Justasy
ouy
our
sel
fwel
comei
t,bet
he 
suppor
t 
forot
her
s
whent
heyneedi
t.Weal
llov
eacheer
leaderi
nourcor
ner
;someonewhoi
sencour
agi
ng,
bel
i
evesi
nusandhel
pspi
ckusupwhenwe'
redown.

Hav
eInt
egr
it
yandt
reatpeopl
ewi
thr
espect
. 
Bei
nghonestandt
ruet
oyourwor
dwi
l
l
br
ingy
out
headmi
rat
ion,r
espectandgr
ati
tudeofot
her
s.Not
hingi
mpr
ovesaper
son'
s
per
sonal
i
tymor
ethan 
i
ntegr
it
y andr
espect-r
espectf
orot
her
s,aswel
lasr
espectf
or
y
our
sel
f.

16.
Expl
aint
hef
act
orsaf
fect
ingper
sonal
i
ty?

Her
edi
tyTher
oleofher
edi
tyi
nthedev
elopmentofper
sonal
i
tyi
sanol
dar
gumenti
n
per
sonal
i
tyt
heor
y.Her
edi
tyr
efer
stot
hosef
act
orst
hatwer
edet
ermi
nedatconcept
ion.
Phy
sicalst
atur
e,f
aci
alat
tract
iveness,
ener
gyl
evel
,muscl
ecomposi
ti
onandr
efl
exesand
bi
ologi
calr
hyt
hmsar
echar
act
eri
sti
cst
hatar
egener
all
yconsi
der
edt
obei
mpor
tedei
ther
compl
etel
yorsubst
ant
ial
l
ybyone’
spar
ent
s.Theher
edi
tyappr
oachar
guest
hatt
he
ul
ti
mat
eexpl
anat
ionofani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sper
sonal
i
tyi
sthemol
ecul
arst
ruct
ureoft
hegenes,
l
ocat
edi
nthechr
omosomeswhi
chcont
aint
housandsofgenes,whi
chseem t
obe
t
ransmi
tt
ersoft
rai
ts.Ther
oleofher
edi
tyonper
sonal
i
tydev
elopmenti
sst
il
lanunset
tl
ed
ar
eaofunder
standi
ng.Thepr
obl
em i
sthatgenet
ici
stsf
aceamaj
orobst
acl
eingat
her
ing
i
nfor
mat
ionsci
ent
if
ical
l
yont
hehumanbei
ng.Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
her
oleofher
edi
tyon
per
sonal
i
tydev
elopmentcannotbet
otal
l
ymi
nimi
zed.Phy
sicalat
tr
ibut
es,f
ori
nst
ance,
maybel
argel
yat
tri
but
edt
oher
edi
ty.

Thef
oll
owi
ngcl
assi
fi
cat
ionofchar
act
eri
sti
csi
ssai
dtobei
nher
it
edbyal
lhumans

a.Phy
sicalSt
ruct
ure(
howt
all
orshor
tonei
s,whet
heronehasal
ongorshor
tnose,
lar
ge
orsmal
lfeet—br
ief
ly,
howonei
sputt
oget
her
)

b.Ref
lexes(
dir
ectr
esponset
ost
imul
i
,suchaswi
thdr
awi
ngf
rom api
npr
ick,bl
i
nki
ng
whensomet
hingappr
oachest
heey
e)
c.I
nnat
edr
ives(
impul
sest
oactbasedonphy
siol
ogi
calt
ensi
ons;butt
hesemustbe
l
i
nkedt
hroughl
ear
ningwi
thact
ivi
ti
eswhi
chwi
l
lreducet
het
ensi
ons)

d.I
ntel
l
igence(
thecapaci
tyt
olear
n,t
omodi
fyr
esponses)

e.Temper
ament(
pat
ter
nedandr
ecur
rentr
esponsesassoci
atedwi
thbasi
cemot
ional
makeupf
ore.
g.-phl
egmat
ic,
exci
tabl
eandorl
ethar
gic)

i
i
.Env
ironment

I
fal
lper
sonal
i
tychar
act
eri
sti
cswer
ebyher
edi
ty,t
heywoul
dbef
ixedatbi
rt
handno
amountofexper
iencecoul
dal
tert
hem.Per
sonal
i
tydev
elopmentowesasmucht
o
env
ironmentasi
tdoest
oher
edi
ty.Env
ironmenti
sabr
oadt
erm andi
ncl
udessuch
f
act
orsascul
tur
e.Cul
tur
eest
abl
i
shesnor
ms,
att
it
udesandv
aluest
hatar
epassedal
ong
f
rom onegener
ati
ont
othenextandcr
eat
econsi
stenci
esov
ert
ime.Ant
hropol
ogi
sts,t
o
whom cul
tur
easasubj
ectbel
ongs,
hav
ecl
ear
lydemonst
rat
edt
hei
mpor
tantr
olecul
tur
e
pl
aysi
nthedev
elopmentoft
hehumanper
sonal
i
ty.Whi
l
egr
owi
ng,t
hechi
l
dlear
nst
o
behav
einway
sexpect
edbyt
hecul
tur
eoft
hef
ami
l
yint
owhi
cht
hebabywasbor
n.Most
cul
tur
esex
pectdi
ff
erentbehav
iourf
rom mal
est
hanf
rom f
emal
es.Ev
erycul
tur
ehasi
ts
own subcul
tur
es,each wi
thi
ts own v
iews aboutsuch qual
i
ties as mor
alv
alues,
st
andar
dsofcl
eanl
i
ness,st
yleofdr
essanddef
ini
ti
onsofsuccess.Thecul
tur
alsub-
gr
oup exer
tsi
tsi
nfl
uence on per
sonal
i
ty.Al
lboy
s ar
e expect
ed t
o show cer
tai
n
per
sonal
i
tychar
act
eri
sti
cs(
ascompar
edwi
thgi
rl
s),butapoorboyr
aisedi
nanur
ban
sl
um i
sexpect
edt
obehav
edi
ff
erent
lyi
nsomer
espect
sthanawel
l
-to-
dor
aisedi
na
mi
ddl
e cl
ass subur
b.Al
though cul
tur
e has si
gni
fi
cant i
nfl
uence on per
sonal
i
ty
dev
elopment
,li
nearr
elat
ionshi
pcannotbeest
abl
i
shedbet
weenper
sonal
i
tyandt
hegi
ven
cul
tur
e,f
or2r
easons:a.Thecul
tur
eimpact
suponani
ndi
vi
dualar
enotuni
for
m,because
t
heyar
etr
ansmi
tt
edbycer
tai
npeopl
e-par
ent
sandot
her
swhoar
enotal
lal
i
kei
nthei
r
v
aluesandpr
act
ices.b.Thei
ndi
vi
dualhassomeexper
iencest
hatar
euni
que.Each
i
ndi
vi
dualr
eact
sinhi
sownwayt
osoci
alpr
essur
es,di
ff
erencesi
nbehav
iourbei
ng
causedbybi
ologi
cal
fact
ors.

i
i
i.Cont
ri
but
ionf
rom t
hef
ami
l
yThef
ami
l
yhasconsi
der
abl
einf
luenceonper
sonal
i
ty
dev
elopment
,par
ti
cul
arl
yint
heear
lyst
ages.Thepar
ent
spl
ayani
mpor
tantpar
tint
he
i
dent
if
icat
ion pr
ocesswhi
ch i
simpor
tantt
o an i
ndi
vi
dual
’
sear
lydev
elopment
.The
pr
ocesscanbeexami
nedf
rom t
hreedi
ff
erentper
spect
ives:a.Fi
rst
,ident
if
icat
ioncanbe
v
iewedast
hesi
mil
ari
tyofbehav
iour(
incl
udi
ngf
eel
i
ngsandat
ti
tudesbet
weenchi
l
dand
model
)b.Second,i
dent
if
icat
ioncanbel
ookeduponast
hechi
l
d’smot
ivesordesi
rest
o
bel
i
ket
hemodel
.c.Thi
rd,
ident
if
icat
ioncanbev
iewedast
hepr
ocesst
hroughwhi
cht
he
chi
l
dact
ual
l
ytakesont
heat
tri
but
esoft
hemodel
.Theov
eral
lhomeenv
ironmentcr
eat
ed
byt
hepar
ent
s,i
naddi
ti
ont
othei
rdi
recti
nfl
uence,i
scr
it
icalt
oper
sonal
i
tydev
elopment
.
Si
bli
ngs(
brot
her
sandsi
ster
s)al
socont
ri
but
etoper
sonal
i
ty.I
thasbeenar
guedt
hat
,
si
bli
ng posi
ti
on i
s an i
mpor
tantpsy
chol
ogi
calv
ari
abl
e because i
trepr
esent
sa
mi
crocosm oft
hesi
gni
fi
cantsoci
alexper
ienceofadol
escenceandadul
thood.I
tis
ar
guedt
hatt
hosef
ir
stbor
nar
emor
epr
onet
obeschi
zophr
eni
c,mor
esuscept
ibl
eto
soci
alpr
essur
esandmor
edependentt
hant
hosel
ater
-bor
n.Thef
ir
stbor
nar
eal
somor
e
l
i
kel
ytoexper
iencet
hewor
ldasmor
eor
der
ly,pr
edi
ctabl
eandr
ati
onalt
hanl
ater
-bor
n
chi
l
dren.

i
v.Soci
ali
zat
ionpr
ocessTher
eisgr
eat
err
eal
i
zat
iont
hatot
herr
elev
antper
sons,gr
oups
andor
gani
zat
ionsexer
ciset
hei
rduer
olei
nper
sonal
i
tydev
elopment
.Thi
siscommonl
y
cal
l
edt
hesoci
ali
zat
ionpr
ocess.I
tisespeci
all
yrel
evantt
oor
gani
zat
ionalbehav
iour
,
becauset
hepr
ocessi
snotconf
inedt
oear
lychi
l
dhood,r
athert
aki
ngpl
acet
hroughout
one’
sli
fe.I
npar
ti
cul
ar,ev
idencei
saccumul
ati
ngt
hat
,soci
ali
zat
ionmaybeoneoft
he
bestexpl
anat
ionsofwhyempl
oyeesbehav
ethewayt
heydoi
ntoday
’sor
gani
zat
ions.
Soci
ali
zat
ionsi
nvol
vest
hepr
ocessbywhi
chaper
sonacqui
res,f
rom t
heenor
mousl
y
wi
der
angeofbehav
iour
alpot
ent
ial
i
tiest
hatar
eopent
ohi
m orher
,st
art
ingatbi
rt
h,
t
hosebehav
iourpat
ter
nst
hatar
ecust
omar
yandaccept
abl
etot
hest
andar
dsof
,ini
ti
al’
,
t
hef
ami
l
y,andl
atert
hesoci
algr
oupandt
heempl
oyi
ngor
gani
zat
ion.Thus,
soci
ali
zat
ion
st
art
swi
tht
hei
nit
ialcont
actbet
weenmot
herandhernew i
nfant
.Af
teri
nfancy
,ot
her
member
sofi
mmedi
atef
ami
l
y(f
ather
,br
other
s,si
ster
sandcl
oser
elat
ivesorf
ri
ends)
f
oll
owedbyt
hesoci
algr
oup(
peer
s,schoolf
ri
endsandmember
soft
hewor
kinggr
oup)
pl
ayi
nfl
uent
ialr
oles.v
.Si
tuat
ionalconsi
der
ati
onsAbov
edet
ermi
nant
sdi
scussedar
eno
doubti
mpor
tantt
o per
sonal
i
ty,buti
tmustber
ecogni
zedt
hat
,iti
sthei
mmedi
ate
si
tuat
ion whi
ch may pr
edomi
nat
efi
nal
l
y.Whi
l
eitseems l
ogi
calt
o suppose t
hat
,
si
tuat
ionswi
l
linf
luenceani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sper
sonal
i
ty,aneatcl
assi
fi
cat
ionschemet
hat
woul
dtel
lust
hei
mpactofv
ari
oust
ypesofsi
tuat
ionshassof
arel
udedus.Howev
er.we
doknowt
hatcer
tai
nsi
tuat
ionsar
emor
erel
evantt
hanot
her
sini
nfl
uenci
ngper
sonal
i
ty.
Whati
s oft
axonomi
cal
l
y,wr
ote Lee Sechr
est
,ist
hatsi
tuat
ions seems t
o di
ff
er
subst
ant
ial
l
yint
heconst
rai
ntst
heyi
mposeonbehav
iourwi
thsomesi
tuat
ions,e.
g.
chur
ch.const
rai
ningmanybehav
iour
sandot
her
s,e.
g.,api
cni
cinapubl
i
cpar
k—
 const
rai
ningr
elat
ivef
ew.Fr
om t
heabov
edi
scussi
on,i
tiscl
eart
hatper
sonal
i
tyi
sa
compl
exconceptt
hatr
efl
ect
smanyi
nfl
uencesbot
hwi
thi
nandout
sidet
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.
Per
sonal
i
typr
ogr
essest
hroughi
dent
if
iabl
est
agesandnev
err
eal
l
yst
opsdev
elopi
ng.
Onecan,howev
er,exami
neper
sonal
i
tyatanypoi
nti
nti
mewi
thi
nit
sdev
elopment
al
sequencei
nor
dert
ocompar
eandcont
rasti
ndi
vi
dual
per
sonal
i
ties.

17.
Expl
aint
hel
ear
ningt
heor
ies

Lear
ningTheor
ies

I
nanor
gani
zat
ion,empl
oyeeshav
etol
ear
nandpr
act
icepr
oduct
ivewor
kbehav
iour
s.
Themanager
’st
aski
stopr
ovi
desuf
fi
cientl
ear
ningexper
iencest
oempl
oyeesi
nan
env
ironmentt
hatwi
l
lfaci
l
itat
elear
ning pr
ocess and pr
omot
e desi
red behav
iour
s.
Tr
aini
ngpr
epar
esempl
oyeest
omeett
hechal
l
engesoft
hej
ob,f
orwhi
chi
ncent
ivesar
e
t
obepr
ovi
dedt
olear
nandpr
act
icer
ightbehav
iour
s.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethei
mpor
tant
t
heor
iesofl
ear
ning.

Cl
assi
cal
Condi
ti
oni
ng

Cl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ngi
sthepr
ocessbywhi
chi
ndi
vi
dual
slear
ntol
i
nkt
hei
nfor
mat
ion
f
rom aneut
ralst
imul
ust
oast
imul
ust
hatcausesar
esponse.Thi
sresponsemaynotbe
underani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sconsci
ouscont
rol
.Pav
lov
,inhi
sexper
iment
s,hangedsomemeati
n
f
rontofdogs.Thi
smeati
suncondi
ti
onedst
imul
usorunl
ear
nedst
imul
us.Thedogs
r
esponded t
othi
sst
imul
usbysal
i
vat
ing.Thi
ski
nd ofr
esponsewasi
nst
inct
iveor
uncondi
ti
oned.Af
ter
war
dsPav
lovst
art
edt
ori
ngabel
latt
hesamet
imewhenmeatwas
of
fer
ed.Ri
ngi
ngt
hebel
lwi
thoutof
ferofmeatwasnotconnect
edt
oanyr
esponses.
Howev
er,byr
ingi
ngt
hebel
lev
eryt
imewhenmeatwasof
fer
ed,Pav
lovest
abl
i
sheda
r
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
het
wost
imul
ithati
sthebel
landt
hemeat
.Wi
tht
hecont
inuat
ion
oft
hepr
ocess,
ther
ingi
ngoft
hebel
lal
oneact
edl
i
keast
imul
ust
oev
oket
her
esponseof
sal
i
vat
ingev
enwi
thoutpr
esent
ati
onofmeat
.Asar
esul
t,t
hebel
lbecameacondi
ti
oned
st
imul
usl
eadi
ngt
ocondi
ti
onedr
esponse.

Oper
antCondi
ti
oni
ng

B.
F.Ski
nnercoi
ned t
he t
erm oper
antcondi
ti
oni
ng t
oref
ert
o a pr
ocessbywhi
ch
i
ndi
vi
dual
slear
nvol
unt
arybehav
iour
.Vol
unt
arybehav
iour
sar
ecal
l
edoper
antbecause
t
heyoper
ateorhav
esomei
nfl
uenceont
heenv
ironment
.Lear
ningoccur
sfr
om t
he
consequences of behav
iour
,and many empl
oyee wor
k behav
iour
s ar
e oper
ant
behav
iour
s.Asamat
teroff
act
,mostbehav
iour
sinev
ery
dayl
i
fear
efor
msofoper
ant
behav
iour
.Manager
sar
eint
erest
edi
noper
antbehav
iour
sbecauset
heycani
nfl
uencet
he
r
esul
ts ofsuch behav
iour
s.On t
he basi
s oft
he di
rectr
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween t
he
consequencesandbehav
iour
,themanagementcani
dent
if
yther
elat
ionshi
pandt
ryt
o
modi
fyt
hebehav
iour
.Thati
show t
hebehav
iourcanbecont
rol
l
edbymani
pul
ati
ngi
ts
consequences.Twopr
inci
plesgui
det
hisr
elat
ionshi
p.-Thebehav
iourt
hatr
esul
tsi
n
posi
ti
ver
ewar
dsi
sli
kel
ytober
epeat
edandbehav
iourwi
thnegat
iveconsequencesi
s
l
i
kel
ytobeext
ingui
shed.-Basedonsuchconsequences,
thebehav
iourcanbepr
edi
cted
andcont
rol
l
ed.Ther
efor
e,someconsequencescanbeusedt
oincr
easet
her
ecur
renceof
desi
red behav
iourand some ot
herconsequences can be used t
o decr
ease t
he
r
ecur
renceofundesi
redbehav
iour
.

Pr
inci
pleofRei
nfor
cement

Weunder
standt
hatsomebehav
iour
sar
est
rengt
henedbyt
hepr
ocessofr
einf
orcement
.
Rei
nfor
cermaybeanyst
imul
ust
hatpr
ompt
sabehav
iourt
ober
epeat
edorst
opped.
Management
sexpectt
hatt
heempl
oyeeshoul
dbehav
einadesi
rabl
emanneri
nthe
or
gani
zat
ionandav
oidundesi
rabl
ebehav
iour
.Byt
heappr
opr
iat
euseofr
einf
orcer
s,t
he
or
gani
zat
ionsar
eabl
etomai
ntai
nori
ncr
easet
hepr
obabi
l
ityofbehav
iour
sli
kequal
i
ty
or
ient
edper
for
mance,wi
sedeci
sionmaki
ng,r
egul
arat
tendanceandpunct
ual
i
tyandso
on.Somer
einf
orcer
swor
kbyt
hei
rappl
i
cat
iont
oasi
tuat
ionwher
easot
herr
einf
orcer
s
wor
kbyt
hei
rremov
alf
rom t
hissi
tuat
ion.

Posi
ti
veRei
nfor
cement

Posi
ti
ver
einf
orcementi
spr
ovi
dedbyof
fer
ingr
ewar
dsf
ordesi
redbehav
iour
s.Such
r
ewar
dsshoul
dbepower
fulanddur
abl
esoast
oincr
easet
hepr
obabi
l
ityofoccur
rence
ofdesi
rabl
ebehav
iour
.Money
,asy
ouunder
stand,i
sthemostpower
fulr
einf
orcement
f
orposi
ti
vebehav
ioursi
ncemoneycanbeusedf
oranumberofot
herpur
poses.Some
ot
herposi
ti
ver
einf
orcer
s ar
erecogni
ti
on f
orgood per
for
mance,chal
l
engi
ng t
ask,
par
ti
cipat
ioni
ndeci
si
onmaki
ngandsoon.Asi
ndi
vi
dual
shav
edi
ff
erentmot
ivat
ionsof
per
for
mance,posi
ti
ver
einf
orcer
sshoul
dbei
ndi
vi
dual
l
ytai
l
oredwi
thav
iewt
ofaci
l
itat
e
t
he r
epet
it
ion ofdesi
red behav
iour
.Thatmeans r
einf
orcermustbe v
alued byt
he
empl
oyee.Forexampl
e,moneywoul
dbeal
essr
einf
orcerwhov
aluespr
aisef
orhi
s
per
for
mancemor
e.Ther
ewar
dmustbedi
rect
lyl
i
nkedwi
thbehav
ioursot
hatt
hehi
gher
t
heper
for
manceofanempl
oyee,
thegr
aterwoul
dbet
her
ewar
d.

Negat
iveRei
nfor
cement

I
nnegat
iver
einf
orcement
,anunpl
easantev
entt
hatpr
ecedest
heempl
oyeebehav
iouri
s
r
emov
edwhent
hedesi
redbehav
iouroccur
s.Thi
spr
ocedur
eincr
easest
hel
i
kel
i
hoodof
t
hedesi
redbehav
iourt
ofol
l
ow.Negat
iver
einf
orcementi
ssomet
imesconf
usedwi
th
puni
shmentbecause bot
h use unpl
easantev
ent
stoi
nfl
uence behav
iour
.Howev
er,
negat
iver
einf
orcementi
susedt
oincr
easet
hef
requencyofadesi
redbehav
iour
,wher
eas
puni
shmenti
susedt
odecr
easet
hef
requencyofanundesi
redbehav
iour
.Manager
s
f
requent
lyusenegat
iver
einf
orcementwhenanempl
oyeehasn’
tdonesomet
hingt
hati
s
desi
red.

Omi
ssi
on

Omi
ssi
oni
sther
emov
alofal
lrei
nfor
cingev
ent
s.Whi
l
erei
nfor
cementi
ncr
easest
he
f
requencyofadesi
rabl
ebehav
iour
,omi
ssi
ondecr
easest
hef
requencyandev
ent
ual
l
y
ext
ingui
shesanundesi
rabl
ebehav
iour
.Manager
suseomi
ssi
ont
oreduceundesi
rabl
e
empl
oyeebehav
iour
sthatobst
ructachi
evementofor
gani
zat
ionalgoal
s.Theomi
ssi
on
pr
ocedur
e consi
sts oft
hree st
eps.1.i
dent
if
ying t
he behav
iourt
o be r
educed or
el
i
minat
ed,
2.i
dent
if
yingt
her
einf
orcert
hatmai
ntai
nst
hebehav
iour
,and 3.st
oppi
ngt
he
r
einf
orcer
.Omi
ssi
on i
s a usef
ult
echni
que f
orr
educi
ng and ev
ent
ual
l
yel
i
minat
ing
behav
iour
sthatdi
sruptnor
mal
wor
kfl
ow.

Puni
shment

Puni
shmenti
sanunpl
easantev
entt
hatf
oll
owsabehav
iouranddecr
easesi
tsf
requency
.
Asi
nposi
ti
ver
einf
orcement
,apuni
shmentmayi
ncl
udeaspeci
fi
cant
ecedentt
hatcues
t
heempl
oyeet
hataconsequencewi
l
lfol
l
ow aspeci
fi
cbehav
iour
.Whi
l
eaposi
ti
ve
consequenceofr
einf
orcementencour
agest
hef
requencyofadesi
red behav
iour
,a
consequence ofpuni
shmentdecr
eases t
he f
requency ofan undesi
red behav
iour
.
Or
gani
zat
ionst
ypi
cal
l
yusesev
eral
typesofunpl
easantev
ent
stopuni
shi
ndi
vi
dual
s.They
maybeawagecut
,asuspensi
onwi
thoutpay
,ademot
ion,orat
ransf
er.Thesev
ere
puni
shment i
sthe di
smi
ssi
ng an empl
oyee f
or f
ail
uret
o per
for
m.I
n gener
al,
or
gani
zat
ionsusepuni
shment
sofunpl
easantnat
urespar
ingl
yforcasesofser
ious
behav
iour
alpr
obl
ems.I
tmaybekepti
nmi
ndt
hatpuni
shmentshoul
dbeusedasal
ost
r
esor
t.Theuseofpuni
shmentshoul
dbel
i
mit
edt
othoseundesi
rabl
ebehav
iour
sthat
causeasi
gni
fi
cantdamaget
otheor
gani
zat
ionaloper
ati
ons.I
tmayal
sober
emember
ed
t
hatpuni
shmentshoul
dnotl
eadt
ohost
il
it
ytosuchanext
entofmaki
ngsol
uti
onmor
e
har
mfult
hant
hepr
obl
em i
tsel
f.Puni
shmentmaycauseundesi
rabl
eemot
ionalr
eact
ions.
Anempl
oyeewhohasbeenr
epr
imandedf
orami
stakemayr
eactwi
thangert
owar
dthe
managerandt
heor
gani
zat
ion.Suchr
eact
ionsmayl
eadt
oret
ali
ator
ybehav
iourhar
mful
t
otheor
gani
zat
ion.Sabot
age,y
our
emember
,ty
pical
l
yisar
esul
tofapuni
shment
-
or
ient
ed management sy
stem.I
tis cl
ear t
hat puni
shment l
eads t
o shor
t-
ter
m
suppr
essi
onoft
heundesi
rabl
ebehav
iour
,rat
hert
hant
oit
sel
i
minat
ion.Fur
ther
,the
puni
shedi
ndi
vi
dualmaydev
elopat
endencyofav
oidi
ngt
hesi
tuat
ion.Hi
ghabsent
eei
sm
i
saf
orm ofav
oidanceandqui
tt
ingi
sthef
inalf
orm ofescape.Youshoul
dal
sonot
ethat
puni
shment suppr
esses empl
oyee i
nit
iat
ive and f
lexi
bil
i
ty.Ov
erusi
ng puni
shment
pr
oduces apat
het
ic empl
oyees,who ar
e notasset
sto an or
gani
zat
ion.Sust
ained
puni
shmentcanal
sol
eadt
olow sel
f-
est
eem.Low sel
f-
est
eem,i
ntur
n,under
minest
he
empl
oyee’
ssel
fconf
idence,
whi
chi
snecessar
yforper
for
mingmostoft
hej
obs.

UNI
T3

Mot
ivat
ion/Gr
oupDy
nami
cs

1.Wr
it
eabr
iefnot
eonmot
ivat
ionconcept

Mot
ivat
ioni
sasetoff
orcest
hatmakesani
ndi
vi
dualt
obehav
einacer
tai
nway
t
owar
dsat
tai
ning/achi
evi
ngagoal
.Mot
ivat
ioni
sdef
inedas“
innerbur
ningpassi
on
causedbyneed,want
sanddesi
rewhi
chpr
opel
sani
ndi
vi
dualt
oexer
thi
sphy
sical
andment
alener
gyt
oachi
evedesi
redobj
ect
ives”
.

Scotdef
inedmot
ivat
ionas“
apr
ocessofst
imul
ati
ngpeopl
etoact
iont
oaccompl
i
sh
desi
redgoal
s”.McFar
landhasdef
ined“
mot
ivat
ionast
hewayi
nwhi
chur
ges,
dri
ves,
desi
res,
aspi
rat
ions,
str
ivi
ngsneedsdi
rect
,cont
rol
orexpl
aint
hebehav
iourofhuman
bei
ngs”
.
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

Pr
ocessofmot
ivat
ion:

I
ftheneedormot
ivei
snotf
ulf
il
ledaper
sonr
emai
nsr
est
lessandwhenf
ulf
il
leda
per
sonenj
oysacer
tai
ndegr
eeofsat
isf
act
ion.Cer
tai
namountoft
ensi
oni
shar
bor
edby
aper
sonwhenneedexi
sts.I
fincent
ivesf
oraccompl
i
shi
ngar
egi
ven,
theper
soni
smor
e
ent
husi
ast
icf
ori
tsi
mpl
ement
ati
on.Gr
eat
ert
hemot
ive,
great
eri
sthet
ensi
onandhi
gher
t
hedesi
ret
oful
fi
ll
.Ahi
ghdegr
eeofsat
isf
act
ioni
sexper
iencedbyani
ndi
vi
dual
oncet
he
desi
rei
sful
fi
ll
ed.Oncet
hisi
sdone(
duet
o hi
ghermot
ivat
ion)t
hei
ndi
vi
dualand
or
gani
zat
ional
obj
ect
ive(
growt
h)i
sachi
eved.

I
mpor
tanceofmot
ivat
ioni
nor
gani
sat
ions:

Manager
smustcr
eat
esi
tuat
ionswher
einaper
son/
empl
oyeei
sst
imul
atedt
ounder
take
act
ivi
ti
est
hatmaymot
ivat
e hi
m t
o achi
eve hi
ghergoal
s.Cr
eat
ing a si
tuat
ion by
al
l
evi
ati
ngr
est
lessnessofawor
ker
.Toachi
evehi
ghergoal
saper
sonshoul
dwor
kso
t
hatt
her
est
lessnessi
sreducedandl
aterr
emov
ed.Thi
sispossi
blewhenwor
kerf
eel
s
t
oachi
evesomet
hinganddi
ver
tal
lhi
sener
giest
owar
dsachi
evement
.Thi
spr
ocess
coul
d be cal
l
ed mot
ivat
ing subor
dinat
es.Leadercan cont
inuousl
yident
if
y such
si
tuat
ionsi
nthewor
kenv
ironmentandmot
ivat
ehi
ssubor
dinat
esf
orsel
f-
dev
elopment
andor
gani
zat
ional
growt
h.

Hi
ghl
evelofper
for
mance:Hi
ghl
ymot
ivat
edwor
ker
swoul
dber
egul
arf
orwor
k,and
hav
easenseofbel
ongi
ngf
ort
heor
gani
zat
ion.Qual
i
tyofpr
oductwi
l
lbei
mpr
oved,
wast
agewi
l
lbemi
nimum andt
her
ewi
l
lbei
ncr
easei
npr
oduct
ivi
ty,andper
for
mance
l
evel
wil
lbehi
gh.
Low empl
oyee t
urnov
erand absent
eei
sm:Empl
oyee t
urnov
erand absent
eei
sm i
s
causedduet
olowl
evelofmot
ivat
ionont
hepar
tofmanager
s.Whendi
ssat
isf
act
ioni
s
i
ncr
easedempl
oyeesdonotenj
oyt
hewor
kassi
gnedt
othem.Ther
efor
ether
eisa
t
endencyofabsent
eei
sm.Mot
ivat
ioni
sther
efor
eav
eryi
mpor
tantmanagementt
oolt
o
achi
eveor
gani
zat
ional
excel
l
ence
Accept
anceofor
gani
zat
ionchange:Managementmustensur
ethatt
hechangesar
eint
roducedi
n
t
heor
gani
zat
ionandi
tsbenef
it
sexpl
ainedt
otheempl
oyeessot
hatt
her
eisnor
esi
stancet
o
changeandor
gani
zat
ionalgr
owt
hisachi
eved.Techni
cali
nnov
ati
on,bet
terwor
kingcondi
ti
ons,
bet
terR&Df
aci
l
iti
es,encour
agementt
oempl
oyeesandexi
stenceofbet
terper
sonalpol
i
cies
shoul
dbepar
tofanyor
gani
zat
ion.Thi
swi
l
lfaci
l
itat
eret
ent
ionofempl
oyees.

Or
gani
zat
ionali
mage:Empl
oyeesar
ethemi
rr
orsofanyor
gani
zat
ion.Manager
smust
l
aydownhi
ghper
for
mancest
andar
dscoupl
edwi
thhi
ghmonet
aryandnonmonet
ary
r
ewar
ds.Hi
ghor
gani
zat
ionali
magewi
l
lcont
ri
but
etowar
dsbr
andi
mageoft
hepr
oduct
andser
vicest
heor
gani
zat
ioni
smar
ket
ing.

2.Enumer
atet
het
ypesofmot
ivat
ioni
ndet
ail

Mot
ivat
ioncanbegi
veni
nthewor
kpl
acesasf
inanci
alandnon-
fi
nanci
almet
hods.
Fi
nanci
almot
ivat
iondi
rect
lyi
nvol
vesmonet
aryr
ewar
ds.Somedi
rect
lypr
ovi
det
he
empl
oyeewi
thcash.
E.
g.basesal
ary
,bonuses,andcommi
ssi
ons.Somear
eindi
rectpay
mentbyt
hecash,
e.
g.,
benef
it
s

BaseSal
ary-Or
gani
zat
ionspayaf
ixedr
ateofr
emuner
ati
ont
oit
sempl
oyeesf
or
r
ender
ingser
vicest
othef
ir
ms.

Bonus-I
naddi
ti
ont
obasesal
arymostofpr
ofi
tsear
ningor
gani
zat
ionsappl
ysome
v
ari
eti
es ofbonuses as an i
ncent
ivet
o br
ing aboutsuper
iorper
for
mance oft
he
empl
oyeeswi
thi
ntheor
gani
zat
ion.Empl
oyeesar
eent
it
ledf
orbonusei
therannual
l
yor
semi
annual
l
y.

Benef
it
s-Benef
it
sar
erecur
ri
ngnoncashr
ewar
dst
hatadeemedt
obepar
tofbasepay
.
Sev
eralcomponent
scomeunderi
t.SuchasAdopt
ionl
eav
e,Car
eercounsel
l
ing,Chi
l
d
car
e,Caral
l
owances,
Busi
nesst
rav
eli
nsur
ance,
Clot
hingal
l
owancesandet
c.

Non-
fi
nanci
almot
ivat
ionr
efer
stonon-
monet
aryr
ewar
ds.Theset
ypesofr
ewar
dsdo
noti
nvol
vedi
rectpay
mentofcashandt
heycanbet
angi
bleori
ntangi
ble.Nonf
inanci
al
mot
ivat
ionar
erewar
dst
hatf
ocusont
heneedspeopl
ehav
etov
ary
ingdegr
eesf
or
achi
evement
,recogni
ti
on,
responsi
bil
i
ty,
inf
luenceandper
sonalgr
owt
hrewar
dst
hatar
e
non-
fi
nanci
ali
nnat
ure,
suchast
hepr
ovi
sionofani
ncr
easei
nhol
i
day
s,andi
ncr
easesi
n
f
ami
l
ybenef
it
s,cont
ri
but
etowar
dst
heempl
oyeeper
cei
vi
nghi
s/herwor
kpl
aceasa
‘
suppor
ti
ngandcar
ing’
organi
zat
ion.
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS
Nonf
inanci
almot
ivat
iont
echni
quesar
e:

Recogni
ti
on-Recogni
ti
oni
sappr
eci
ati
onofper
for
mancebyt
heor
gani
zat
ionofanact
donebyt
het
eam ort
eam member
.

Responsi
bil
i
ty-Theempl
oyeesneedt
heempl
oyert
ofeelt
hatt
heyar
eusef
ulandhav
e
abi
l
iti
est
odosev
eralt
asks.Tosat
isf
ythei
rneeds,t
heempl
oyercani
ncr
easeoradd
mor
eresponsi
bil
i
tiest
otheempl
oyeest
oincr
easet
hei
rsel
f-
est
eem.

Fl
exi
blewor
kschedul
es–Fl
exi
-t
imei
sawor
kschedul
einwhi
chempl
oyeessett
hei
r
ownwor
khour
swi
thi
nsetboundar
ies.

Feedback-Per
for
mancef
eedbacki
sdef
inedaspr
ovi
dingquant
it
ati
veorqual
i
tat
ive
i
nfor
mat
ion on pastper
for
mance f
ort
he pur
pose ofchangi
ng ormai
ntai
ning
per
for
mancei
nspeci
fi
cway
s

3.Di
ff
erent
iat
emonet
aryandnon-
monet
arymot
ivat
ion

Mot
ivat
ioncanbegi
veni
nthewor
kpl
acesasf
inanci
alandnonf
inanci
almet
hods.
Fi
nanci
almot
ivat
iondi
rect
lyi
nvol
vesmonet
aryr
ewar
ds.Somedi
rect
lypr
ovi
det
he
empl
oyeewi
thcash.
E.
g.basesal
ary
,bonuses,andcommi
ssi
ons.Somear
eindi
rectpay
mentbyt
hecash,
e.
g.,
benef
it
s

BaseSal
ary-Or
gani
zat
ionspayaf
ixedr
ateofr
emuner
ati
ont
oit
sempl
oyeesf
or
r
ender
ingser
vicest
othef
ir
ms.

Bonus-I
naddi
ti
ont
obasesal
arymostofpr
ofi
tsear
ningor
gani
zat
ionsappl
ysome
v
ari
eti
es ofbonuses as an i
ncent
ivet
o br
ing aboutsuper
iorper
for
mance oft
he
empl
oyeeswi
thi
ntheor
gani
zat
ion.Empl
oyeesar
eent
it
ledf
orbonusei
therannual
l
yor
semi
annual
l
y.

Benef
it
s-Benef
it
sar
erecur
ri
ngnoncashr
ewar
dst
hatadeemedt
obepar
tofbasepay
.
Sev
eralcomponent
scomeunderi
t.SuchasAdopt
ionl
eav
e,Car
eercounsel
l
ing,Chi
l
d
car
e,Caral
l
owances,
Busi
nesst
rav
eli
nsur
ance,
Clot
hingal
l
owancesandet
c.

Nonf
inanci
almot
ivat
ionr
efer
stononmonet
aryr
ewar
ds.Theset
ypesofr
ewar
dsdo
noti
nvol
vedi
rectpay
mentofcashandt
heycanbet
angi
bleori
ntangi
ble.Nonf
inanci
al
mot
ivat
ionar
erewar
dst
hatf
ocusont
heneedspeopl
ehav
etov
ary
ingdegr
eesf
or
achi
evement
,recogni
ti
on,
responsi
bil
i
ty,
inf
luenceandper
sonalgr
owt
hrewar
dst
hatar
e
non-
fi
nanci
ali
nnat
ure,
suchast
he
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS
pr
ovi
si
onofani
ncr
easei
nhol
i
day
s,andi
ncr
easesi
nfami
l
ybenef
it
s,cont
ri
but
etowar
ds
t
heempl
oyeeper
cei
vi
nghi
s/herwor
kpl
aceasa‘
suppor
ti
ngandcar
ing’
organi
zat
ion.

Nonf
inanci
almot
ivat
iont
echni
quesar
e:

Recogni
ti
on-Recogni
ti
oni
sappr
eci
ati
onofper
for
mancebyt
heor
gani
zat
ionofanact
donebyt
het
eam ort
eam member
.

Responsi
bil
i
ty-Theempl
oyeesneedt
heempl
oyert
ofeelt
hatt
heyar
eusef
ulandhav
e
abi
l
iti
est
odosev
eralt
asks.Tosat
isf
ythei
rneeds,t
heempl
oyercani
ncr
easeoradd
mor
eresponsi
bil
i
tiest
otheempl
oyeest
oincr
easet
hei
rsel
f-
est
eem.

Fl
exi
blewor
kschedul
es-Fl
exi
ti
mei
sawor
kschedul
einwhi
chempl
oyeessett
hei
r
ownwor
khour
swi
thi
nsetboundar
ies.

Feedback-Per
for
mancef
eedbacki
sdef
inedaspr
ovi
dingquant
it
ati
veorqual
i
tat
ive
i
nfor
mat
ion on pastper
for
mance f
ort
he pur
pose ofchangi
ng ormai
ntai
ning
per
for
mancei
nspeci
fi
cway
s

4.Di
scusst
het
heor
iesofmot
ivat
ion
Her
zber
gtheor
yofmot
ivat
ioni
sal
soknownasTwoFact
orTheor
y.Ther
ear
etwo
f
act
orsl
eadi
ngt
othemot
ivat
ionofanyempl
oyeeaccor
dingt
othi
stheor
y
 Hy
gieneFact
ors:
Sal
ary
,CompanyPol
i
cies,
Wor
kingEnv
ironmentandJobSecur
it
y
Ther
ear
esomej
obcondi
ti
onswhi
choper
atepr
imar
il
ytodi
ssat
isf
yempl
oyeeswhen
t
hesecondi
ti
onsar
eabsent
.Whent
hesef
act
orsar
epr
esentt
heydonotmot
ivat
eina
st
rongway
,whenabsentt
heydi
ssat
isf
y,hencet
hesef
act
orsar
ecal
l
eddi
ssat
isf
ier
s.
Thesef
act
orsar
e.

o CompanyPol
i
cyandadmi
nist
rat
ion.

o Techni
cal
super
visi
on.

o I
nter
per
sonal
rel
ati
onshi
pwi
thsuper
ior
s.

o I
nter
per
sonal
rel
ati
onshi
pwi
thpeer
s.

o I
nter
per
sonal
rel
ati
onshi
pwi
thsubor
dinat
es.

o Sal
ary
.
o Jobsecur
it
y.

o Per
sonal
Lif
e.
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS
o Wor
kingcondi
ti
on.

o St
atus.
 Mot
ivat
ional
Fact
ors:
JobEnr
ichment
,Car
eerGr
owt
handRecogni
ti
on
Mot
ivat
ionalFact
orsar
eint
ri
nsi
cinnat
ureand hel
pincr
easeone’
sout
put
.These
f
act
orshav
eposi
ti
veef
fectonmor
ale,pr
oduct
ivi
ty,andj
obsat
isf
act
ionandov
eral
l
ef
fi
ciencyoft
heor
gani
zat
ion.Thesef
act
orsar
easunder
:

o Achi
evement
o Adv
ancement
o Possi
bil
i
tyofGr
owt
h
o Recogni
ti
on.
o WorkItself
o Responsibi
li
ty
Hy
gieneFact
orscannotmot i
vat
ebutel
i
minat
edi
ssat
isf
act
ion.I
fmot
ivat
ionalf
act
ors
ar
enott
her
e,t
heef
fecti
sneut
ral
,buti
fpr
esentt
heni
twi
l
lresul
tint
omot
ivat
ion

Masl
ow’
sMot
ivat
ional
Theor
y
Masl
ow suggest
edt
hatev
eryi
ndi
vi
dualhascompl
exsetofneedsatanypar
ti
cul
ar
momentandhi
sbehav
iouri
sdet
ermi
nedbyt
heexi
stenceofst
rongestneed.Masl
ow’
s
Mot
ivat
ional
Theor
ycov
erst
hef
oll
owi
ng.

 Ther
ear
efi
vel
evel
sofhumanneeds.

 Theseneedsar
ehi
erar
chi
cal
innat
ure.

 Asat
isf
iedneedi
snol
ongeraneed.Oncet
hatneedi
ssat
isf
ied,t
henext
l
evel
needbecomesst
ronger
.
 Needsdonotdi
mini
sh.I
tist
hegr
avi
tyt
hatchanges.I
ndi
vi
dualst
ri
vest
osat
isf
y
t
heneedt
hathasast
rongappeal
atanypoi
ntoft
ime.

Hehasar
rangedt
heneedsaspergi
venbel
ow:
 Phy
siol
ogi
cal
Needs–Food,
Clot
h,Shel
ter
,Sex

 Saf
etyNeeds–Phy
sical
Saf
ety
,Economi
cSaf
ety
,Fr
eedom f
rom t
hreat
s

 Soci
alNeeds–Lov
e&Af
fect
ion,
GroupMember
shi
p,Rel
ati
onshi
p
 Est
eem Needs–St
atus,
Achi
evement
,Responsi
bil
i
ty,
Prest
ige
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS
 Sel
f-
Act
ual
i
zat
ion – Per
sonalGr
owt
h&f
ulf
il
lment
,oppor
tuni
ti
es f
or
i
nnov
ati
on&cr
eat
ivi
ty

Appl
i
cat
ionofMasl
ow’
stheor
y:

Masl
owhassuggest
edt
hatwhenawor
keri
sempl
oyedhei
sconcer
nedabouthi
sbasi
c
needoff
ood,wat
er,shel
terandcl
othesandwant
sami
nimum l
evelofr
ewar
dssot
hat
t
heabov
eneedi
sful
fi
ll
ed(
phy
siol
ogi
calneed)
.Oncet
hef
ir
stneedi
ssat
isf
ied,a
managermustst
ri
vet
oful
fi
llsecondneed(
secur
it
yneed)ofhi
ssubor
dinat
esby
pr
ovi
dingt
hem phy
sicalsecur
it
y,j
obsecur
it
yandl
ayi
ngdownv
ari
ouspol
i
cies,whi
ch
ar
erequi
redf
orsmoot
hrunni
ngofanor
gani
zat
ion.Managementmustenj
oycor
dial
r
elat
ionshi
pwi
thempl
oyeesandensur
efr
eef
lowofcommuni
cat
ionsot
hatempl
oyees
dev
otemax
imum at
tent
iont
owar
dsor
gani
zat
ionalwor
k.Wor
ker
scan“
bel
ong”t
oa
par
ti
cul
aror
gani
zat
ion(
soci
alneed)
.Bycr
eat
ingwor
kgr
oupsandext
endi
ngf
aci
l
iti
es
f
orsoci
ali
nter
act
ionsot
hatest
eem needandsel
f-
act
ual
i
zat
ionneeds,whi
char
eof
i
ntr
insi
cnat
urecanbeaccompl
i
shedbywor
ker
s.
Compar
isonofHer
zber
gandMasl
owModel
s
I
nfact
,ther
eisagr
eatsi
mil
ari
tybet
weenHer
zber
g’sandMasl
ow’
smodel
s.Acl
ose
exami
nat
ionofHer
zber
g’smodeli
ndi
cat
est
hatsomeempl
oyeesmayhav
eachi
eveda
l
evelofsoci
alandeconomi
cpr
ogr
essi
nthesoci
etyandf
ort
hem hi
gherl
evelneedsof
Masl
ow(
est
eem andsel
f-
act
ual
i
zat
ion)ar
ethepr
imar
ymot
ivat
ors.Howev
er,t
heyst
il
l
mustsat
isf
ythel
owerl
evelneedsf
ort
hemai
ntenanceoft
hei
rcur
rentst
ate.Thus,we
cansayt
hatmoneymi
ghtst
il
lbeamot
ivat
orf
oroper
ati
veempl
oyeesand199f
orsome
manager
ialempl
oyees.Her
zber
g’smodeladdst
otheMasl
ow’
sneedhi
erar
chymodel
becausei
tdr
awsadi
sti
nct
ionbet
weent
het
wogr
oupsoff
act
ors,namel
y,mot
ivat
ional
andmai
ntenance,andpoi
ntsoutt
hatt
hemot
ivat
ionalf
act
orsar
eof
tender
ivedf
rom
t
hej
obi
tsel
f.Mostoft
hemai
ntenancef
act
orscomeundercompar
ati
vel
yloweror
der
needs.I
neconomi
cal
l
yadv
ancedcount
ri
es,suchneedsoft
heempl
oyeesar
eful
fi
ll
ed
and henceceaset
o bemot
ivat
ors.Asshown i
nthef
oll
owi
ng di
agr
am Masl
ow’
s
Phy
siol
ogi
cal
,secur
it
yandsoci
alneedscomeunderHer
zber
g’smai
ntenancef
act
ors
wher
eassel
f-
ful
fi
ll
mentcomesundermot
ivat
ingf
act
ors.I
tmayf
urt
herbenot
edt
hata
par
tofest
eem needcomesundermai
ntenancef
act
orandanot
herundermot
ivat
ional
f
act
ors.Theest
eem needsar
edi
vi
dedbecauset
her
ear
esomedi
sti
nctdi
ff
erences
bet
weenst
atusperseandr
ecogni
ti
on.St
atust
endst
obeaf
unct
ionofposi
ti
onone
occupi
es.Thi
sposi
ti
onmaybegai
nedt
hroughf
ami
l
yti
esorsoci
alpr
essur
esandso
t
hismaynotbear
efl
ect
ionofper
sonalachi
evementorr
ecogni
ti
on.Recogni
ti
oni
s
gai
nedt
hroughcompet
enceandachi
evement
.Iti
sear
nedandgr
ant
edbyot
her
s.That
i
swhyst
atusi
scl
assi
fi
edwi
thphy
siol
ogi
cal
,saf
etyandsoci
alneedsasahy
giene
f
act
or,
whi
l
erecogni
ti
oni
scl
assi
fi
edwi
thest
eem asamot
ivat
or

Theor
yXandt
heor
yY

Theor
yX:Empl
oyeeswor
kasl
i
ttl
easpossi
ble,l
ackambi
ti
on,di
sli
ker
esponsi
bil
i
ty,
r
esi
stantt
ochange.Sot
heyneedt
obecont
rol
l
ed,
pressur
ized&br
ibed.

Theor
yY:Empl
oyeesar
ewi
l
li
ngt
owor
k;t
heyar
ecr
eat
ive&sel
f-
dir
ect
ed.Hencet
he
managementmustar
rangecondi
ti
ons&met
hodsofoper
ati
onsot
hatempl
oyeescan
achi
evet
hei
rowngoal
sbestbydi
rect
ingt
hei
rownef
for
tst
owar
dsor
gobj
ect
ives.

Appl
i
cat
ion:Manager
swhoacceptt
heor
yXassumpt
ionsabouthumannat
ureusual
l
y
di
rect
,cont
rol
,andcl
osel
ysuper
visepeopl
e,wher
east
heor
yYmanager
sar
esuppor
ti
ve
andf
aci
l
itat
ing.I
tisunusualt
ofi
ndexcl
usi
vel
yTheor
yXpeopl
eorTheor
yYpeopl
ein
anyor
gani
zat
ion.Ther
ewoul
dal
way
sbeami
xofbot
hty
peofempl
oyeesi
nvar
ying
pr
opor
ti
ons.Manager
sther
efor
ewi
l
lhav
etot
ail
ort
hei
rmot
ivat
ionalappl
i
cat
ioni
n
appr
opr
iat
emannersui
ti
ngbehav
iour
alpat
ter
ns.

Al
der
fer
’sExi
stence-
Rel
atedness– Gr
owt
h(Er
g)ModelSer
iousdoubt
shav
e been
expr
essed aboutt
heexi
stenceoft
hef
ivedi
sti
nctneed cat
egor
ieswhi
chMasl
ow
hy
pot
hesi
zed.Ther
eseemst
obesomeov
er-
lappi
ngbet
weent
hesecur
it
y,soci
aland
phy
siol
ogi
calneed.Al
so,t
hel
i
nesbet
weenest
eem,soci
alandsel
f-
act
ual
i
zat
ionneeds
ar
enotent
ir
elycl
ear
.Wi
tht
hesepoi
ntsi
nmi
nd,Cl
ayt
onAl
der
fercondensedMasl
ow’
s
needcat
egor
iesi
ntot
hreeset
s:-Exi
stenceneeds.Thesei
ncl
udeal
lfor
msofmat
eri
als
and Phy
siol
ogi
caland saf
ety needs,i
.e.
,Masl
ow’
sfi
rstt
wo l
evel
s ofneeds.-
Rel
atednessneeds.Thesei
ncl
udeal
lneedst
hati
nvol
ver
elat
ionshi
pswi
thot
herpeopl
e
wecar
eabout
.Theexampl
esi
ncl
udeangerandhost
il
it
yaswel
lasf
ri
endshi
p.Thus,
the
opposi
teofsat
isf
act
ionofr
elat
ednessneedsi
semot
ionaldi
stancer
athert
hanhat
red.
Rel
atednessneedscov
erMasl
ow’
ssoci
alneedsandt
hatofest
eem needswhi
char
e
der
ivedf
rom ot
herpeopl
e.– Gr
owt
hneeds– Theseneedsi
nvol
veper
sonsmaki
ng
cr
eat
iveef
for
tst
oachi
evef
ullpot
ent
iali
ntheexi
sti
ngenv
ironment
.Iti
sli
keMasl
ow’
s
hi
ghestl
evelneedofsel
f-
act
ual
i
zat
ion.Al
der
feral
sor
evi
sedMasl
ow’
stheor
yint
hree
ot
herway
s:
1.Hear
guedt
hatt
het
hreeneedcat
egor
iesf
orm ahi
erar
chyonl
yint
hesenseof
decr
easi
ng concr
eti
ons.Thati
s,as we mov
efr
om a f
ocus on t
he exi
stence t
o
r
elat
ednesst
ogr
owt
hneeds,t
heway
scansat
isf
ythoseneedsbecomei
ncr
easi
ngl
y
abst
ract
.
2.Her
ecogni
zedt
hatr
isei
nthel
evelofsat
isf
act
ionofourexi
stenceandr
elat
edness
needsmayr
esul
tindecr
easei
nthei
rimpor
tancet
ous.Gr
owt
hneedsbecomemor
e
i
mpor
tantaswesuccessf
ull
ysat
isf
ythem.Thati
s,aswear
eabl
etobepr
oduct
iveand
cr
eat
ive,
wel
ookt
ohi
ghergoal
sand,
insodoi
ng,
areagai
ndi
ssat
isf
ied.
3.Her
easonedt
hatwear
eli
kel
ytot
ryt
ofi
rstsat
isf
ythemostconcr
eteneedsandt
hen
t
omov
eont
omor
eabst
ractneeds.
I
nthi
s sense,Al
der
fersounds somewhatl
i
ke Masl
ow,suggest
ing a pat
ter
n of
sat
isf
act
ionpr
ogr
essi
on-t
hati
s,asoneneedi
ssat
isf
ied,wepr
ogr
esst
onexthi
gher
need.Al
der
ferconcei
vedERGneedsal
ongacont
inuum whi
chav
oidst
hei
mpl
i
cat
ion
t
hatt
hehi
gherupani
ndi
vi
duali
sint
hehi
erar
chyt
hebet
teri
tis.Di
ff
erentt
ypesof
needscanoper
atesi
mul
taneousl
y.I
fapar
ti
cul
arpat
htowar
dst
hesat
isf
act
ioni
s
bl
ocked,t
hei
ndi
vi
dualwi
l
lbot
hper
sistal
ongt
hatpat
handatt
hesamet
imer
egr
ess
t
owar
dsmor
eeasi
l
ysat
isf
iedneeds.I
nthi
sway
,Al
der
ferdi
sti
ngui
shesbet
weenchr
oni
c
needswhi
chper
sistov
eraper
iodoft
imeandt
heepi
sodeneedswhi
char
esi
tuat
ional
andcanchangeaccor
dingt
otheenv
ironment
.

GOALSETTI
NGTHEORY

Goalset
ti
ngTheor
y:I
n1960‘
s,Edwi
nLockeputf
orwar
dtheGoal
-set
ti
ngt
heor
yof
mot
ivat
ion.Thi
stheor
yst
atest
hatgoal
set
ti
ngi
sessent
ial
l
yli
nkedt
otaskper
for
mance.
I
tst
atest
hatspeci
fi
candchal
l
engi
nggoal
sal
ongwi
thappr
opr
iat
efeedbackcont
ri
but
e
t
o hi
gherand bet
tert
askper
for
mance.I
n si
mpl
e wor
ds,goal
sindi
cat
e and gi
ve
di
rect
iont
oanempl
oyeeaboutwhatneedst
obedoneandhow muchef
for
tsar
e
r
equi
redt
obeputi
n.Thei
mpor
tantf
eat
uresofgoal
-set
ti
ngt
heor
yar
easf
oll
ows:The
wi
l
li
ngnesst
owor
ktowar
dsat
tai
nmentofgoali
smai
nsour
ceofj
obmot
ivat
ion.Cl
ear
,
par
ti
cul
aranddi
ff
icul
tgoal
sar
egr
eat
ermot
ivat
ingf
act
orst
haneasy
,gener
alandv
ague
goal
s.Speci
fi
c and cl
eargoal
slead t
o gr
eat
erout
putand bet
terper
for
mance.
Unambi
guous,measur
abl
eandcl
eargoal
saccompani
edbyadeadl
i
nef
orcompl
eti
on
av
oidsmi
sunder
standi
ng.Goal
sshoul
dber
eal
i
sti
candchal
l
engi
ng.Thi
sgi
vesan
i
ndi
vi
dualaf
eel
i
ngofpr
ideandt
ri
umphwhenheat
tai
nst
hem,andset
shi
m upf
or
at
tai
nmentofnextgoal
.Themor
echal
l
engi
ngt
hegoal
,thegr
eat
eri
sther
ewar
d
gener
all
yandt
hemor
eist
hepassi
onf
orachi
evi
ngi
t.Bet
terandappr
opr
iat
efeedback
ofr
esul
tsdi
rect
stheempl
oyeebehav
iourandcont
ri
but
est
ohi
gherper
for
mancet
han
absenceoff
eedback.Feedbacki
sameansofgai
ningr
eput
ati
on,maki
ngcl
ari
fi
cat
ions
andr
egul
ati
nggoaldi
ff
icul
ti
es.I
thel
psempl
oyeest
owor
kwi
thmor
einv
olv
ementand
l
eads t
o gr
eat
erj
ob sat
isf
act
ion.Empl
oyees‘par
ti
cipat
ion i
n goali
s notal
way
s
desi
rabl
e.Par
ti
ci
pat
ionofset
ti
nggoal
,howev
er,
makesgoalmor
eaccept
abl
eandl
eads
t
omor
einv
olv
ement
.
Fi
vePr
inci
plesofGoal
Set
ti
ng
To mot
ivat
egoal
smustt
akei
nto consi
der
ati
ont
hedegr
eet
o whi
cheachoft
he
f
oll
owi
ngexi
sts:
 Cl
ari
ty
 Chal
l
enge
 Commi
tment
 Feedback
 Task
 compl
exi
ty
1.Cl
ari
tyCl
eargoal
sar
emeasur
abl
e,unambi
guous,andbehav
ior
al.Whenagoali
s
cl
ear and speci
fi
c, wi
th a def
ini
te t
ime set f
or compl
eti
on, t
her
e i
s l
ess
mi
sunder
standi
ngaboutwhatbehav
ior
swi
l
lber
ewar
ded.Weknow whati
sexpect
ed,
andwecanuset
hespeci
fi
cresul
tasasour
ceofmot
ivat
ion.Whenagoali
svague–or
when i
t‘
sexpr
essed asa gener
ali
nst
ruct
ion,l
i
ke―Takei
nit
iat
ive‖
-ithasl
i
mit
ed
mot
ivat
ionalv
alue.Toi
mpr
oveourorourt
eam‘
sper
for
mance,setcl
eargoal
sthatuse
speci
fi
candmeasur
abl
est
andar
ds.―Reducej
obt
urnov
erby15% or―Respondt
o
empl
oyeesuggest
ionswi
thi
n48hour
s‖ar
eexampl
esofcl
eargoal
s.Whenweuset
he
SMARTacr
ony
minor
dert
ohel
pust
osett
hegoal
s,weensur
ethecl
ari
tyoft
hegoalby
maki
ngi
tSpeci
fi
c,Measur
abl
eandTi
me-
bound.
2.Chal
l
engeOneoft
hemosti
mpor
tantchar
act
eri
sti
csofgoal
set
ti
ngt
heor
yist
hel
evel
ofchal
l
enge.Peopl
ear
eof
tenmot
ivat
edbyachi
evement
,andt
hey
‘l
lj
udgeagoalbased
ont
hesi
gni
fi
canceoft
heant
ici
pat
edaccompl
i
shment
.Whenweknowt
hatwhatwewi
l
l
dowoul
dbewel
lrecei
ved,t
her
e‘sanat
uralmot
ivat
iont
odoagoodj
ob.Rewar
ds
t
ypi
cal
l
yincr
easef
ormor
edi
ff
icul
tgoal
s.I
fwebel
i
evewewi
l
lbewel
lcompensat
edor
ot
her
wiser
ewar
dedf
orachi
evi
ngachal
l
engi
nggoalt
hatwi
l
lboostourent
husi
asm and
ourdr
ivet
ogeti
tdone.
3.Commi
tmentGoal
smustbeunder
stoodandagr
eeduponi
ftheyar
etobeef
fect
ive.
Empl
oyeesar
emor
eli
kel
yto―buyi
nto‖agoali
ftheyf
eelt
heywer
epar
tofcr
eat
ing
t
hatgoal
.Thenot
ion ofpar
ti
cipat
ivemanagementr
est
son t
hisi
deaofi
nvol
vi
ng
empl
oyeesi
nset
ti
nggoal
sandmaki
ngdeci
sions.
Onev
ersi
onofSMART–f
orusewheny
ouar
ewor
kingwi
thsomeoneel
set
osett
hei
r
goal
s–hasAandRst
andf
orAgr
eedandReal
i
sti
cinst
eadofAt
tai
nabl
eandr
elev
ant
.
Agr
eed goal
slead t
o commi
tment
.Thi
sdoesn‘
tmean t
hatev
erygoalhast
o be
negot
iat
ed wi
th and appr
oved byempl
oyees.I
tdoesmean t
hatgoal
sshoul
d be
consi
stentandi
nli
newi
thpr
evi
ousexpect
ati
onsandor
gani
zat
ionalconcer
ns.Aswe
usegoalset
ti
ngi
nyourwor
kpl
ace,
makeanappr
opr
iat
eef
for
ttoi
ncl
udepeopl
eint
hei
r
owngoalset
ti
ng.Encour
ageempl
oyeest
odev
elopt
hei
rowngoal
s,andkeept
hem
i
nfor
medaboutwhat
‘shappeni
ngel
sewher
eint
heor
gani
zat
ion.Thi
sway
,theycanbe
sur
ethatt
hei
rgoal
sar
e consi
stentwi
tht
he ov
eral
lvi
sion and pur
pose t
hatt
he
companyseeks.
4.FeedbackI
naddi
ti
ont
osel
ect
ingt
her
ightt
ypeofgoal
,anef
fect
ivegoalpr
ogr
am
mustal
soi
ncl
udef
eedback.Feedbackpr
ovi
desoppor
tuni
ti
est
ocl
ari
fyexpect
ati
ons,
adj
ustgoaldi
ff
icul
ty,and gai
nrecogni
ti
on.I
t‘
simpor
tantt
o pr
ovi
de benchmar
k
oppor
tuni
ti
esort
arget
s,soi
ndi
vi
dual
scandet
ermi
nef
ort
hemsel
veshowt
hey
‘redoi
ng.
Theser
egul
arpr
ogr
essr
epor
ts,whi
chmeasur
especi
fi
csuccessal
ongt
heway
,ar
e
par
ti
cul
arl
yimpor
tantwher
eit
‘sgoi
ngt
otakeal
ongt
imet
oreachagoal
.Int
hesecases,
br
eakdownt
hegoal
sint
osmal
l
erchunks,andl
i
nkf
eedbackt
othesei
nter
medi
ate
mi
l
est
ones.SMART goal
sar
eMeasur
abl
e,andt
hisensur
est
hatcl
earf
eedbacki
s
possi
ble.
5.Task Compl
exi
ty The l
astf
act
ori
n goalset
ti
ng t
heor
yint
roduces t
wo mor
e
r
equi
rement
sforsuccess.Forgoal
sorassi
gnment
sthatar
ehi
ghl
ycompl
ex,
weshoul
d
t
akespeci
alcar
etoensur
ethatt
hewor
kdoesn‘
tbecomet
ooov
erwhel
ming.Peopl
e
whowor
kincompl
i
cat
edanddemandi
ngr
olespr
obabl
yhav
eahi
ghl
evelofmot
ivat
ion
al
ready
.Howev
er,
theycanof
tenpusht
hemsel
vest
oohar
difmeasur
esar
en‘
tbui
l
tint
o
t
hegoalexpect
ati
onst
oaccountf
ort
hecompl
exi
tyoft
het
ask.I
t‘
sther
efor
eimpor
tant
t
o do t
hef
oll
owi
ng:Gi
vet
heper
sonsuf
fi
cientt
imet
o meett
hegoalori
mpr
ove
per
for
mance.Pr
ovi
deenought
imef
ort
heper
sont
opr
act
iceorl
ear
nwhati
sexpect
ed
andr
equi
redf
orsuccess.Or
gani
sat
ionalBehav
iourThewhol
epoi
ntofgoalset
ti
ngi
sto
f
aci
l
itat
esuccess.Ther
efor
e,y
ouwantt
omakesur
ethatt
hecondi
ti
onssur
roundi
ngt
he
goal
s don‘
tfr
ust
rat
e ori
nhi
bitpeopl
efr
om accompl
i
shi
ng t
hei
robj
ect
ives.Thi
s
r
einf
orcest
he―At
tai
nabl
e‖par
tofSMART.
The“
ManagementbyObj
ect
ive”
(
MBO)appr
oach,i
nthesenset
hati
trequi
resal
lmanager
stosetspeci
fi
cobj
ect
ivest
o
beachi
evedi
nthef
utur
eandencour
agest
hem t
ocont
inual
l
yaskwhatmor
ecanbe
done,i
sof
fer
edasapar
ti
alanswert
othi
squest
ionofor
gani
zat
ionalv
ital
i
tyand
cr
eat
ivi
ty.Asat
erm,“
ManagementbyObj
ect
ives”wasf
ir
stusedbyPet
erDr
uckeri
n
1954.Asamanagementappr
oach,
ithasbeenf
urt
herdev
elopedbymanymanagement
t
heor
eti
cians,amongt
hem Dougl
asMcGr
egor
,Geor
geOdi
orne,andJohnHumbl
e.
Essent
ial
l
y,MBOi
sapr
ocessorsy
stem desi
gnedf
orsuper
visor
ymanager
sinwhi
cha
managerandhi
sorhersubor
dinat
esi
tdownandj
oint
lysetspeci
fi
cobj
ect
ivest
obe
accompl
i
shedwi
thi
nasett
imef
rameandf
orwhi
cht
hesubor
dinat
eist
henhel
d
di
rect
lyr
esponsi
ble.Al
lor
gani
zat
ionsexi
stf
orapur
pose,and,t
oachi
evet
hatpur
pose,
t
opmanagementset
sgoal
sandobj
ect
ivest
hatar
ecommont
othewhol
eor
gani
zat
ion.
I
nor
gani
zat
ionst
hatar
enotusi
ngt
heMBO appr
oach,mostpl
anni
ngandobj
ect
ive
set
ti
ngt
oachi
evet
hesecommonor
gani
zat
ionalgoal
sisdi
rect
eddownwar
d.Pl
ansand
obj
ect
ivesar
epasseddownf
rom onemanager
iall
evelt
oanot
her
,andsubor
dinat
esar
e
t
oldwhatt
odoandwhatt
heywi
l
lbehel
dresponsi
blef
or.TheMBOappr
oachi
nject
san
el
ementofdi
alogue i
ntot
he pr
ocess ofpassi
ng pl
ans and obj
ect
ives f
rom one
or
gani
zat
ionall
evelt
oanot
her
.Thesuper
iorbr
ingsspeci
fi
cgoal
sandmeasur
esf
ort
he
subor
dinat
etoameet
ingwi
tht
hissubor
dinat
e,whoal
sobr
ingsspeci
fi
cobj
ect
ivesand
measur
est
hatheorsheseesasappr
opr
iat
eorcont
ri
but
ingt
obet
teraccompl
i
shment
oft
hej
ob.Toget
hert
heydev
elopagr
oupofspeci
fi
cgoal
s,measur
esofachi
evement
,
and t
ime f
rames i
n whi
ch t
he subor
dinat
e commi
ts hi
msel
forher
sel
ftot
he
accompl
i
shmentoft
hosegoal
s.Thesubor
dinat
eist
henhel
dresponsi
blef
ort
he
accompl
i
shmentoft
hegoal
s.Themanagerandt
hesubor
dinat
emayhav
eoccasi
onal
pr
ogr
essr
evi
ewsandr
eev
aluat
ionmeet
ings,
butatt
heendoft
hesetper
iodoft
ime,
the
subor
dinat
eisj
udgedont
her
esul
tst
heheorshehasachi
eved.Heorshemaybe
r
ewar
dedf
orsuccessbypr
omot
ionorsal
aryi
ncr
easesorheorshemaybef
ir
edor
t
ransf
err
edt
oaj
obt
hatwi
l
lpr
ovi
deneededt
rai
ningorsuper
visi
on.What
evert
he
out
come,i
twi
l
lbebasedont
heaccompl
i
shmentoft
hegoal
sthesubor
dinat
ehad
somepar
tinset
ti
ngandcommi
tt
edhi
msel
forher
sel
ftoachi
evi
ng
5.Whypeopl
ejoi
ngr
oups?

Ther
eisnosi
ngl
ereasonwhyi
ndi
vi
dual
sfor
m gr
oups.Si
nceamandoesnotl
i
ve
i
nisol
ati
on,hej
oinsonegr
ouport
heot
her
.Mostoft
hepeopl
ebel
ongt
oa
numberofgr
oupsbecausedi
ff
erentgr
oupspr
ovi
dedi
ff
erentbenef
it
stot
hei
r
member
s.Athome,hei
sthememberoft
hef
ami
l
y;atwor
kpl
ace,hei
sthe
memberofal
abouruni
onorot
herf
ormalori
nfor
malgr
oups.Thi
sfactr
aisesa
quest
ionwhypeopl
ejoi
nagr
oup.

Someoft
hei
mpor
tantr
easonsf
orf
ormi
ngagr
oupar
esecur
it
y,af
fi
li
ati
on,
stat
us,
est
eem,
power
,rewar
ds,
andgoal
achi
evement
.

Secur
it
y

Uni
tyi
sst
rengt
h“Byj
oini
ngagr
oup,onecanr
educet
hei
nsecur
it
yof“
standi
ng
al
one”–onef
eel
sst
ronger
,hasf
ewersel
f-
doubt
s,andi
smor
eresi
stantt
othr
eat
s.
Newempl
oyeesar
epar
ti
cul
arl
yvul
ner
abl
etoasenseofi
sol
ati
on,andt
urnt
othe
gr
oupf
orgui
danceandsuppor
t.

Af
fi
li
ati
on

Peopl
ejoi
nthegr
oupbecausei
tpr
ovi
dest
hem anoppor
tuni
tyt
ohav
eregul
ar
companywi
tht
hosewi
thwhom t
heyshar
esomet
hingi
ncommon.Theyhav
e
comet
othi
sconcl
usi
onont
hebasi
soft
hei
rpastexper
ience.Theyr
ight
lybel
i
eve
t
hatt
hei
raf
fi
li
ati
oni
sli
kel
ytoobt
ainf
ort
hem f
ri
endshi
p.

St
atus:

Byj
oini
ngt
hegr
oupaper
songet
sident
it
ywi
tht
hegr
oup.Hecl
aimst
hathei
sa
memberofapar
ti
cul
argr
oup,
whi
chcl
aimssomei
dent
it
yint
heor
gani
sat
ionori
n
t
hesoci
ety
.Themember
soft
hegr
oupcanal
socl
aimt
hest
atusassoci
atedwi
th
t
hegr
oup.

Est
eem:

Feel
i
nghi
ghofone-
sel
fissel
f-
est
eem.Theest
eem ofani
ndi
vi
duali
ncr
easesby
hi
sassoci
ati
onwi
thagr
oupofhi
ghst
atus.Thei
ndi
vi
dualaut
omat
ical
l
yget
sthe
needed r
ecogni
ti
on f
rom out
sider
s. The est
eem gr
oup pr
ovi
des saf
ety
,
encour
agementandsel
f-
expr
essi
on.Thei
ndi
vi
dualasamemberofagr
oupf
eel
s
f
ree,
hemaycompl
ainabouthi
swor
k,hi
sboss,
hispay
,hi
swor
kingcondi
ti
onset
c.
Asgr
oupcar
ri
esest
eem,asamemberhei
ssur
etohav
efav
our
abl
eresponse
f
rom aut
hor
it
ies because hi
sfeel
i
ngs f
alli
nli
ne wi
tht
he f
eel
i
ngs ofot
her
member
sint
hegr
oup.

Power
:

Oneoft
heappeal
i
ngaspect
sofgr
oupsi
sthatt
heyr
epr
esentpower
.Whatan
i
ndi
vi
dualcannotachi
eve,agr
oupcanachi
eveeasi
l
y.Byj
oini
ngt
hegr
oupan
i
ndi
vi
dual
get
sthegr
ouppower
.

Rewar
ds:

Whenagr
oupcar
ri
espowerandst
atus,i
tmaygetsev
eralr
ewar
dsi
ncl
udi
ng
f
inanci
alr
ewar
ds.Asamemberoft
hegr
oup,onemayal
soenj
oyal
lthebenef
it
s
andr
ewar
dsoft
hegr
oup.40

Goal
Achi
evement
:
 Aper
sonasani
ndi
vi
dualcannotachi
evecer
tai
ngoal
s.Ther
eisaneedt
opool
t
alent
s,knowl
edgeandpowert
oaccompl
i
shagoal
.Hence,peopl
ejoi
ngr
oupst
o
achi
evesuchgoal
s.

6.Expl
aingr
oupdy
nami
cs.Expl
aint
hest
agesofgr
oupdev
elopment

FORMI
NG:
(Awar
eness)
:Lotofuncer
tai
nty
,focusonunder
standi
ngt
hegoal
,wor
kout
pr
ocedur
esf
orper
for
mingt
het
ask,
deci
desonst
ruct
ure,
leader
shi
p

STORMI
NG:(
Conf
li
ct)
:Mi
xtur
eofexpr
essi
ons,conf
li
ctsr
egar
dingpr
ior
it
iesofgoal
s,
r
esponsi
bil
i
tiesofeachmember

NORMI
NG: (
Cooper
ati
on)
:Gr
oup Cohesi
veness,shar
einf
o, shows
accept
ance,
compr
omi
singdeci
sions

PERFORMI
NG:
(Pr
oduct
ivi
ty)
:Gr
oupi
sful
l
yoper
ati
onal
,hi
ghpr
oduct
ivi
ty&hel
pseach
ot
her

ADJOURNI
NG :
(Separ
ati
on)
:Gr
oupdi
sbandonaf
tert
het
ask,f
ulf
il
lmentoft
ask
per
for
mance,
feel
i
ngofsadnessatt
hel
ossoff
ri
endshi
p

Tuckman'
sFi
ve-
StageTheor
yofGr
oupDev
elopment
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

7.Expl
aini
ndet
ail
thet
ypesofgr
oupsi
nor
gani
zat
ions

For
mal
:Del
i
ber
atel
ycr
eat
edt
oper
for
m aspeci
fi
ctaskEg:
R/dl
ab,
mgmtt
eam

Af
ormalwor
kgr
oupi
scol
l
ect
ionoft
woormor
eindi
vi
dual
s,wor
kingf
oracommongoal
andi
sint
erdependent
.Theyi
nter
actsi
gni
fi
cant
lyt
oachi
eveagr
oupobj
ect
ive.

TwoTy
pesofFor
mal
Groups:

 St
andi
ngTaskGr
oup:consi
stsofasuper
visorwhoexer
cisesf
ormalaut
hor
it
y
ov
ersubor
dinat
es
 TaskGr
oup:
atempor
aryf
ormal
groupt
hati
scr
eat
edt
osol
vespeci
fi
cpr
obl
em

I
nfor
malGr
oupsar
enat
uralf
ormat
ioni
nwor
kenv
ironmenti
nresponset
otheneedf
or
soci
alcont
act
.Inf
ormalgr
oupsar
efor
medbyv
ari
ousmember
sthemsel
ves,i
thasno
of
fi
cialsanct
it
y.Thesegr
oupsar
efor
medbasedoncommonal
i
tyofcul
tur
e,r
eli
gious
f
unct
ion,
li
ki
ngf
oreachot
herandcommoni
nter
est
s.

Thedi
ff
erentt
ypesofi
nfor
mal
groupsar
easf
oll
ows:

 I
nter
estGr
oup:
whohav
eamut
ual
int
eresteg:
wor
kingmot
her
s

 Fr
iendshi
pGr
oup:
whohav
ecommonchar
act
eri
sti
cseg:
mar
it
alst
atus,
spor
ts

 Ref
erenceGr
oup:anygr
oupwi
thwhom ani
ndi
vi
duali
dent
if
iesf
ort
hepur
poseof
f
ormi
ngopi
nionsormaki
ngdeci
sions
 Psy
chol
ogi
calGr
oups:Theyi
nvol
vet
hemsel
vesi
nvar
iousact
ivi
ti
es,i
nter
act
ions
andsent
iment
sbasedoncommoni
nter
est
s,v
aluesy
stem andsoci
albondage
t
heydev
elop.

8.Ty
pesoft
eams
Teamscandoav
ari
etyoft
hings.Theycanmakepr
oduct
s,pr
ovi
deser
vices,
negot
iat
edeal
s,coor
dinat
epr
oject
s,of
feradv
ice,andmakedeci
sions.I
nthi
s
 s
ORGANI
SAe
Tc
I
Ot
i
Nonw
A e
LBEl
Hl
Ad
Ve
I
Os
Ucr
i
RFb
Oet
hef
RMB o
ASu
Tr
UDmos
ENTStcommont
ypesoft
eamsy
ou'
rel
i
kel
ytof
indi
n
anor
gani
zat
ion:
pr
obl
em-
sol
vi
ng t
eams,sel
f-
managed wor
kteams,cr
oss-
fi
cti
onalt
eams,and
v
irt
ual
teams.

a.Pr
obl
em-
Sol
vi
ngTeams
I
npr
obl
em-
sol
vi
ngt
eams,
member
sshar
eideasorof
fersuggest
ionsonhowwor
k
pr
ocessesandmet
hodscanbei
mpr
oved.Rar
ely
,howev
er,
aret
heset
eamsgi
ven
t
heaut
hor
it
ytouni
l
ater
all
yimpl
ementanyoft
hei
rsuggest
edact
ions.54Oneof
t
he mostwi
del
y pr
act
iced appl
i
cat
ions ofpr
obl
em-
sol
vi
ng t
eams dur
ing `
t
he1980swasqual
i
tyci
rcl
est
hesear
ewor
kteamsofei
ghtt
otenempl
oyeesand
super
visor
swho hav
e a shar
ed ar
ea ofr
esponsi
bil
i
tyand meetr
egul
arl
yto
di
scusst
hei
rqual
i
typr
obl
ems,i
nvest
igat
ecausesoft
hepr
obl
ems,r
ecommend
sol
uti
ons,
andt
akecor
rect
iveact
ions.Sel
f-
ManagedWor
kTeamsPr
obl
em-
sol
vi
ng
t
eamswer
eont
her
ightt
rackbutt
heydi
dn'
tgof
arenoughi
nget
ti
ngempl
oyees
i
nvol
vedi
nwor
k-r
elat
eddeci
sionsandpr
ocesses.Thi
sledt
oexper
iment
ati
onwi
th
t
rul
yaut
onomous t
eams t
hatcoul
d notonl
ysol
ve pr
obl
ems buti
mpl
ement
sol
uti
onsandt
akef
ull
responsi
bil
i
tyf
orout
comes.

b.Cr
oss-
Funct
ional
Teams
Thesear
eteamsmadeupofempl
oyeesf
rom aboutt
hesamehi
erar
chi
call
evel
,
butf
rom di
ff
erentwor
kar
eas,
whocomet
oget
hert
oaccompl
i
shat
ask.Thegoal
was t
oimpr
ove communi
cat
ion and t
racki
ng ofwor
k,whi
ch woul
dlead t
o
i
ncr
easedpr
oduct
ivi
tyandmor
esat
isf
iedcl
i
ent
s.

C.
Sel
f-
managedt
eams
Sel
f-
managedt
eamsoper
atei
nmanyor
gani
zat
ionst
omanagecompl
expr
oject
s
i
nvol
vi
ng r
esear
ch,desi
gn,pr
ocess i
mpr
ovement
,and ev
en sy
stemi
cissue
r
esol
uti
on,par
ti
cul
arl
yforcr
oss-
depar
tmentpr
oject
sinv
olv
ingpeopl
eofsi
mil
ar
seni
ori
tyl
evel
s.Whi
l
ethei
nter
nall
eader
shi
pst
ylei
nasel
f-
managedt
eam i
s
di
sti
nctf
rom t
radi
ti
onall
eader
shi
pandoper
atest
oneut
ral
i
zet
hei
ssuesof
ten
associ
atedwi
tht
radi
ti
onall
eader
shi
pmodel
s,asel
fmanagedt
eam st
il
lneeds
suppor
tfr
om seni
ormanagementt
ooper
atewel
l
..Sel
f-
managedt
eamsmaybe
i
nter
dependentori
ndependent
.Ofcour
se,mer
elyai
l
ingagr
oupofpeopl
easel
f-
 ma
ORGANI
S n
Oa
ATINg
Aedt
LB e
EHa
Am
VIdRF
OUoes
O not
RMB ma
ASTk
Uet
DEh
Ne
Tm ei
S therat
eam orsel
f-
managed.

D.
Proj
ectt
eams
At
eam usedonl
yforadef
inedper
iodoft
imeandf
orasepar
ate,concr
etel
y
def
inabl
epur
pose,
oft
enbecomesknownasapr
ojectt
eam.Manager
scommonl
y
l
abelgr
oupsofpeopl
easa"
team"basedonhav
ingacommonf
unct
ion.Member
s
oft
heset
eamsmi
ght

assi
gnmentt
oact
ivi
ti
esf
ort
hesamepr
oject
,ther
ebyal
l
owi
ngout
sider
stov
iew
t
hem asasi
ngl
euni
t.I
nthi
sway
,set
ti
ngupat
eam al
l
egedl
yfaci
l
itat
est
he
cr
eat
ion,t
racki
ngandassi
gnmentofagr
oupofpeopl
ebasedont
hepr
ojecti
n
hand.

9.Def
ineagr
oupandgr
oupSt
ruct
ure.Di
scusst
hef
act
orsdet
ermi
ninggr
oup
st
ruct
ure

Gr
oup:
Anycol
l
ect
ionofi
ndi
vi
dual
swhohav
emut
ual
l
ydependantr
elat
ionshi
ps&shar
ea
commongoal
(2ormor
epeopl
e/t
heyseet
hemsel
vesasmember
s/f
reei
nter
act
ion)

Team: A smal
l number of peopl
e wi
th compl
ement
ary ski
l
ls ( mut
ual
l
y
account
abl
e/commi
tt
edt
ocommongoal
)

Gr
oupSt
ruct
ure:Thepat
ter
nofi
nter
-r
elat
ionshi
psbet
weent
hei
ndi
vi
dual
swi
thi
nthe
gr
oup.I
tist
hegui
del
i
nesofgr
oupbehav
iourt
hatmakeagr
oupf
unct
ioni
ngor
der
ly.

4aspect
sofGr
oupSt
ruct
ure

 Rol
es:
par
tspl
ayedbygr
oupmember
s
 Nor
ms:
rul
esandexpect
ati
ons
 St
atus:
prest
igeofgr
oupmember
shi
p
 Cohesi
veness:
senseofbel
ongi
ng

10.
Def
inet
het
erm gr
oupdy
nami
cs.Expl
aint
heat
tri
but
esofgr
oupdy
nami
cs
ORGGr
ANo
I
Su
ApD
TI
ONy
n
A ami
LB c
EHsi
A st
VI
O hed
URF egr
ORMBeet
AS ow
TUDENh
Ti
cht
S hemember
sar
eat
tachedt
oandmot
ivat
ed
t
oremai
nthepar
toft
hegr
oup.

Toget
her
ness:I
n or
gani
zat
ionalset
ti
ng,peopl
eon t
hesamef
loor
,depar
tment
,
r
esi
dingi
nthesamecol
ony
,busst
opf
ri
endshi
par
eat
tr
act
edt
oeach-
otherbecause
oft
hei
rcl
osepr
oxi
mit
y.I
twi
l
linv
ari
abl
ybef
oundt
hatt
hepeopl
ewhoar
ecl
osel
y
associ
atedbyv
irt
ueofev
enseat
ingar
rangementi
nthewor
k-pl
aceshar
ethei
rvi
ews
anddi
spl
aymor
ecohesi
venesst
hant
hosewhoar
elocat
edaway
.

Gr
oupSi
ze:I
nwor
kenv
ironmentsmal
lgr
oupi
smor
eef
fect
ive.I
fagr
oupi
slar
ge,
t
her
eisal
soapossi
bil
i
tyoff
ormat
ionofsmal
lsubgr
oupswi
thi
nal
argegr
oup.Thi
s
wi
l
lleadt
odel
usi
onsofgr
oupnor
msandpowerpol
i
ticswi
thi
nthesubgr
oup,
whi
ch
i
snotdesi
rabl
e

Ent
ryNor
ms:
Ther
ear
eor
gani
zat
ionswhosemember
shi
pisdi
ff
icul
ttoobt
ain.Ther
e
ar
eal
socl
ubswhi
char
ereser
vedf
orexcl
usi
vemember
sofapar
ti
cul
arbackgr
ound
l
i
keDef
enseSer
vicesOf
fi
cer
scl
ub.Joi
ningofsuchgr
oupel
evat
est
hest
atus,
posi
ti
onandmember
sfeel
asenseofpr
ideandaccompl
i
shment
.

Thr
eatandChal
l
enges:Whenev
ert
her
eisat
hreatt
odi
stur
bthegr
oupnor
m or
gr
oupobj
ect
ive,
groupmember
sgetmor
euni
tedt
opr
otectt
hegr
oupobj
ect
ivef
rom
t
hepar
tyt
hreat
eni
ngt
hesame.I
twi
l
lbenot
icedt
hatext
ernalt
hreatbr
ingshi
gher
degr
eeofcohesi
ont
othegr
oup.
ORGDe
ANg
Sr
IAe
Te
I
ONo
Afpa
LBEr
Ht
Ai
c
Vi
I
Op
Uat
i
RFo
On i
nAS
RMB gr
o
TUu
Dp A
ENTSct
ivi
ti
es:Par
ti
cipat
ion i
n gr
oup act
ivi
ti
es i
s
i
mpor
tantasi
tleadst
omor
efr
equenti
nter
act
ionbet
weengr
oupmember
s.Success
i
ngr
oupact
ivi
ti
esal
sobr
ingcohesi
venessaseachoft
hepar
ti
cipant
sfeel
sthathe
hasbeent
hecont
ri
but
orf
orachi
evementofgr
oupgoal
s

At
ti
tudeandVal
ue:
Groupmember
shav
ingi
dent
ical
l
yat
ti
tudeandhi
ghl
evel
ofv
alue
sy
stem wi
l
lbehav
ethemsel
vesi
dent
ical
l
yandpr
omot
egr
oupnor
msandachi
eve
Cohesi
veness.I
nsuchsi
tuat
iondeci
sionmaki
ngandi
mpl
ement
ati
onofgr
oupt
ask
i
scompar
ati
vel
yeasy
.

Pr
oxi
mit
y:I
tisv
eryi
mpor
tantwhenpeopl
ewor
kingt
oget
heratav
erycl
osedi
stance
ar
eli
kel
ytohav
egr
eat
eroppor
tuni
tyf
ori
nter
act
ioni
nanor
gani
zat
ion.I
tenhances
t
hef
reeexchangeofi
deas,shar
ingt
hepr
obl
emsandpr
ospect
sinanor
gani
zat
ion.
Ther
efor
e,i
tdev
elopscl
osenessamongt
het
eam member
swhol
eadi
ngt
ogr
eat
er
cohesi
veness

Ti
mespentToget
her
:Ti
mespentt
oget
herandcohesi
venessi
sposi
ti
vel
yrel
ated
peopl
ewhometf
requent
lyandspendt
imet
oget
herf
ordev
elopi
ngmut
ualat
tr
act
ion
and i
nter
per
sonali
nter
act
ion.Team member
s ar
e dev
elopi
ng f
ri
endshi
p and
communi
cat
ionamongmember
sinanor
gani
zat
ion

11.
Expl
aini
n det
ailt
he gr
oup deci
sion maki
ng
pr
ocessGr
oupdeci
sionmaki
ngpr
ocess:
 St
ep1:
ident
if
ypr
obl
em

 St
ep2:
def
inet
heobj
ect
ives

 St
ep3:
dev
elopal
ter
nat
ives

 St
ep4:
Choosebestsol
uti
on

 St
ep5:
Impl
ementsol
uti
on

 St
ep6:
Eval
uat
edeci
sion
Gr
ORo
Gu
Ap
NI ONd
SATI Aeci
LBs
Ei
Ho
AnOURFOma
VI ki
RMBng
ASTUDENTS
t
echni
ques:

 I
nter
act
inggr
oups

 Br
ainst
ormi
ng

 Nomi
nalGr
oupt
echni
ques:smal
lgr
oupsofi
ndi
vi
dual
ssy
stemat
ical
l
ypr
esent&
di
scusst
hei
rideasbef
orepr
ivat
elyv
oti
ngt
hei
rpr
efer
redsol
uti
ons.
 El
ect
roni
cMeet
ing

 St
epl
adderTechni
que:Addi
ngnew member
stoagr
ouponeatat
imeand
r
equi
ri
ngeacht
opr
esenthi
s/heri
deasi
ndependent
lyt
oagr
oupt
hatal
ready
hasdi
scussedt
hepr
obl
em athand.

12.
Stat
ethemer
it
sanddemer
it
sofgr
oupdeci
sion

13.
Expl
ainpunct
uat
edequi
l
ibr
ium model

Punct
uat
edequi
l
ibr
ium model
:
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS
 Begi
nni
ngofGr
oupDi
scussi
ons(
Fir
sthal
f)
:Gr
oupsmakespl
anbutaccompl
i
shes
l
i
ttl
e.

 Hal
ftodeadl
i
ne:
Groupmak
eschanges

 End(
Secondhal
f)
:Gr
oupmakest
hef
inal
changes&r
eachest
hedeadl
i
ne

14.
Il
lust
rat
etheanal
ysi
sofi
nter
per
sonal
rel
ati
onshi
p

Johar
iWi
ndow dev
elopedbyJosephLuf
tandHar
ri
ngt
onI
ngham i
sat
echni
quet
o
anal
yzeandi
mpr
ovei
nter
per
sonal
rel
ati
onshi
p.
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

OpenSel
f:Thei
nfor
mat
ionr
elat
est
ofeel
i
ngs,
mot
ivat
ionandbehav
iourofani
ndi
vi
dual
,
whi
chhei
swi
l
li
ngt
oshar
ewi
tht
hosewhom hecomesi
ncont
act
.Thei
ndi
vi
dual
behav
esi
nast
rai
ghtf
orwar
dmannerandi
sshar
ing.I
nanor
gani
zat
ionalset
ti
ng,
becauseoft
heopennessoft
hei
ndi
vi
dualt
hechancesofconf
li
ctar
ereducedt
o
mi
nimum.

Bl
i
ndSel
f:Thi
sisr
elat
edt
oinf
ormat
ioni
snotknownt
osel
fbutknownt
oot
her
s,who
i
nter
actwi
thy
ou,
knowmor
eabouty
ou.I
tisi
mpor
tantt
hatani
ndi
vi
dualshoul
dreduce
bl
i
ndar
eat
othemi
nimum byi
nter
act
ingwi
thpeopl
emor
eint
imat
elyandbyaski
ng
quest
ionsaboutsel
f.Thi
ssi
tuat
ioni
sli
kel
ytocr
eat
eanunpl
easantat
mospher
eint
he
or
gani
zat
ion.I
ndi
vi
dualt
her
efor
eshoul
dreducebl
i
ndar
eaandi
ncr
easepubl
i
car
ea.
Thi
swi
l
lreduceconf
li
ctsi
tuat
ionst
oagr
eatext
enti
nint
erper
sonal
behav
iour
.

Hi
ddenSel
f:Ther
ear
ecer
tai
naspect
s,whi
char
epr
ivat
e.I
ndi
vi
dualt
her
efor
edoesnot
wantt
oshar
eitwi
thsubor
dinat
esandwant
stokeephi
dden.Thear
eai
sal
socal
l
ed
Pr
ivat
eAr
ea.

UnknownSel
f:I
tshoul
dbeanendeav
ort
oimpr
oveupononesel
fbyobt
aini
ngf
eedback
f
rom ot
her
saboutsel
f.I
ndi
vi
dualshoul
dcar
ryouti
mpr
ovementandper
cei
veonesel
f
cor
rect
lysot
hatoneper
cei
veseachper
soni
nther
ightmanner
.
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

15.
Suggestt
heappr
oachesf
ordev
elopi
ngi
nter
per
sonal
rel
ati
onshi
p

Dev
elopposi
ti
veat
ti
tude:I
tshoul
dbeanat
temptofev
erymanagert
olookatt
he
i
ndi
vi
dual
s,

si
tuat
ionsf
rom posi
ti
vepoi
ntofv
iew andr
emov
edi
stor
ti
oni
fanyi
napar
ti
cul
ar
si
tuat
ion.Per
sonal
biasi
sdanger
ousandact
sasbl
oci
nimpr
ovi
ngr
elat
ionshi
p.
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

BeEmpat
het
ic:Managermustl
ookatf
rom t
heempl
oyees’poi
ntofv
iew.Heshoul
dbe
abl
etoi
dent
if
ysubor
dinat
esneedpat
ter
nandt
ryandf
ulf
il
lthem.Heshoul
ddi
spl
ay
hi
ghdegr
eeofsensi
ti
vi
tyt
owar
dst
hesubor
dinat
esandr
iseabov
etheper
sonali
nter
est
f
ort
hewel
lbei
ngofempl
oyees.

I
mpr
oveSel
fConcept
:Ev
eryi
ndi
vi
dualmusti
mpr
ovehi
ssel
f-
image.Thi
sispossi
ble
when wor
kisassi
gned t
o an i
ndi
vi
dualbased on hi
s ski
l
ls,apt
it
ude,exper
ience,
knowl
edge and qual
i
ficat
ion.I
n case t
her
eis di
stor
ti
on bet
ween t
he i
ndi
vi
dual
’
s
expect
ati
onsandj
obr
equi
rement
,aper
soni
sboundt
odev
elopf
rust
rat
iont
hatwoul
d
l
eadt
othef
eel
i
ngof i
nadequacy(
forahi
ghl
yski
l
ledper
son)
.Int
hissi
tuat
ionaj
ob
r
otat
ionorev
enchangeofor
gani
zat
ioni
srecommenced.

Communi
cat
ion:Communi
cat
ion i
s an i
mpor
tant f
act
or i
n dev
elopi
ng an i
deal
i
nter
per
sonalr
elat
ionshi
p.Al
lbar
ri
ersofcommuni
cat
ionshoul
dber
emov
ed.Manager
s
shoul
dconductt
hemsel
vesi
nsuchamannert
hatt
hesubor
dinat
esf
eelt
hatt
hef
ormer
i
sappr
oachabl
e.Onemustal
sobeagoodl
i
stener

Per
cept
ioner
ror
s:Commonper
cept
ualer
ror
sli
kest
ereot
ypi
ng,hal
oef
fect
,sel
ect
ive
per
cept
ionanddi
stor
ti
onshoul
dbeav
oided

Cul
tur
e:Dev
elopmentofor
gani
zat
ioncul
tur
eemanat
esf
rom t
opl
evel
.Wor
ket
hics,
v
aluebased pr
act
icesmustber
ewar
ded.Dev
elopmentofcul
tur
eisacont
inuous
pr
ocess,whi
chi
sunendi
ng.Forshor
t-
ter
m gai
nscompr
omi
seonet
hicalpr
act
iceswi
l
l
doom t
hebestoft
heor
gani
zat
ions.

16.
Whyi
siti
mpor
tantf
oramanagert
oknowgr
oupbehav
ior
?

Awor
kgr
oupi
scol
l
ect
ionoft
woormor
eindi
vi
dual
s,wor
kingf
oracommongoal
andi
sint
erdependent
.Theyi
nter
actsi
gni
fi
cant
lyt
oachi
eveagr
oupobj
ect
ive.

Foramanageri
tisdi
ff
icul
ttomanagegr
oupbecauseofv
ari
ednat
ure,per
sonal
i
ty
t
rai
ts,at
ti
tudeofi
ndi
vi
dual
sand per
sonali
nter
esti
nthegr
oup t
hatt
hegr
oup
member
s di
spl
ay.I
tist
her
efor
eimpor
tantf
ormanager
sto under
stand gr
oup
memberbehav
iouranddealef
fect
ivel
ywi
tht
hegr
oupbecauseoft
hesy
ner
gyt
hey
pr
ovi
de.
 Managershoul
dbeabl
etoachi
evenotonl
ygr
oupobj
ect
ivebutshoul
dbeabl
eto
f
ulf
il
li
ndi
vi
dual
obj
ect
iveswi
thi
ntheov
eral
lor
gani
zat
ional
framewor
k.

Gr
oupmember
sshoul
dbeabl
etoachi
evegr
eat
er(
vol
umeandqual
i
ty)t
hant
hesum
t
otalofi
ndi
vi
dualcont
ri
but
ion.Thi
sisachi
evedbyj
ointi
deagener
ati
on,f
indi
ngout
v
ari
ouscour
sesopen,andsel
ect
ingandi
mpl
ement
ingt
hebestcour
seofact
ion.
Becauseoft
hej
ointef
for
ts oft
hegr
oup,i
tpossi
blet
ousesk
il
l,knowl
edgeand
exper
ienceofgr
oupmember
stoachi
evequal
i
tydeci
sionsandachi
evegr
oupgoal
s.

Fr
edLut
hansst
atest
hati
fagr
oupexi
stsi
nanor
gani
zat
ion,
itsmember
s:-

–Ar
emot
ivat
edt
ojoi
n

–per
cei
veagr
oupasuni
fi
eduni
tofi
nter
act
ingpeopl
e

–cont
ri
but
etov
ari
ousamount
stot
hegr
ouppr
ocesses

–r
eachagr
eementanddi
sagr
eement
sthr
oughv
ari
ousf
ormsofi
nter
act
ion.

17.
How t
oincr
easegr
oupcohesi
veness?How cangr
oupdeci
sionbemademor
e
ef
fect
ive?

Cr
eat
inggr
oupcohesi
veness:

 I
ncr
easi
ngt
hef
requencyofi
nter
act
ion

 Thr
eatf
rom t
het
hir
dpar
ty

 Shar
ed Goal
s, At
ti
tudes &
v
aluesEnhanci
ngt
eam per
for
mance:
 Smal
lTeam si
ze(
Max12)
/speci
fi
cgoal
/hav
epr
operl
eader
shi
p

 Eacht
eam shoul
d3t
ypesofski
l
ls(
techni
cal
/i
nter
per
sonal
/pr
obl
em sol
vi
ng&
deci
sionmaki
ng)
 18.
Groupnor
msandi
tsi
mpacti
nthei
ndi
vi
dual
behav
iour
Asonecoul
dexpectt
her
ear
esev
eraldi
ff
erentt
ypesofgener
all
yunder
stoodnor
ms.
Theyar
e:

Per
for
mancenor
ms:Per
for
mancenor
msar
ecent
eredonhowhar
daper
sonshoul
d
wor
kinagi
vengr
oup.Theyar
einf
ormalcues,
ify
ouwi
l
l,t
hatt
ell
saper
sonorhel
psa
per
sonunder
standhow har
dtheyshoul
dwor
kandwhatt
ypeofout
putt
heyshoul
d
hav
e.

Appear
ancenor
ms:Thi
sty
peofnor
minf
ormsorgui
desusast
ohowweshoul
dlook
orwhatourphy
sicalappear
anceshoul
dbe-whatf
ashi
onweshoul
dwearorhowwe
shoul
dst
yleourhai
roranynumberofar
easr
elat
edt
ohowweshoul
dlook.

Soci
alar
rangementnor
ms:Whenwet
alkaboutt
hist
ypeofnor
m wegener
all
ydonot
equat
eitt
oabusi
nessset
ti
ng.Thi
snor
miscent
eredonhowweshoul
dacti
nsoci
al
set
ti
ngs.Onceagai
n,t
her
ear
ecuesweneedt
opi
ckuponwhenwear
eoutwi
th
f
ri
endsoratsoci
alev
ent
sthathel
pusf
iti
nandgetacl
oserconnect
iont
othegr
oup.

Resour
ceal
l
ocat
ionnor
ms:Fort
hist
ypeofnor
m we'
ref
ocusi
ngont
heal
l
ocat
ionof
r
esour
cesi
nabusi
nessenv
ironment
.Thi
scani
ncl
uder
aw mat
eri
alsaswel
las
ov
ert
imeoranyot
herr
esour
cef
oundorneededwi
thi
nanor
gani
zat
ion.

Soci
alnor
msdet
ermi
nehow ani
ndi
vi
dualact
sorbehav
eswheni
nthecompanyof
col
l
eagues.Thei
ndi
vi
dual
wil
ll
ikel
yref
lectt
hesoci
alv
aluesandt
rai
tsoft
hegr
oup.

Per
for
mancenor
msdet
ermi
neani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sinputandout
putwi
thi
nthewor
king
gr
oup.Thei
ndi
vi
dualwi
l
lli
kel
yper
for
m asetofr
olesanddut
iesasexpect
edby
member
soft
hegr
oupt
oensur
ehi
sorherov
eral
ltaski
saccompl
i
shed.

Accor
dingt
oEdgarHenr
ySchei
n(bor
nin1928)t
her
ear
epi
vot
alandr
elev
antgr
oup
nor
ms.Whi
l
ethepi
vot
alnor
msar
econf
ir
medbyev
erymemberoft
hegr
oup,t
he
r
elev
antnor
msar
edesi
rabl
etobeconf
ir
medbyt
hemember
s.Wi
thi
ncr
easei
nthe
si
zeoft
hegr
oup,t
heaccept
abi
l
ityofnor
mst
endst
olessen.Smal
ldev
iat
ionof
nor
msi
sal
l
owabl
e.Howev
er,
incaseofext
remedev
iat
ion,
thedev
iat
orget
spuni
shed.
Forexampl
e,whent
heuni
oni
sonst
ri
ke,
itsmember
sat
tendi
ngt
owor
kpuni
shedby
bei
ngboy
cot
tedbyt
hegr
oup.Thus,
thegr
oupnor
mshav
efol
l
owi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs:
  1.Asper
sonal
i
tyr
eveal
sani
ndi
vi
dual
,sogr
oupnor
msdof
orgr
oups.
 2.Nor
msser
veast
hebasi
sforbehav
iourofgr
oupmember
s.
 3.Theypr
edi
ctandcont
rol
thebehav
iourofmember
singr
oups.
 4.Nor
msar
eappl
i
edt
oal
lmember
soft
hegr
oup,
thoughnotuni
for
mly
.

19.
GroupCohesi
venessandpr
oduct
ivi
ty

Cohesi
veness maycont
ri
but
etoi
ncr
eased pr
oduct
ivi
tybecause (
i)peopl
ein
cohesi
vegr
oupsexper
iencef
ewerwor
krel
atedanxi
eti
esandt
ensi
ons(
ii
)hi
ghl
y
cohesi
vegr
oupst
endt
ohav
elowerabsent
eei
sm andt
urnov
erand(
ii
i)cohesi
veness
decr
easespr
oduct
ivi
tydi
ff
erencesamonggr
oups.

St
udi
esconsi
stent
lyshow t
hatt
her
elat
ionshi
pofcohesi
venessandpr
oduct
ivi
ty
dependsont
heper
for
mancer
elat
ednor
msest
abl
i
shedbyt
hegr
oup.I
fper
for
mance
r
elat
ednor
msar
ehi
gh,acohesi
vegr
oupwi
l
lbemor
epr
oduct
ivet
hanwi
thal
ess
cohesi
ve gr
oup.Buti
fcohesi
veness i
s hi
gh and per
for
mance nor
ms ar
elow,
pr
oduct
ivi
tywi
l
lbel
ow.I
fcohesi
venessi
slow andper
for
mancenor
msar
ehi
gh,
pr
oduct
ivi
tyi
ncr
easesbutl
esst
hani
nhi
ghcohesi
veness-
highnor
mssi
tuat
ion.Wher
e
cohesi
venessandper
for
mancer
elat
ednor
msar
ebot
hlow,pr
oduct
ivi
tywi
l
ltendt
o
f
all
int
othel
owt
omoder
ater
ange.

20.
Impr
essi
onmanagement

I
mpr
essi
onmanagement
 i
saconsci
ousor
 subconsci
ous 
processi
nwhi
chpeopl
e
at
temptt
o i
nfl
uence 
the 
per
cept
ions 
ofot
herpeopl
eaboutaper
son,obj
ectorev
ent
byr
egul
ati
ngandcont
rol
l
ingi
nfor
mat
ioni
nsoci
ali
nter
act
ion
 Ther
e ar
e many met
hods behi
nd sel
f-
present
ati
on, i
ncl
udi
ng 
sel
f
di
scl
osur
e (
ident
if
yingwhatu"t
oanot
herper
son)
,managi
ngappear
ances(
try
ingt
o
f
iti
n),i
ngr
ati
ati
on,al
i
gni
ng act
ions (
maki
ng one'
s act
ions seem appeal
i
ng or
under
standabl
e),andal
ter
-cast
ing(
imposi
ngi
dent
it
iesonot
herpeopl
e).Mai
ntai
ning
av
ersi
onofsel
f-
present
ati
ont
hati
sgener
all
yconsi
der
edt
obeat
tr
act
ivecanhel
pto
i
ncr
ease one'
s 
soci
alcapi
tal
,and t
his met
hod i
s commonl
yimpl
ement
ed by
i
ndi
vi
dual
satnet
wor
kingev
ent
s.Thesesel
f-
present
ati
onmet
hodscanal
sobeused
[
8]
ont
hecor
por
atel
evel
asi
mpr
essi
onmanagement
.

Sel
f-
present
ati
on

Sel
f-
present
ati
oni
sconv
eyi
ngi
nfor
mat
ionaboutonesel
f–orani
mageofonesel
f–t
o
ot
her
s.Ther
ear
etwot
ypesandmot
ivat
ionsofsel
f-
present
ati
on:

 pr
esent
ati
onmeantt
omat
chone'
sownsel
f-
image,
and

[
9]
 pr
esent
ati
onmeantt
omat
chaudi
enceexpect
ati
onsandpr
efer
ences.

Sel
f-
present
ati
oni
sexpr
essi
ve.I
ndi
vi
dual
sconst
ructani
mageoft
hemsel
vest
ocl
aim
per
sonali
dent
it
y,andpr
esentt
hemsel
vesi
namannert
hati
sconsi
stentwi
tht
hat
[
10]
i
mage.  Ift
heyf
eell
i
kei
tisr
est
ri
cted,
theyof
tenexhi
bit
 r
eact
ance 
orbecomedef
iant
–t
ryt
oasser
tthei
rfr
eedom agai
nstt
hosewhowoul
dseekt
ocur
tai
lsel
f-
present
ati
on
expr
essi
veness.Anexampl
eoft
hisdy
nami
cist
he"
preacher
'sdaught
er"
,whose
suppr
essedper
sonali
dent
it
yandemot
ionscauseanev
ent
ualbackl
ashatherf
ami
l
y
andcommuni
ty.

 Boast
ing 
– Mi
l
lon 
not
est
hati
nsel
f-
present
ati
oni
ndi
vi
dual
sar
echal
l
engedt
obal
ance
boast
ingagai
nstdi
scr
edi
ti
ngt
hemsel
vesv
iaexcessi
vesel
f-
promot
ionorbei
ngcaught
andbei
ngpr
ovenwr
ong.I
ndi
vi
dual
sof
tenhav
eli
mit
edabi
l
ityt
oper
cei
vehow t
hei
r
[
11]
ef
for
tsi
mpactt
hei
raccept
ance,
andl
i
keabi
l
itybyot
her
s.

 Fl
att
ery
 –f
lat
ter
yor
 pr
aise 
toi
ncr
easesoci
alat
tr
act
iveness[12]

 I
nti
midat
ion 
– aggr
essi
vel
y showi
ng 
anger
 t
o getot
her
sto hearand obey one'
s
[
13]
demands.

Sel
f-
present
ati
oncanbeei
therdef
ensi
veorasser
ti
vest
rat
egi
es(
alsodescr
ibedas
[
14]
pr
otect
ivev
ersusacqui
sit
ive)
.  Wher
easdef
ensi
vest
rat
egi
esi
ncl
udebehav
iour
sli
ke
av
oidance of t
hreat
eni
ng si
tuat
ions or means of
 sel
f-
 handi
cappi
ng,
 
asser
ti
ve 
str
ategi
es r
efert
o mor
e act
ive behav
iourl
i
ke t
he v
erbal
[
15]
i
deal
i
sat
ionoft
hesel
f,t
heuseofst
atussy
mbol
sorsi
mil
arpr
act
ices.

UNI
T4

Leader
shi
p

8. Di
ff
erencebet
weenLeaderandamanager

Leader
sandManager
scanbecompar
edont
hef
oll
owi
ngbasi
s:

Basi
s Manager Leader

Aper
sonbecomesamanagerby A per
son becomes a l
eaderon
Or
igi
n
v
irt
ueofhi
sposi
ti
on. basi
sofhi
sper
sonal
qual
i
ties.

Managerhasgotf
ormalr
ight
sin
For
mal
Right
s anor
gani
zat
ionbecauseofhi
s Ri
ght
sar
enotav
ail
abl
etoal
eader
.
st
atus.

The subor
dinat
es ar
e t
he Thegr
oupofempl
oyeeswhom t
he
Fol
l
ower
s
f
oll
ower
sofmanager
s. l
eader
sleadsar
ehi
sfol
l
ower
s.

A manager per
for
ms al
lfi
ve Leaderi
nfl
uencespeopl
eto wor
k
Funct
ions
f
unct
ionsofmanagement
. wi
l
li
ngl
yforgr
oupobj
ect
ives.
 A l
eader i
srequi
red t
o cr
eat
e
Amanageri
sver
yessent
ialt
oa
Necessi
ty cor
dial r
elat
ion bet
ween per
son
concer
n.
wor
kingi
nandf
oror
gani
zat
ion.

St
abi
l
ity I
tismor
est
abl
e. Leader
shi
pist
empor
ary
.

Mut
ual
Al
lmanager
sar
eleader
s. Al
ll
eader
sar
enotmanager
s.
Rel
ati
onshi
p

Manageri
saccount
abl
eforsel
f
Leader
s hav
e no wel
l def
ined
Account
abi
l
ity andsubor
dinat
esbehav
iourand
account
abi
l
ity
.
per
for
mance.

A manager
’s concer
n i
s Al
eader
’sconcer
nisgr
oupgoal
s
Concer
n
or
gani
zat
ional
goal
s. andmember
’ssat
isf
act
ion.

Peopl
efol
l
ow managerbyv
irt
ue Peopl
efol
l
ow t
hem on v
olunt
ary
Fol
l
ower
s
ofj
obdescr
ipt
ion. basi
s.

Amanagercancont
inuei
nof
fi
ce
Al
eadercanmai
ntai
nhi
sposi
ti
on
Rol
e t
il
l he per
for
ms hi
s dut
ies
onl
ythr
oughdayt
odaywi
shesof
cont
inuat
ion sat
isf
act
ori
l
yincongr
uencewi
th
f
oll
ower
s.
or
gani
zat
ional
goal
s.

A l
eader has command ov
er
Manager has command ov
er
di
ff
erentsanct
ionsandr
elat
edt
ask
Sanct
ions al
l
ocat
ion and di
str
ibut
ion of
r
ecor
ds. These sanct
ions ar
e
sanct
ions.
essent
ial
l
yofi
nfor
mal
nat
ure.

9. Di
scusst
het
heor
iesofl
eader
shi
p
I
. Tr
aitTheor
yofLeader
shi
p

Tr
aitt
heor
yseekst
odet
ermi
neuni
ver
sal
per
sonal
char
act
eri
sti
csofef
fect
ivel
eader
s.
Numer
ousphy
sical
,ment
al,andper
sonal
i
tyt
rai
tswer
eresear
cheddur
ingt
heper
iod
f
rom 1930t
o1950.Leader
swer
echar
act
eri
zedbyawi
dev
ari
etyoft
rai
tsr
angi
ngal
l
t
hewayf
rom neat
nesst
onobi
l
ity
.Int
hel
ate1940s,Ral
phSt
ogdi
l
lrepor
tedont
he
basi
s ofatl
eastf
if
teen st
udi
es t
hatl
eader
s possess i
ntel
l
igence,schol
arshi
p,
dependabi
l
ityi
nexer
cisi
ngr
esponsi
bil
i
ties,
act
ivi
tyandsoci
alpar
ti
cipat
ionandsoci
o-
economi
cst
atus.Heal
so f
ound t
rai
tssuchassoci
abi
l
ity
,per
sist
ence,i
nit
iat
ive,
knowi
nghowt
ogett
hingsdone,sel
fconf
idence,al
ert
ness,i
nsi
ght
,cooper
ati
veness,
popul
ari
ty,adapt
abi
l
ityandv
erbalf
aci
l
ityi
ntenl
eader
shi
pst
udi
es.Per
sonswhoar
e
l
eader
sar
epr
esumedt
odi
spl
aybet
terj
udgmentandengaget
hemsel
vesi
nsoci
al
act
ivi
ti
es.Thest
udyoft
hel
i
vesofsuccessf
ull
eader
srev
eal
sthatt
heypossessed
manyoft
heset
rai
ts.Tr
aitst
udi
eshav
enotpr
oducedcl
earr
esul
tsbecauset
heydo
notconsi
dert
hewhol
eleader
shi
penv
ironment
.Per
sonalt
rai
tsar
eonl
yapar
toft
he
whol
eenv
ironment
.Thoughacer
tai
ntr
aitexi
sts,i
twi
l
lnotbecomeact
iveunt
ila
cer
tai
nsi
tuat
ioncal
l
sfori
t.Thus,t
her
eisnosur
econnect
ionbet
weent
rai
tsand
l
eader
shi
pact
s.Leader
shi
pisal
way
srel
atedt
oapar
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ion.Aper
sonmay
pr
ovesuccessf
uli
nonesi
tuat
ionduet
osomet
rai
ts,
butmayf
aili
nanot
hersi
tuat
ion.
Anot
hershor
tcomi
ngoft
het
rai
ttheor
yist
hef
ail
ureofi
tssuppor
ter
stof
ormul
atea
commonl
i
stoft
rai
tsf
oundi
nal
lsuccessf
ull
eader
s.Fori
nst
ance,goodheal
thi
s
desi
rabl
einmanyl
eader
shi
psi
tuat
ions,
butt
her
ear
eal
sosuccessf
ull
eader
sinot
her
si
tuat
ionst
hatdonotenj
oygoodheal
th.Ther
ear
esomanyexcept
ionst
oanygener
al
st
atementaboutl
eader
shi
ptr
ait
s.Thet
heor
yal
sof
ail
stoment
iont
het
rai
tswhi
char
e
necessar
ytomai
ntai
nleader
shi
p.Measur
ementofat
rai
tusual
l
yoccur
saf
tera
per
sonbecomesal
eaderandi
tisdi
ff
icul
ttosuggestt
het
rai
tswhi
char
epr
e-
r
equi
sit
esofsuccessf
ull
eader
.

I
I. Behav
iour
alTheor
yofLeader
shi
p

Successi
nleader
shi
pdependsmor
eonwhatt
hel
eaderdoest
hanonhi
str
ait
s.The
behav
iour
alappr
oachi
sbasedont
hepr
emi
set
hatef
fect
ivel
eader
shi
pist
her
esul
tof
ef
fect
iver
olebehav
ior
.Ther
eisady
nami
cint
eract
ionbet
weent
hel
eaderandt
he
f
oll
ower
s,andl
eader
spr
oducedi
ff
erentst
yleswhi
l
edeal
i
ngwi
tht
hewor
ker
s.Many
behav
iour
alsci
ent
ist
shav
eat
tempt
edt
oident
if
yappr
opr
iat
ebehav
iour
alpat
ter
nsof
l
eader
shi
pst
yles.Someoft
hei
mpor
tantcont
ri
but
ionsi
nthi
sregar
dincl
udeOhi
o
St
ateSt
udi
es,Mi
chi
ganUni
ver
sit
ySt
udi
esandManager
ialGr
idofBl
akeandMout
on.
Thebehav
iour
alsci
ent
ist
sdon’
tconcent
rat
eont
het
rai
tsofl
eader
s;r
athert
heyst
udy
t
heact
ivi
ti
esofl
eader
stoi
dent
if
ythei
rbehav
iour
alpat
ter
ns.

a.Mi
chi
ganSt
udi
esTheI
nst
it
utef
orSoci
alResear
chatt
heUni
ver
sit
yofMi
chi
gan
conduct
edempi
ri
calst
udi
est
oident
if
yst
ylesofl
eaderbehav
iort
hatr
esul
tsi
nhi
gher
per
for
manceandsat
isf
act
ionofagr
oup.Thest
udi
esi
dent
if
iedt
wodi
sti
nctst
ylesof
l
eader
shi
p.Empl
oyeeCent
eredl
eader
shi
pandPr
oduct
ionCent
ered(
taskor
ient
ed)
l
eader
shi
p:Theempl
oyeecent
ered l
eader
sconcent
rat
eon human r
elat
ionsand
emphasi
ze del
egat
ion of aut
hor
it
y, concer
n f
or empl
oyee needs, wel
far
e,
adv
ancement
,et
c.Leader
s who ar
e descr
ibed as empl
oyee or
ient
ed st
ress t
he
r
elat
ionshi
paspect
soft
hej
ob.Theyf
eelt
hatev
eryempl
oyeei
simpor
tantandt
ake
i
nter
esti
nev
ery
one,accept
ingt
hei
rindi
vi
dual
i
tyandper
sonalneeds.Pr
oduct
ion
cent
eredl
eader
shi
pismor
econcer
nedwi
thmaxi
mizi
ngr
egar
dlessoft
heempl
oyee’
s
needs,wel
far
eand aspi
rat
ions.Manager
sdon’
tat
tach much i
mpor
tancet
othe
humanel
ement
.TheMi
chi
ganSt
udi
esf
oundt
hatbot
hthest
ylesofl
eader
shi
pledt
o
i
ncr
easei
npr
oduct
ion,buti
twassl
i
ght
lymor
eincaseofpr
oduct
ioncent
eredst
yle.
Howev
er,t
he use ofdi
rectpr
essur
e and cl
ose super
visi
on l
ed t
o decr
eased
sat
isf
act
ion and i
ncr
eased t
urnov
erand absent
eei
sm.The empl
oyee cent
ered
appr
oachl
edt
oimpr
ovedwor
kfl
ow andmor
ecohesi
oni
nint
eract
ionsr
esul
ti
ngi
n
i
ncr
easedsat
isf
act
ionanddecr
easedt
urnov
erandabsent
eei
sm.Thi
ssuggest
edt
he
super
ior
it
yoft
heempl
oyeecent
eredl
eader
shi
pst
yleov
ert
hepr
oduct
ioncent
red
st
yle.
Ev
aluat
ionofMi
chi
ganSt
udi
es.Thev
alueofMi
chi
ganst
udi
esl
i
esi
ntheanal
ysi
sof
t
wol
eader
shi
pst
yles,
taskandempl
oyeeor
ient
edl
eader
shi
p.I
nst
eadofr
est
ri
cti
ngt
o
t
rai
tsofl
eader
s,t
heyconcent
rat
edont
hebehav
iorofl
eader
s.Thesest
udi
esar
e
cr
it
ici
zedont
hef
oll
owi
nggr
ounds:
i
i
. TheMi
chi
ganst
udi
esf
ail
edt
osuggestwhet
herl
eaderbehav
iori
sa
causeoref
fect
.Theydi
dnotcl
ari
fywhet
hert
heempl
oyeecent
ered
l
eader
shi
pmakest
hegr
ouppr
oduct
iveorwhet
hert
hehi
ghl
ypr
oduct
ive
gr
oupi
nducest
hel
eadert
obeempl
oyeecent
ered.
 i
i
i. i
i
.TheMi
chi
ganSt
udi
esdi
dnotconsi
dert
henat
ureoft
hesubor
dinat
es’
t
asksort
hei
rper
sonalchar
act
eri
sti
cs.Gr
oupchar
act
eri
sti
csandot
her
si
tuat
ionalv
ari
abl
es wer
e al
so i
gnor
ed.i
i
i.The behav
iour
alst
yles
suggest
edbyMi
chi
ganSt
udi
eshav
ebeent
ermedasst
ati
c.Al
eaderi
s
supposedt
ofol
l
ow ei
theroft
het
wost
yles,v
iz.
,taskor
ient
ati
onand
empl
oyeeor
ient
ati
on.Buti
npr
act
ice,apar
ti
cul
arst
ylemaysucceedi
n
one si
tuat
ion and f
aili
n anot
her
.Mor
eov
er,l
eader
s don’
trest
ri
ct
t
hemsel
vest
oapar
ti
cul
ar266st
yle.Theyadoptbot
htheor
ient
ati
onsi
n
v
ary
ingdegr
eest
osui
tthepar
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ion.

b.Ohi
oSt
ateLeader
shi
pSt
udi
es

Thel
eader
shi
pst
udi
esi
nit
iat
edbyt
heBur
eauofResear
chatOhi
oSt
ateUni
ver
sit
y
at
tempt
edt
oident
if
yvar
iousdi
mensi
onsofl
eaderbehav
ior
.
Ohi
o St
udi
es -Leader
shi
p Ul
ti
mat
ely
,these st
udi
es nar
rowed down t
othe
i
dent
if
icat
ion oft
wo di
mensi
ons ofl
eaderbehav
ior
:Ini
ti
ati
ng St
ruct
ure and
Consi
der
ati
on.
I
nit
iat
ingSt
ruct
urer
efer
stot
hel
eader
’sbehav
iori
ndel
i
neat
ingt
her
elat
ionshi
p
bet
weenhi
msel
fandmember
soft
hewor
kgr
oupandofcommuni
cat
ion,and
met
hodsorpr
ocedur
es.Ont
heot
herhand,
Consi
der
ati
onr
efer
stot
hel
eader
’sbehav
iori
ndi
cat
iveoff
ri
endshi
p,mut
ualt
rust
,
r
espect
,andwar
mthi
nther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hel
eaderandt
hemember
sofhi
s
st
aff
.
Ther
esear
chst
udi
esal
soshowedt
hati
nit
iat
ingst
ruct
ureandconsi
der
ati
onar
e
t
wodi
sti
nctdi
mensi
onsandnotmut
ual
l
yexcl
usi
ve.Al
owscor
eononedoesnot
r
equi
rehi
ghscor
eont
heot
her
.Thus,l
eader
shi
pbehav
iorcanbepl
ott
edont
wo
separ
ateaxesr
athert
hanonasi
ngl
econt
inuum.Thef
ourquadr
ant
sinFi
g.16.
1
show v
ari
ous combi
nat
ions ofi
nit
iat
ing st
ruct
ure and consi
der
ati
on.I
n each
quadr
ant
,ther
eisar
elat
ivemi
xtur
eofi
nit
iat
ingst
ruct
ureandconsi
der
ati
onanda
managercanadoptanyonest
yle.

c.Manager
ial
Gri
d
The t
wo di
mensi
ons ofl
eader
shi
p,v
iz.concer
nforpeopl
e and concer
nfor
pr
oduct
ionhav
ebeendemonst
rat
edbyRober
tR.Bl
akeandJamesS.Mout
oni
n
t
hef
orm ofagr
id.Thewor
d‘Gr
id’meansani
rongr
ati
ng,af
ramewor
kofpar
all
el
bar
s.Fi
gur
e 21.
2:Manager
ialGr
id Bl
ake and Mout
on i
dent
if
ied f
ive basi
c
l
eader
shi
pst
ylesofpr
act
ici
ngmanager
srepr
esent
ingv
ari
ouscombi
nat
ionsoft
he
af
oresai
dtwodi
mensi
onsasshowni
ntheabov
edi
agr
am.I
tis,
howev
er,
impor
tant
t
opoi
ntoutt
hesebasi
cst
ylesar
eamat
terofconv
eni
encer
athert
hanaf
act
.A
br
iefdescr
ipt
ionoft
hesest
ylesi
sgi
venbel
ow.

1.The9,1manager
ialSt
yle(
Task)Peopl
ear
eregar
dedasani
nst
rumentof
pr
oduct
ionundert
he9,
1managementst
yle.I
tisanaut
ocr
ati
cst
yleofl
eader
shi
p.
Thi
s st
yle pl
aces a heav
y emphasi
s on t
ask and j
ob r
equi
rement
.Human
r
elat
ionshi
psandi
nter
act
ionsar
emi
nimi
zed.Subor
dinat
esar
eexpect
edt
ocar
ry
outor
der
swi
thanunquest
ioni
ngobedi
ence.Theyar
etakenasmer
elymeansf
or
doi
ngt
het
asksassi
gnedt
othem.Li
tt
leat
tent
ioni
sgi
vent
othei
rdev
elopmentor
communi
cat
ingwi
tht
hem bey
ondt
hei
ssueofi
nst
ruct
ionsandor
der
s.I
fther
eisa
conf
li
ctbet
weenasubor
dinat
eandt
heboss,
thegoal
oft
hebossi
stowi
n.

2.The1,
9Manager
ial
sty
le(
Count
ryCl
ub)Undert
hisst
yleofmanagement
,wor
kis
donel
eisur
ely
.Atbestpeopl
ear
eregar
dedr
athert
handr
iven.Subor
dinat
esar
e
expect
edt
otur
noutsomewor
ktoav
oidt
roubl
e.Thebossi
smor
eofabi
gbr
other
r
athert
hananaut
ocr
ati
cleader
.Soci
alr
elat
ionshi
psar
emor
eimpor
tant
.The
gr
oup,nott
hei
ndi
vi
duali
sthekeyi
ntheor
gani
zat
ion.Theai
mist
oachi
eve
f
ri
endl
i
nessandhar
monyamongt
hemember
soft
heor
gani
zat
ion.

3.The1,1Manager
ialSt
yle(
Impov
eri
shed)Amanagerwi
tht
hisor
ient
ati
onexer
ts
mi
nimum i
nfl
uenceon t
hecont
act
swi
th gr
oup member
s.Heexpr
essesl
i
ttl
e
concer
nforpr
oduct
ionorpeopl
e.I
nasuper
visor
yposi
ti
on,hei
smostl
i
kel
ytobe
f
oundexecut
ingmessenger–car
ri
erf
unct
ions,communi
cat
ingor
der
sfr
om t
he
l
ayerabov
etot
hel
ayerbel
ow.Hei
sanexper
tinpassi
ngonbl
amet
oot
her
sfor
f
ail
uresi
nsuchawayt
hatheabsol
veshi
msel
ffr
om r
esponsi
bil
i
tiesandr
arel
y
i
nit
iat
es.Hi
s cr
it
ici
sm i
s st
ri
ctl
yin sel
fdef
ense.Mi
nimum i
nvol
vementi
n
or
gani
zat
ion’
spur
poseandwi
thi
tspeopl
eisal
lthathewant
s.Thr
oughmi
nimum
cont
actandnon-i
nvol
vement
,the1,1st
yler
educest
heneedt
otakeact
ivest
eps
wi
thr
espectt
omanager
ialr
esponsi
bil
i
ties.Subor
dinat
esormember
soft
hegr
oup
ar
elef
ttof
indf
ort
hemsel
vest
heway
sofdoi
ngt
hej
ob.

4.The5,5manager
ialSt
yle(
Middl
eRoad)The“
peopl
e”di
mensi
oni
nthewor
k
si
tuat
ioni
sasi
mpor
tantast
he“
product
ion”di
mensi
on.The5,5st
yleseekst
o
mai
ntai
nabal
ancebet
weent
het
wo.A basi
cassumpt
ionoft
hisst
ylei
sthat
peopl
ewi
l
lwor
kwi
l
li
ngl
yandt
heyar
etol
dther
easonsf
ordoi
ngsoar
eexpl
ained
t
othem.Howev
er,j
ustenoughi
scommuni
cat
edsot
hatpeopl
ehav
eagener
al
senseofwhati
sgoi
ngon.I
ftoomuchi
stol
d,i
tisf
ear
edt
hatt
heymi
ghtr
esi
st.
Enoughconcer
nisshownf
ort
hepeopl
esot
hatadequat
epr
oduct
ionmaybe
achi
eved.Thi
sis seen i
nthe 5,5 appr
oach t
o managementdev
elopment
,
communi
cat
ion,andper
for
mancer
evi
ews.Meet
ingsar
ehel
dtol
i
stent
othei
r
suggest
ionsandt
ocr
eat
easenseofpar
ti
cipat
ioni
ndeci
sion-maki
ng.

5.The9,
9Manager
ial
Sty
le(
Team)Amaj
ordi
ff
erencebet
ween9,
9st
yleandot
her
manager
ial
sty
lesi
singoal
set
ti
ngandi
tsuseasabasi
cmanagementappr
oacht
o
al
argev
ari
etyofpr
obl
ems.Thecapabi
l
ityofpeopl
einachi
evi
ngor
gani
zat
ional
obj
ect
ivest
hroughcommi
tmenti
sfundament
al.I
not
herwor
ds,
the9,
9or
ient
ati
on
ai
msati
ntegr
ati
ngt
hepeopl
eandpr
oduct
iondi
mensi
onsofwor
kundercondi
ti
ons
ofhi
ghconcer
nforgr
owt
h.Thekeyi
sthei
nvol
vementandpar
ti
cipat
ionoft
hose
r
esponsi
blef
ori
tinpl
anni
ngandexecut
ionofwor
k.Thi
sbr
ingsaboutt
heki
ndof
t
eam spi
ri
tthatl
eadst
ohi
ghor
gani
zat
ionaccompl
i
shment
.Eachoft
hef
ivest
yles
gi
venbyBl
akeandMout
onpoi
ntsoutt
her
elat
iveconcer
nforpr
oduct
ionand
peopl
e and i
mpl
i
es t
hatt
he mostdesi
rabl
eleader
shi
p behav
iori
s 9,9 i
.e.
,
maxi
mum concer
nforbot
hpr
oduct
ionandpeopl
e.I
tmaybenot
edt
hatt
hef
ive
posi
ti
onsemphasi
zedi
ntheManager
ialgr
idar
erar
elyf
oundi
nthei
rpur
efor
min
act
uall
i
fe.Thatmeans,amanagermayhav
east
yleof8,2,or4,6orsomeot
her
.
Nev
ert
hel
ess,
Manager
ialGr
idi
swi
del
yusedasat
echni
queofmanager
ialt
rai
ning
and f
ori
dent
if
ying v
ari
ouscombi
nat
ionsofl
eader
shi
p st
yles.I
n essence,t
he
manager
ialGr
idhasgi
venpopul
art
ermi
nol
ogyt
oleader
shi
pst
yleswi
thi
nthef
our
quadr
ant
s oft
he Ohi
o St
ate St
udi
es.Howev
er,t
her
eis one basi
c di
ff
erence
bet
ween t
he t
wo.I
n manager
ialGr
id,‘
concer
nfor
’is a pr
edi
sposi
ti
on about
somet
hing oran at
ti
tudi
naldi
mensi
on.Thus,manager
ialGr
idt
endst
o bean
at
ti
tudi
nalmodelt
hatmeasur
est
hepr
edi
sposi
ti
onsofabehav
iour
almodelt
hat
exami
neshow l
eaderact
ionsar
eper
cei
vedbyot
her
s.Choi
ceofLeader
shi
pSt
yle
Wehav
eobser
vedt
hatdi
ff
erentmanagementexper
tshav
esuggest
eddi
ff
erent
st
ylesandt
her
eisnounani
mit
yamongt
hem ast
owhi
chi
sthemostsui
tabl
efor
anent
erpr
ise.Forexampl
eRensi
sLi
ker
tsuggest
eddemocr
ati
cleader
shi
p.As
di
ff
erentl
eader
shi
pst
yleshav
ethei
rmer
it
sanddemer
it
s,i
tisdi
ff
icul
ttopr
eferone
l
eader
shi
pst
ylet
oanot
her
.Thesel
ect
ionofal
eader
shi
pst
ylewi
l
ldependont
he
consi
der
ati
onofanumberoff
act
ors.

Accor
ding t
o Tannenbaum and Schmi
dt,t
hei
mpor
tantf
act
orst
hataf
fectt
he
choi
ceofast
yleofl
eader
shi
par
easf
oll
ows:For
cesi
ntheManager:These
i
ncl
udemanager
’sper
sonal
i
ty,exper
ience,andv
aluesy
stem,hi
sconf
idencei
n
subor
dinat
es,
leader
shi
pincl
i
nat
ion,
feel
i
ngofsecur
it
yinanuncer
tai
nsi
tuat
ion,
etc.
For
cesi
ntheSubor
dinat
es:Thesei
ncl
uder
eadi
nessofsubor
dinat
est
oassume
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ormaki
ng deci
sions,need ofsubor
dinat
es f
ori
ndependence,
i
nter
esti
nthepr
obl
em athand,
knowl
edget
odeal
wit
hthepr
obl
em,
etc.

I
II
. Si
tuat
ional Theor
y of Leader
shi
p/ Cont
ingency Model of Leader
shi
p
Ef
fect
ivenessLeader
shi
pTheor
ies

Thi
stheor
yadv
ocat
est
hatl
eader
shi
pisst
rongl
yaf
fect
edbyt
hesi
tuat
ionf
rom
whi
chal
eaderemer
gesandi
nwhi
chhewor
ks.I
tisbasedont
heassumpt
ionst
hat
t
her
eexi
stsani
nter
act
ionbet
weenagr
oupandi
tsl
eaderandt
hatpeopl
etendt
o
f
oll
ow t
heper
son(
knownasl
eader
)whoi
scapabl
eoff
ulf
il
li
ngt
hei
raspi
rat
ions.
Thus,
leaderi
sameansofachi
evi
ngt
hegoal
soft
hegr
oupandt
hemember
s.The
l
eaderr
ecogni
zest
heneedsoft
hesi
tuat
ionandt
henact
saccor
dingl
y.Thef
ocus
i
nthesi
tuat
ionalappr
oacht
oleader
shi
pisonobser
vedbehav
iorandnotonany
hy
pot
het
icali
nbor
noracqui
redabi
l
ityorpot
ent
ialf
orl
eader
shi
p.I
not
herwor
ds,
t
heemphasi
sisont
hebehav
ioroft
hel
eader
sandt
hei
rfol
l
ower
sandt
het
ypeof
si
tuat
ion.I
not
herwor
ds,aper
sonbecomesal
eadernotonl
ybecauseofhi
s
per
sonalat
tri
but
es,butal
so because ofv
ari
ous si
tuat
ionalf
act
ors and t
he
i
nter
act
ionsbet
weent
hel
eaderandt
hegr
oupmember
s.

a.TheFr
edFi
edl
erModel
–
Fi
edl
erscont
ingencyt
heor
ywasdev
elopedbyFr
edFi
edl
eri
nthel
ate1960s.He
bel
i
evest
heef
fect
ivenessofl
eader
shi
pst
ylesv
arydependi
ngont
hesi
tuat
ion.He
bel
i
evest
hatt
her
ear
etwot
ypesoft
hel
eader
s,t
het
askor
ient
edoneandt
he
peopl
e or
ient
ed one.The el
ement
sthatwoul
d af
fectt
he ef
fect
iveness of
l
eader
shi
par
e:•Howcl
ear
lydef
inedandst
ruct
uredt
hej
obscopei
s?•Howmuch
posi
ti
onalpowert
hel
eaderhas?•Ther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hel
eader
sandt
he
f
oll
ower
s.Fi
edl
erbel
i
evest
hatt
hemostf
avour
abl
esi
tuat
ioni
sonet
hathasa
cl
ear
lydef
inedscope,hi
ghposi
ti
onalpowerandgoodr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
he
l
eader
sandt
hef
oll
ower
s.Hef
oundt
hatt
ask-
ori
ent
edl
eader
sar
emor
eef
fect
ivei
n
ext
remel
yfav
orabl
e orunf
avor
abl
e si
tuat
ions;wher
eas r
elat
ionshi
p or
ient
ed
l
eader
sper
for
m besti
nsi
tuat
ionswi
thi
nter
medi
atef
avor
abi
l
ity
.Fr
edE.Fi
edl
er’
s
cont
ingencyt
heor
yofl
eader
shi
pef
fect
ivenesswasbasedonst
udi
esofawi
de
r
ange ofgr
oup ef
fect
iveness,and concent
rat
ed on t
he r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween
l
eader
shi
pandor
gani
zat
ionalper
for
mance.Thi
sisoneoft
heear
li
estsi
tuat
ion-
cont
ingentl
eader
shi
ptheor
iesgi
venbyFi
edl
er.Accor
dingt
ohi
m,i
fanor
gani
zat
ion
at
tempt
stoachi
evegr
oupef
fect
ivenesst
hroughl
eader
shi
p,t
hent
her
eisaneedt
o
assesst
hel
eaderaccor
dingt
oanunder
lyi
ngt
rai
t,assesst
hesi
tuat
ionf
acedbyt
he
l
eader
,and const
ructapr
opermat
ch bet
ween t
het
wo.Fi
edl
er’
sCont
ingency
ModelThet
heor
ysuggest
sthat
,ef
fect
ivegr
oupsdepend onapr
opermat
ch
bet
weenal
eader
’sst
ylesofi
nter
act
ingwi
thsubor
dinat
esandt
hedegr
eet
owhi
ch
t
hesi
tuat
iongi
vescont
rol
andi
nfl
uencet
othel
eader
.

LeastPr
efer
redCo-
Wor
ker(
LPC)Quest
ionnai
reI
tisani
nst
rumentt
hatpur
por
tst
o
measur
ewhet
heraper
soni
stask,
orr
elat
ionshi
por
ient
edFi
edl
er’
sModel
:Def
ini
ng
t
heSi
tuat
ion Accor
ding t
o Fi
edl
er,al
eader
’sbehav
iori
sdependentupon t
he
f
avor
abi
l
ityoft
hel
eader
shi
psi
tuat
ion.

Thr
eef
act
orswor
ktoget
hert
odet
ermi
nehowf
avor
abl
easi
tuat
ioni
stoal
eader
.
Thesear
e:
Leader
-MemberRel
ati
onsI
sthedegr
eet
owhi
cht
hel
eader
sist
rust
edandl
i
kedby
t
hegr
oupmember
s,andt
hewi
l
li
ngnessoft
hegr
oupmember
stof
oll
ow t
he
l
eader
’s gui
dance.I
tist
he degr
ee of conf
idence,t
rust
,and r
espect t
he
subor
dinat
eshav
eint
hei
rleader
.

TaskSt
ruct
ureI
sthedegr
eet
owhi
cht
hegr
oup’
staskhasbeendescr
ibedas
st
ruct
uredorunst
ruct
ured,andhasbeencl
ear
lydef
inedandt
heext
entt
owhi
chi
t
canbecar
ri
edoutbydet
ail
edi
nst
ruct
ions.

Posi
ti
onPowerI
tist
hepoweroft
hel
eaderbyv
irt
ueoft
heor
gani
zat
ionalposi
ti
on
andt
hedegr
eet
owhi
cht
hel
eadercanexer
ciseaut
hor
it
yongr
oupmember
sin
or
dert
ocompl
ywi
thandaccepthi
sdi
rect
ionandl
eader
shi
p.Thei
nfl
uencei
s
der
ivedf
rom one’
sfor
malst
ruct
uralposi
ti
oni
ntheor
gani
zat
ion;
incl
udespowert
o
hi
re,
fir
e,di
sci
pli
ne,
promot
e,andgi
vesal
aryi
ncr
eases.Wi
tht
hehel
poft
heset
hree
v
ari
abl
es,
eightcombi
nat
ionsofgr
oup-
tasksi
tuat
ionswer
econst
ruct
edbyFi
edl
er.
Thesecombi
nat
ionswer
eusedt
oident
if
ythest
yleoft
hel
eader
.Leader
’st
rai
tIn
or
dert
oassesst
heat
ti
tudesoft
hel
eader
,

Fi
edl
erdev
elopedt
he‘
l
eastpr
efer
redco-
wor
ker
’(LPC)scal
einwhi
cht
hel
eader
s
ar
easkedaboutt
heper
sonwi
thwhom t
heyl
eastl
i
ket
owor
k.Thescal
eisa
quest
ionnai
re consi
sti
ng of16 i
tems used t
oref
lecta l
eader
’s under
lyi
ng
di
sposi
ti
ont
owar
dot
her
s.

Thei
temsi
ntheLPCscal
ear
epl
easant/unpl
easant
,fr
iendl
y/unf
ri
endl
y,r
eject
ing
/accept
ing,unent
husi
ast
ic/ent
husi
ast
ic,t
ense/r
elaxed,col
d/war
m,hel
pful/
f
rust
rat
ing,cooper
ati
ve / uncooper
ati
ve,suppor
ti
ve / host
il
e,quar
rel
some /
har
moni
ous,ef
fi
cient/i
nef
fi
cient
,gl
oomy/cheer
ful
,di
stant/cl
ose,bor
ing /
i
nter
est
ing,sel
f-
assur
ed/hesi
tant
,open/guar
ded.Eachi
tem i
nthescal
eisgi
ven
asi
ngl
eranki
ngofbet
weenoneandei
ghtpoi
nts,wi
thei
ghtpoi
ntsi
ndi
cat
ingt
he
mostf
avor
abl
erat
ing.Fr
iendl
y87654321Unf
ri
endl
yFi
edl
erst
atest
hatl
eader
s
wi
thhi
ghLPCscor
esar
erel
ati
onshi
p-or
ient
edandt
heoneswi
thl
ow scor
esar
e
t
ask-
ori
ent
ed.The hi
gh LPC scor
eleader
s der
ived mostsat
isf
act
ion f
rom
i
nter
per
sonalr
elat
ionshi
psandt
her
efor
eev
aluat
ethei
rleastpr
efer
redcowor
ker
s
i
nfai
rl
yfav
orabl
eter
ms.Thesel
eader
sthi
nkaboutt
het
askaccompl
i
shmentonl
y
af
tert
her
elat
ionshi
pneedi
swel
lsat
isf
ied.Ont
heot
herhand,t
hel
owLPCscor
e
l
eader
sder
ived sat
isf
act
ion f
rom per
for
mance oft
he t
askand at
tai
nmentof
obj
ect
ivesandonl
yaf
tert
askshav
ebeenaccompl
i
shed,t
hesel
eader
swor
kon
est
abl
i
shi
ng good soci
aland i
nter
per
sonalr
elat
ionshi
ps.Fi
gur
e 1:Cor
rel
ati
on
bet
weenl
eader
’sLPCscor
esandgr
oupef
fect
iveness
 b.Her
seyandBl
anchar
d’sLi
feCy
cleOrSi
tuat
ional
Appr
oach

Taki
ngt
hel
eadf
rom Fi
edl
er’
swor
konsi
tuat
ionalv
ari
abl
es,Her
seyandBl
anchar
d
i
ncor
por
atedt
hemaj
ori
tyoft
hef
oll
ower
sint
othei
rmodel
.Thel
evelofmaj
ori
tyi
s
def
inedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngcr
it
eri
a:
1.Degr
eeofachi
evementmot
ivat
ion.
2.Wi
l
li
ngnesst
otakeonr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.
3.Amountofeducat
ionand/orexper
ience.

Tel
l
ingst
yleThi
sst
ylei
nvol
veshi
ght
askbehav
iourandl
owr
elat
ionshi
pbehav
iour
.
I
nthi
ssi
tuat
ionf
oll
ower
sar
eunwi
l
li
ngt
otaker
esponsi
bil
i
ty.Theyhav
etobe
di
rect
edwi
thcl
earandspeci
fi
cdi
rect
ionaboutt
hei
rrol
es.Theyhav
etobet
old
aboutwhat
,how,
whenandwher
etodov
ari
oust
asksbecauseoft
hef
oll
ower
’sl
ow
l
evel
ofmat
uri
ty.Tel
l
ingst
ylei
sforl
owmat
uri
typeopl
e.

Sel
l
ingst
yleThi
sst
ylei
nvol
veshi
ght
askbehav
iourandhi
ghr
elat
ionshi
pbehav
iour
.
I
nthi
ssi
tuat
ionpeopl
ear
eunabl
ebutwi
l
li
ngt
otaker
esponsi
bil
i
ty.Theyar
e
conf
identbutl
ack ski
l
ls att
hist
ime.The l
eadert
ri
es t
o gett
he f
oll
ower
s
psy
chol
ogi
cal
l
ytobuyi
ntodesi
redbehav
iourt
hrought
wo-
waycommuni
cat
ionand
expl
anat
ion.Sel
l
ingst
ylei
sforl
owt
omoder
atemat
uri
ty.

Par
ti
cipat
ingst
yleThi
sst
ylei
nvol
veshi
ghr
elat
ionshi
pbehav
iourandl
ow t
ask
behav
iour
.Peopl
eatt
hemat
uri
tyl
evelar
eabl
ebutunwi
l
li
ngt
ogo,
whatt
hel
eader
 want
s.Theyar
eunwi
l
li
ngduet
olackofconf
idenceori
nsecur
it
y.Thel
eaderhast
o
act
ivel
yli
stent
opeopl
eandsuppor
tthei
ref
for
ts.Thusasuppor
ti
ve,nondi
rect
ive,
par
ti
cipat
ingst
ylehast
hehi
ghestpr
obabi
l
ityofbei
ngef
fect
ivewi
thi
ndi
vi
dual
sat
t
hismat
uri
tyl
evel
.

Del
egat
ing st
yle Thi
s st
ylei
nvol
ves l
ow r
elat
ionshi
p behav
iourand l
ow t
ask
behav
iour
.Peopl
e att
his mat
uri
tyl
evelar
e bot
h abl
e and unwi
l
li
ng t
otake
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty.Ther
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
orcar
ryi
ngoutt
hepl
ansi
sgi
vent
othesemat
ure
f
oll
ower
s.Theyar
eper
mit
tedt
orunt
heshow.Del
egat
ingi
sforhi
ghmat
uri
ty
peopl
e.

Appl
i
cat
ionofSi
tuat
ionalLeader
shi
pSi
tuat
ionall
eader
shi
phel
pst
oassesst
he
mat
uri
tyl
evel
oft
hef
oll
ower
s.Thel
eaderi
nsi
tuat
ional
leader
shi
pst
yleshoul
dhel
p
f
oll
ower
sto gr
ow i
n mat
uri
ty,as t
heyar
e abl
e and wi
l
li
ng t
o go.Adj
ust
ing
l
eader
shi
pbehav
iourt
hrought
hef
ourst
yles.Si
tuat
ionall
eader
shi
pcont
endst
hat
st
rongdi
rect
ion(
taskbehav
iour
)wi
thi
mmat
uref
oll
ower
sisappr
opr
iat
eift
heyar
e
t
obecomepr
oduct
ive.I
tsuggest
sfur
thert
hatt
hel
eadershoul
dpr
ovi
deposi
ti
ve
r
einf
orcementandsoci
o-emot
ionalsuppor
ttot
hepeopl
ewhoar
egr
aduat
ingf
rom
i
mmat
uri
tyt
omat
uri
ty.Thel
eadershoul
ddecr
easet
hecont
rolov
ert
hei
ract
ivi
ti
es
butal
socont
inuet
odecr
easer
elat
ionshi
pbehav
iourast
hef
oll
ower
sreachhi
gh
l
evelofmat
uri
ty.I
fthef
oll
ower
sar
ever
ymat
ure,t
hel
eaderhast
oleav
ethem on
t
hei
rown.Thent
her
eismor
etr
ustandf
ri
endshi
pbet
weent
hel
eaderandt
he
f
oll
ower
s.Howev
er,t
hel
eaderhast
owat
cht
heper
for
mancel
evelandt
hel
eader
shoul
dal
sopr
ovi
deappr
opr
iat
esoci
o-emot
ional
suppor
tanddi
rect
ion.

10.Di
scusst
hedi
ff
erentst
ylesofl
eader
shi
p

Aut
ocr
ati
cLeader
shi
p:-Thel
eaderi
sthedeci
sionmaker
,det
ermi
nespol
i
ciesand
mai
ntai
nsper
sonal
dist
ancef
rom empl
oyees.

Par
ti
cipat
ive Leader
shi
p -
Takes Deci
sion by
consul
tat
ion,
group det
ermi
nes pol
i
cies,
democr
ati
c.

Fr
eeRei
nLeader
shi
p-Compl
etedel
egat
ionofaut
hor
it
yint
hehandsof
subor
dinat
es.Her
ethesubor
dinat
esar
ewel
ltr
ained&hi
ghl
yknowl
edgeabl
e.
 Aut
ocr
ati
cLeader
shi
p

–Cent
ral
i
zespoweranddeci
sionmaki
ngi
nhi
msel
fandexer
cisescompl
eteov
er
t
hesubor
dinat
es

–Heset
sthegr
oupgoal
sandst
ruct
urest
hewor
k

–det
ermi
nespol
i
ciesandst
rat
egi
es;

–deci
desoncomposi
ti
onandt
asksofwor
kteams;

–per
sonal
l
ygi
vespr
aiseandcr
it
ici
sm

–mai
ntai
nsper
sonal
dist
ancef
rom empl
oyees

–Subor
dinat
esar
ecompel
l
edt
ofol
l
owt
hel
eader
‘sdi
rect
ions

Par
ti
cipat
iveLeader
shi
p

–Leaderpr
act
icesl
eader
shi
pbyconsul
tat
ion

–Deci
sionsar
ear
ri
vedataf
terconsul
tat
ionwi
thpar
ti
cipant
s

–gr
oupdet
ermi
nespol
i
ciesandst
rat
egi
es

–gi
vest
echni
cal
adv
icewhenev
ert
hegr
oupneedsi
t

–al
l
owsf
reedom t
ogr
oupmember
stochooset
hei
rteams

–t
ri
est
obeobj
ect
ivei
npr
ovi
dingr
ewar
dsandcr
it
ici
sm

–par
ti
ci
pat
esi
ndi
scussi
ons

Fr
eeRei
nLeader
shi
p
  Av
oidspowerandr
eli
nqui
shes(
giv
esup)t
hel
eader
shi
pposi
ti
on

 Or
gani
sat
iongoal
shav
ebeencommuni
cat
edwel
landar
eaccept
abl
etot
he
subor
dinat
es

 Leaderi
sint
erest
edi
ndel
egat
ingdeci
sionmaki
ngf
ull
y

 Thesubor
dinat
est
hemsel
vesar
ewel
ltr
ained&hi
ghl
yknowl
edgeabl
e

11.Wr
it
enot
eont
hef
oll
owi
ng

TRANSACTI
ONALLEADERSHI
P

Thet
ransact
ionalst
yleofl
eader
shi
pwasf
ir
stdescr
ibedbyMaxWeberi
n1947andt
hen
byBer
nar
dBassi
n1981.Thi
sst
ylei
smostof
tenusedbyt
hemanager
s.I
tfocusesont
he
basi
c managementpr
ocess ofcont
rol
l
ing,or
gani
zi
ng,and shor
t-
ter
m pl
anni
ng.The
f
amousexampl
esofl
eader
swhohav
eusedt
ransact
ionalt
echni
quei
ncl
udeMcCar
thy
anddeGaul
l
e.

Tr
ansact
ionall
eader
shi
pinv
olv
esmot
ivat
inganddi
rect
ingf
oll
ower
spr
imar
il
ythr
ough
appeal
i
ngt
othei
rownsel
f-
int
erest
.Thepoweroft
ransact
ionall
eader
scomesf
rom t
hei
r
f
ormalaut
hor
it
yandr
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
ntheor
gani
zat
ion.Themai
ngoaloft
hef
oll
oweri
sto
obeyt
hei
nst
ruct
ionsoft
hel
eader
.Thest
ylecanal
sobement
ionedasa‘
tel
l
ingst
yle’
.

Thel
eaderbel
i
evesi
nmot
ivat
ingt
hroughasy
stem ofr
ewar
dsandpuni
shment
.Ifa
subor
dinat
edoeswhati
sdesi
red,ar
ewar
dwi
l
lfol
l
ow,andi
fhedoesnotgoaspert
he
wi
shesoft
hel
eader
,apuni
shmentwi
l
lfol
l
ow.Her
e,t
heexchangebet
weenl
eaderand
f
oll
owert
akespl
acet
oachi
ever
out
ineper
for
mancegoal
s.

Theseexchangesi
nvol
vef
ourdi
mensi
ons:

Cont
ingent Rewar
ds:
 
Transact
ional l
eader
s l
i
nk t
he goal t
o r
ewar
ds, cl
ari
fy
expect
ati
ons,pr
ovi
de necessar
yresour
ces,setmut
ual
l
yagr
eed upon goal
s,and
pr
ovi
de v
ari
ous ki
nds ofr
ewar
ds f
orsuccessf
ulper
for
mance.TheysetSMART
(
speci
fi
c,measur
abl
e,at
tai
nabl
e,r
eal
i
sti
c,andt
imel
y)goal
sfort
hei
rsubor
dinat
es.
 Act
iveManagementbyExcept
ion:
 
Transact
ionall
eader
sact
ivel
ymoni
tort
hewor
kof
t
hei
rsubor
dinat
es,wat
ch f
ordev
iat
ions f
rom r
ules and st
andar
ds and t
aki
ng
cor
rect
iveact
iont
opr
eventmi
stakes.

Passi
ve Management by Except
ion:
 
Transact
ionall
eader
sint
erv
ene onl
y when
st
andar
dsar
enotmetorwhent
heper
for
mancei
snotaspert
heexpect
ati
ons.They
mayev
enusepuni
shmentasar
esponset
ounaccept
abl
eper
for
mance.

Lai
ssez-
fai
re:
 
Thel
eaderpr
ovi
desanenv
ironmentwher
ethesubor
dinat
esgetmany
oppor
tuni
ti
est
omakedeci
sions.Thel
eaderhi
msel
fabdi
cat
esr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesand
av
oidsmaki
ngdeci
si
onsandt
her
efor
ethegr
oupof
tenl
acksdi
rect
ion.

Assumpt
ionsofTr
ansact
ional
Theor
y

 Empl
oyeesar
emot
ivat
edbyr
ewar
dandpuni
shment
.
 Thesubor
dinat
eshav
etoobeyt
heor
der
soft
hesuper
ior
.
 Thesubor
dinat
esar
enotsel
f-
mot
ivat
ed.Theyhav
etobecl
osel
ymoni
tor
edand
cont
rol
l
edt
ogett
hewor
kdonef
rom t
hem.

I
mpl
i
cat
ionsofTr
ansact
ional
Theor
y

Thet
ransact
ionall
eader
sov
eremphasi
zedet
ail
edandshor
t-
ter
m goal
s,andst
andar
d
r
ulesandpr
ocedur
es.Theydonotmakeanef
for
ttoenhancef
oll
ower
s’cr
eat
ivi
tyand
gener
ati
on ofnew i
deas.Thi
ski
nd ofa l
eader
shi
p st
ylemaywor
kwel
lwher
ethe
or
gani
zat
ionalpr
obl
emsar
esi
mpl
eandcl
ear
lydef
ined.Suchl
eader
stendt
onotr
ewar
d
ori
gnor
eideast
hatdonotf
itwi
thexi
sti
ngpl
ansandgoal
s.

Thet
ransact
ionall
eader
sar
efoundt
obequi
teef
fect
ivei
ngui
dingef
fi
ciencydeci
sions
whi
char
eai
medatcut
ti
ngcost
sandi
mpr
ovi
ngpr
oduct
ivi
ty.Thet
ransact
ionall
eader
s
t
endt
obehi
ghl
ydi
rect
iveandact
ionor
ient
edandt
hei
rrel
ati
onshi
pwi
tht
hef
oll
ower
s
t
endst
obet
ransi
tor
yandnotbasedonemot
ional
bonds.

Thet
heor
yassumest
hatsubor
dinat
escanbemot
ivat
edbysi
mpl
erewar
ds.Theonl
y
‘
tr
ansact
ion’bet
weent
hel
eaderandt
hef
oll
ower
sist
hemoneywhi
cht
hef
oll
ower
s
r
ecei
vef
ort
hei
rcompl
i
anceandef
for
t.

TRANFORMATI
ONALLEADERSHI
P
Cr
eat
inghi
gh-
per
for
mancewor
kfor
cehasbecomei
ncr
easi
ngl
yimpor
tantandt
odoso
busi
nessl
eader
smustbeabl
etoi
nspi
reor
gani
zat
ionalmember
stogobey
ondt
hei
rtask
r
equi
rement
s.Asar
esul
t,new concept
sofl
eader
shi
phav
eemer
ged-t
ransf
ormat
ional
l
eader
shi
pbei
ngoneoft
hem.

Tr
ansf
ormat
ionall
eader
shi
p maybe f
ound atal
llev
els oft
he or
gani
zat
ion:t
eams,
depar
tment
s,di
vi
si
ons,
andor
gani
zat
ionasawhol
e.Suchl
eader
sar
evi
sionar
y,i
nspi
ri
ng,
dar
ing,
risk-
taker
s,andt
hought
fult
hinker
s.Theyhav
eachar
ismat
icappeal
.Butchar
isma
al
onei
sinsuf
fi
ci
entf
orchangi
ngt
hewayanor
gani
zat
ionoper
ates.Forbr
ingi
ngmaj
or
changes,
transf
ormat
ional
leader
smustexhi
bitt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
ourf
act
ors:

Fi
gur
e1:
Model
ofTr
ansf
ormat
ional
Leader
shi
p

I
nspi
rat
ional Mot
ivat
ion:
 
The f
oundat
ion of t
ransf
ormat
ional l
eader
shi
p i
sthe
pr
omot
ionofconsi
stentv
isi
on,mi
ssi
on,andasetofv
aluest
othemember
s.Thei
r
v
isi
on i
s so compel
l
ing t
hatt
heyknow whatt
heywantf
rom ev
eryi
nter
act
ion.
Tr
ansf
ormat
ionall
eader
sgui
def
oll
ower
sbypr
ovi
dingt
hem wi
thasenseofmeani
ng
andchal
l
enge.Theywor
kent
husi
ast
ical
l
yandopt
imi
sti
cal
l
ytof
ost
ert
hespi
ri
tof
t
eamwor
kandcommi
tment
.

I
ntel
l
ect
ualSt
imul
ati
on:
 
Suchl
eader
sencour
aget
hei
rfol
l
ower
stobei
nnov
ati
veand
cr
eat
ive.Theyencour
agenew i
deasf
rom t
hei
rfol
l
ower
sandnev
ercr
it
ici
zet
hem
publ
i
clyf
ort
hemi
stakescommi
tt
edbyt
hem.Thel
eader
sfocusont
he“
what
”in
pr
obl
emsanddonotf
ocusont
hebl
ami
ngpar
tofi
t.Theyhav
enohesi
tat
ioni
n
 di
scar
dinganol
dpr
act
icesetbyt
hem i
fiti
sfoundi
nef
fect
ive.

I
deal
i
zedI
nfl
uence:
 
Theybel
i
evei
nthephi
l
osophyt
hatal
eadercani
nfl
uencef
oll
ower
s
onl
ywhen hepr
act
iceswhathepr
eaches.Thel
eader
sactasr
olemodel
sthat
f
oll
ower
sseekt
oemul
ate.Suchl
eader
sal
way
swi
nthet
rustandr
espectoft
hei
r
f
oll
ower
sthr
ought
hei
ract
ion.Theyt
ypi
cal
l
ypl
acet
hei
rfol
l
ower
sneedsov
ert
hei
r
own,
sacr
if
icet
hei
rper
sonalgai
nsf
ort
hem,
addemonst
rat
ehi
ghst
andar
dsofet
hical
conduct
.Theuseofpowerbysuchl
eader
sisai
medati
nfl
uenci
ngt
hem t
ost
ri
vef
or
t
hecommongoal
soft
heor
gani
zat
ion.

I
ndi
vi
dual
i
zedConsi
der
ati
on:
 
Leader
sactasment
orst
othei
rfol
l
ower
sandr
ewar
d
t
hem f
orcr
eat
ivi
tyandi
nnov
ati
on.Thef
oll
ower
sar
etr
eat
eddi
ff
erent
lyaccor
dingt
o
t
hei
rtal
ent
sandknowl
edge.Theyar
eempower
edt
omakedeci
sionsandar
eal
way
s
pr
ovi
dedwi
tht
heneededsuppor
ttoi
mpl
ementt
hei
rdeci
sions.

Thecommonexampl
esoft
ransf
ormat
ional
leader
sar
eMahat
maGandhi
andObama.

Cr
it
ici
smsofTr
ansf
ormat
ional
Leader
shi
pTheor
y

 Tr
ansf
ormat
ionall
eader
shi
pmakesuseofi
mpr
essi
onmanagementandt
her
efor
e
l
endsi
tsel
ftoamor
alsel
fpr
omot
ionbyl
eader
s
 Thet
heor
yisv
erydi
ff
icul
ttoet
rai
nedort
aughtbecausei
tisacombi
nat
ionof
manyl
eader
shi
ptheor
ies.
 Fol
l
ower
smi
ghtbemani
pul
atedbyl
eader
sandt
her
ear
echancest
hatt
heyl
ose
mor
ethant
heygai
n.

I
mpl
i
cat
ionsofTr
ansf
ormat
ional
Leader
shi
pTheor
y

The cur
rent env
ironment char
act
eri
zed by uncer
tai
nty
, gl
obal t
urbul
ence, and
or
gani
zat
ionali
nst
abi
l
itycal
l
sfort
ransf
ormat
ionall
eader
shi
ptopr
evai
latal
llev
elsoft
he
or
gani
zat
ion.Thef
oll
ower
sofsuchl
eader
sdemonst
rat
ehi
ghl
evel
sofj
obsat
isf
act
ion
andor
gani
zat
ionalcommi
tment
,andengagei
nor
gani
zat
ionalci
ti
zenshi
pbehav
ior
s.Wi
th
suchadev
otedwor
kfor
ce,i
twi
l
ldef
ini
tel
ybeusef
ult
oconsi
dermaki
ngef
for
tst
owar
ds
dev
elopi
ngway
soft
ransf
ormi
ngor
gani
zat
iont
hroughl
eader
shi
p.
Di
ff
erencebet
weenTr
ansact
ional
andTr
ansf
ormat
ional
Leader
s

Tr
ansact
ional
leader
shi
p Tr
ansf
ormat
ional
Leader
shi
p

Leader
shi
pisr
esponsi
ve Leader
shi
pispr
oact
ive

Wor
kswi
thi
ntheor
gani
zat
ional
cul
tur
eWor
kto change t
he or
gani
zat
ionalcul
tur
e by
i
mpl
ement
ingnewi
deas

Tr
ansact
ional l
eader
s makeTr
ansf
ormat
ionall
eader
smot
ivat
eandempower
empl
oyees achi
eve or
gani
zat
ional
empl
oyeest
o achi
eve company
’sobj
ect
ivesby
obj
ect
ives t
hrough r
ewar
ds andappeal
i
ngt
ohi
gheri
deal
sandmor
alv
alues
puni
shment

Mot
ivat
es f
oll
ower
s by appeal
i
ng t
oMot
ivat
es f
oll
ower
s by encour
agi
ng t
hem t
o
t
hei
rownsel
f-
int
erest t
ranscend t
hei
rown i
nter
est
sfort
hose oft
he
gr
ouporuni
t

CHARI
SMATI
CLEADERSHI
P
Thechar
ismat
icl
eader
shi
pst
yler
eli
esont
hechar
m andper
suasi
venessoft
hel
eader
.
Char
ismat
icl
eader
sar
edr
ivenbyt
hei
rconv
ict
ionsandcommi
tmentt
othei
rcause.

Char
ismat
icl
eader
sal
soar
esomet
imescal
l
edt
ransf
ormat
ionall
eader
sbecauset
hey
shar
emul
ti
plesi
mil
ari
ti
es.Thei
rmai
ndi
ff
erencei
sfocusandaudi
ence.Char
ismat
ic
l
eader
sof
tent
ryt
omaket
hest
atusquobet
ter
,whi
l
etr
ansf
ormat
ionall
eader
sfocuson
t
ransf
ormi
ngor
gani
zat
ionsi
ntot
hel
eader
’sv
isi
on.

Dr
.Mar
ti
nLut
herKi
ng,Jr
.wasachar
ismat
icl
eaderwho usedpower
fulor
ator
y,an
engagi
ngper
sonal
i
ty,andunwav
eri
ngcommi
tmentt
oposi
ti
vechangei
nthel
i
vesof
mi
l
li
onsofpeopl
e.
Char
ismat
icl
eader
shi
pst
yler
equi
rement
s

Common char
act
eri
sti
cs ofl
eader
s wi
th char
isma i
dent
if
ied by Jay Al
den Conger
,
l
eader
shi
pexper
tatt
heUni
ver
sit
yofSout
her
nCal
i
for
nia,andHenr
yKr
avi
s,pr
ofessorof
l
eader
shi
patCl
aremontMcKennaCol
l
ege,
incl
ude:

 Sensi
ti
vi
tyt
othei
renv
ironmentandt
heneedsoft
hei
rempl
oyeesorf
oll
ower
s
 Ar
ti
cul
ateandv
isi
onar
y
 I
ncl
i
nedt
owar
dper
sonal
riskt
aki
ng
 Adeptatusi
ngunconv
ent
ional
behav
ior
Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofchar
ismat
icl
eader
shi
p

Ther
ear
emanyadv
ant
agest
othi
sleader
shi
pst
yle.Char
ismat
icl
eader
sar
eof
tena
cat
aly
stf
orsoci
alchange.Theyar
e,howev
er,notaf
itf
oror
gani
zat
ionst
hatdependon
r
igi
dst
ruct
uresandpr
ocessest
ofunct
ion.

Char
ismat
icl
eader
shi
ppr
os
 Char
ismat
icl
eader
sinspi
repeopl
etowor
ktoget
herf
oracommoncause
 Or
gani
zat
ionsar
ecommi
tt
edt
oacent
ral
missi
on
 Managementpr
ior
it
izesl
ear
ningf
rom mi
stakesi
nanef
for
tto succeedi
nthei
r
mi
ssi
on
 Char
ismat
ic-
ledcompani
est
endt
obecohesi
vebecauset
hei
rwor
ker
shav
eacl
ear
pur
pose
Char
ismat
icl
eader
shi
pcons
 Leader
smaydev
elopt
unnel
visi
onorar
rogance,
undoi
ngt
hei
rpr
evi
ousgooddeeds
 Or
gani
zat
ionscanbecomedependentonchar
ismat
icl
eader
sandmaysuf
feri
fheor
sher
eti
res,
leav
est
hecompany
,ordi
essuddenl
y
 Char
ismat
icl
eader
s somet
imes become unr
esponsi
vet
othei
rsubor
dinat
es or
const
it
uent
s
 Thesel
eader
smaynotl
ear
nfr
om t
hei
rmi
stakes,
compoundi
ngt
hem
 Char
ismat
icl
eader
smaybel
i
evet
heyar
eabov
ethel
aw,commi
tt
ingf
inanci
alor
et
hical
viol
ati
ons
Benef
it
sofchar
ismat
icl
eader
shi
p

Thewor
ldneedschar
ismat
icl
eader
sbecauset
heyf
ightf
orqual
i
tyofl
i
feandabet
ter
wor
ld.Char
ismat
icl
eader
shav
ethecour
ageoft
hei
rconv
ict
ions.Theyar
ewi
l
li
ngt
ost
and
upt
opeopl
ewhohav
eadi
ff
eri
ngv
iewofsoci
etyort
heor
gani
zat
ion.
Char
ismat
icl
eader
stendt
obeabl
etoseet
hegapsbet
weenwhatanor
gani
zat
ion
del
i
ver
stoi
tswor
ker
sandwhatt
hewor
ker
sneedf
rom t
heor
gani
zat
ion.Theycr
eat
e
v
isi
onst
hatt
hei
rsuppor
ter
scanr
eadi
l
ysee,
andi
nret
urnt
hesuppor
ter
sar
emot
ivat
edt
o
cont
ri
but
etoacommongoal
.

12.Expl
aint
hev
ari
oust
rai
tsofl
eader
shi
p

Leader
shi
pist
hepr
ocessofi
nfl
uenci
ngpeopl
eandpr
ovi
dinganenv
ironmentf
ort
hem
t
oachi
evet
eam oror
gani
sat
ionalobj
ect
ives.Leader
shi
pist
hepr
ocessofencour
agi
ng
andhel
pingot
her
stowor
kent
husi
ast
ical
l
ytowar
dsobj
ect
ives.I
tist
hebehav
iourofan
i
ndi
vi
dualwhenhei
sdi
rect
ing,i
nfl
uenci
ngt
heact
ivi
tyoft
hegr
oupt
owar
dsashar
ed
goal
.
TaskBehav
ior
s

 Speci
fyr
olesandt
asks

 Pl
anassi
gnment
s

 Schedul
ewor
k

 Setper
for
mancest
andar
ds

 Dev
elop
pr
ocedur
es Peopl
e
Behav
ior
s
 Bef
ri
endl
y

 Besuppor
ti
ve

 Showt
rustandconf
idencei
nsubor
dinat
es

 Showconcer
nforsubor
dinat
es’
wel
far
e

 Gi
ver
ecogni
ti
ont
osubor
dinat
esf
ort
hei
raccompl
i
shment
s

Maj
orqual
i
tiesofasuccessf
ull
eader

 Emot
ional
stabi
l
ity

 Humanr
elat
ions
  Empat
hy(
Under
standi
ng t
he pr
obl
ems ofot
heri
ndi
vi
dual
s & ki
ndness
t
owar
dsot
her
s)

 Obj
ect
ivi
ty

 Mot
ivat
ingski
l
ls(
sel
fmot
ivat
ion&mot
ivat
ingf
oll
ower
s)

 Techni
cal
ski
l
ls

 Communi
cat
ingski
l
ls

 Soci
alski
l
ls

 Dr
ive

 Leader
shi
pmot
ivat
ion

 I
ntegr
it
y

 Sel
f-
conf
idence

 I
ntel
l
igence

 Knowl
edgeoft
hebusi
ness

 Emot
ional
int
ell
i
gence
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

UNI
T5

Power
/Pol
i
tics/Or
gani
sat
ionConf
li
ct

1.Enumer
atet
he sour
ces of or
gani
zat
ional
Power
 Knowl
edgeaspower
:Powerwhi
chder
ivesf
rom knowl
edge.Per
sonswhoar
ein
posi
ti
ont
ocont
rol
thef
lowofi
nfor
mat
ionwi
eldenor
mouspowert
oinf
luencet
he
behav
iourofot
her
s.
 Resour
ces as power
:The abi
l
ityt
otake cont
rolr
esour
ces and al
l
ocat
e
t
hroughoutt
heor
gani
sat
ion.Anyper
sonhav
ingmonopol
yov
erscar
esr
esour
ces
wi
el
dpower
.
 Deci
si
onaspower
:Thepowert
otakedeci
sionsandmanageot
her
s.aper
son
hav
ing deci
si
on maki
ng aut
hor
it
yand a per
son who can i
nfl
uencedeci
sion
maki
nghav
epoweri
ntheor
gani
zat
ion.Hi
ri
ngacl
oser
elat
ive,pur
chasesi
nthe
or
gani
zat
ion,
cli
entsel
ect
ionet
c.ar
edayt
odayev
ent
sint
heor
gani
zat
ionwhi
ch,
i
ndi
cat
ethepowercent
ers.
 Numberofpeopl
easpower
:Thenumberofpeopl
ethatf
oll
owsandadmi
resa
per
son

 PowerCent
ers:Ther
eexi
stpeopl
eint
heor
gani
zat
ionwhodesi
ret
obest
ronger
.
Theyal
so wantpeopl
edependentont
hem.Speci
ali
sts,peopl
ewi
thspeci
al
power
sdel
i
ber
atel
ydel
aydeci
sionsorhol
dresour
cessot
hatt
heybecomemor
e
demandi
ng.
 Dependency
:St
rengt
hofpowerdependsupondegr
eeofdependency
.Gr
eat
er
t
hedependencyont
hepowerhol
dergr
eat
eri
nfl
uencewi
l
lthepowerhol
der
exer
cisedov
erhi
ssubor
dinat
es.Dependencyi
sdi
rect
lyr
elat
edbet
weenpower
hol
derandt
hosedonothav
eit
.Powerhol
derhol
dspowerofr
etent
iont
obeabl
e
t
oincr
easedependency
.

2.Descr
ibe t
he cl
assi
fi
cat
ion/
bases of
or
gani
zat
ional
powerTy
pesofPower
:
 Rewar
dPower
:Abi
l
ityt
orewar
dot
her
s.Thi
spowersour
ceder
ivesf
rom t
he
per
son’
scont
rolov
err
esour
ces,f
orexampl
epowert
ocont
rolhumanr
esour
ces,
payandpr
omot
ion.
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS
 Coer
civ
e Power
:Abi
l
ityt
oinf
luence ot
her
s behav
ior by puni
shi
ng t
hei
r
undesi
rabl
ebehav
ior
.Thepowert
opuni
shorr
ewar
d,t
hepowert
othr
eat
enand
t
ouseone’
sposi
ti
ont
ofor
ceot
her
stot
akeact
ion
 Ref
erentPower
:Bybei
ngr
espect
ed&admi
red.Thi
sdependsonchar
ismaor
per
sonalat
tract
ionoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.Int
erper
sonalski
l
landemot
ionalsuppor
t
f
rom ot
her
sar
ethesour
cesofpowerf
oraper
son.
 Legi
ti
mat
ePower
:Powerbyposi
ti
on&aut
hor
it
y.Thi
spowerwhi
chi
sexer
cised
wi
tht
heaut
hor
it
yofor
gani
zat
ion
 I
nfor
mat
ionPower
:Accesst
oand/
cont
rol
ofi
nfor
mat
ion

 Exper
tPower
:The abi
l
ityt
o cont
rolanot
herper
son’
s behav
iort
hrough t
he
possessi
onofknowl
edge,
exper
ienceorj
udgmentt
hatt
heot
herper
sondoesnot
hav
e

3.Expl
aini
ndet
ail
aboutor
gani
zat
ional
powerandpol
i
tics

Powerhasbeendef
inedas“
theabi
l
ityt
oinf
luenceandcont
rolany
thi
ngt
hati
sofv
alue
t
oot
her
s”.I
tist
heabi
l
ityt
oinf
luencet
hebehav
iouroft
hei
rpeopl
eint
heor
gani
sat
ion
andt
ogett
hem t
odowhatt
heyot
her
wisewoul
dnothav
edone.

St
ephenP.Robbi
nsdef
inespol
i
ticalbehav
iouri
nor
gani
sat
ionsast
hoseact
ivi
ti
est
hat
ar
enotr
equi
redaspar
tofone’
sfor
malr
olei
ntheor
gani
sat
ion,butt
hati
nfl
uence,or
at
temptt
oinf
luence,t
hedi
str
ibut
ion ofadv
ant
agesand di
sadv
ant
ageswi
thi
nthe
or
gani
sat
ion.

Pol
i
ticsi
sthewayt
hatpeopl
egai
n&usepoweri
ntheor
gani
sat
ions.Pol
i
ticsi
sabout
accesst
opower
.Pol
i
ticsi
nvol
vest
hoseact
ivi
ti
esorbehav
ior
sthr
oughwhi
chpoweri
s
dev
elopedandusedi
nor
gani
zat
ional
set
ti
ngs.

Or
gani
sat
ional
pol
i
tics–

 At
tempt
stoi
nfl
uenceot
her
susi
ngdi
scr
eti
onar
ybehav
iour
stopr
omot
eper
sonal
obj
ect
ives
 di
scr
eti
onar
ybehav
iour
snei
therexpl
i
cit
lypr
escr
ibednorpr
ohi
bit
ed

 Pol
i
ticsmaybegoodorbadf
ort
heor
gani
sat
ion
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS

4.Whati
sthecausesandconsequencesf
oror
gani
zat
ional
pol
i
tics?
 5.Expl
ain how or
gani
zat
ional pol
i
tics ar
e
managedManagi
ngOr
gani
sat
ional
Pol
i
tics
 Cl
ear
lydef
inedj
obs

 Pr
opermanager
ial
behav
iour

 Ef
fect
ivecommuni
cat
ion

 Fai
rev
aluat
ionsy
stem

 Judi
ci
aldi
str
ibut
ionofr
esour
ces

6.Expl
aint
heconceptandsour
cesofor
gani
zat
ional
conf
li
ct

Or
gani
zat
ionalconf
li
cti
sdef
inedasapr
ocessi
nwhi
chonepar
typer
cei
vest
hati
ts
i
nter
est
sar
ebei
ng opposed ornegat
ivel
yaf
fect
ed byanot
herpar
ty.Conf
li
cti
sa
si
tuat
ionwhi
char
isesf
rom di
sagr
eementov
ert
hegoal
stoat
tai
nort
hemet
hodsused
t
oaccompl
i
sht
hesegoal
s.

Theconf
li
ctpr
ocesshast
wopar
ts.Fi
rstdeal
swi
tht
her
easonsorsour
cesofconf
li
ct
andsecond,
way
sofmanagi
ngsuchconf
li
cts.

Mai
nsour
cesofor
gani
sat
ional
conf
li
ct:
 Di
ff
erencesi
nper
cept
ion

 Li
mit
edr
esour
ces

 Depar
tment
ali
sm &speci
ali
zat
ion

 Thenat
ureofwor
kact
ivi
ti
es

 Rol
econf
li
ct

 I
nequi
tabl
etr
eat
ment

 Vi
olat
ionoft
err
it
ory

 Env
ironment
alchange

7.Di
scusscl
assi
fi
cat
ionofconf
li
cts

Conf
li
cti
scl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ngf
ourt
ypes:

I
nter
per
sonalconf
li
ctr
efer
stoaconf
li
ctbet
weent
woi
ndi
vi
dual
s.Thi
soccur
sty
pical
l
y
duet
ohowpeopl
ear
edi
ff
erentf
rom oneanot
her
.Wehav
evar
iedper
sonal
i
tieswhi
ch
usual
l
yresul
tst
oincompat
ibl
echoi
cesandopi
nions.Howev
er,wheni
nter
per
sonal
conf
li
ctget
stoodest
ruct
ive,
cal
l
ingi
namedi
atorwoul
dhel
psoast
ohav
eitr
esol
ved.

I
ntr
aper
sonalconf
li
ctoccur
swi
thi
nani
ndi
vi
dual
.Theexper
iencet
akespl
acei
nthe
per
son’
s mi
nd.Hence,i
tisat
ype ofconf
li
ctt
hati
s psy
chol
ogi
cali
nvol
vi
ng t
he
i
ndi
vi
dual
’
sthought
s,v
alues,pr
inci
plesandemot
ions.I
nsuchoccasi
ons,i
twoul
dbe
bestt
oseekawayt
oletgooft
heanxi
etyt
hroughcommuni
cat
ingwi
thot
herpeopl
e.

I
ntr
agr
oupconf
li
cti
sat
ypeofconf
li
ctt
hathappensamongi
ndi
vi
dual
swi
thi
nat
eam.
The i
ncompat
ibi
l
iti
es and mi
sunder
standi
ngs among t
hese i
ndi
vi
dual
slead t
o an
i
ntr
agr
oupconf
li
ct.I
tisar
isesf
rom i
nter
per
sonaldi
sagr
eement
s(e.
g.t
eam member
s
hav
edi
ff
erentper
sonal
i
tieswhi
chmayl
eadt
otensi
on)ordi
ff
erencesi
nvi
ewsand
i
deas.Howev
er,i
fthedegr
eeofconf
li
ctdi
srupt
shar
monyamongt
hemember
s,t
hen
someser
iousgui
dancef
rom adi
ff
erentpar
tywi
l
lbeneededf
ori
ttobeset
tl
ed.
I
nter
groupconf
li
ctt
akespl
acewhenami
sunder
standi
ngar
isesamongdi
ff
erentt
eams
wi
thi
nanor
gani
zat
ion.Fori
nst
ance,
thesal
esdepar
tmentofanor
gani
zat
ioncancome
i
nconf
li
ctwi
tht
hecust
omersuppor
tdepar
tment
.Thi
sisduet
othev
ari
edset
sofgoal
s
andi
nter
est
soft
hesedi
ff
erentgr
oups.I
naddi
ti
on,compet
it
ional
socont
ri
but
esf
or
i
nter
groupconf
li
ctt
oar
ise.
Ot
herconf
li
cts
Rol
eConf
li
ct:Aper
soni
nanor
gani
zat
ionhast
oper
for
mvar
iousr
oles.Conf
li
ctar
ises
whenr
olesassi
gnedt
ohi
m hav
edi
ff
erentexpect
ati
on.‘
Time’managementmaycause
conf
li
ct.

Li
neandSt
affConf
li
ct:Li
neandst
affconf
li
cthasbeent
radi
ti
onal
.Li
neaut
hor
it
y
cr
eat
espr
oductandser
vicesandcont
ri
but
esdi
rect
lyt
owar
dst
her
evenuegener
ati
on.
Whi
l
est
affaut
hor
it
yassi
stsl
i
neaut
hor
it
yandact
sinadv
isor
ycapaci
ty.St
affandl
i
ne
aut
hor
it
yhav
eadi
ff
erentpr
edi
sposi
ti
onsandgoal
s.Theyhav
edi
ff
erentski
l
lsand
exper
ti
se.

Ver
ti
calConf
li
ct:Ver
ti
calconf
li
ctr
efer
stoconf
li
ctst
hatmi
ghtt
akepl
acebet
ween
di
ff
erentl
evel
sofhi
erar
chy
.Conf
li
ctsbet
weensubor
dinat
esandsuper
ioroccurduet
o
i
ncompat
ibi
l
ity
.Iti
s gener
all
ycaused because ofdi
ff
erences i
n per
cept
ion,v
alue
sy
stem,
goal
sthatmaybeassi
gned.

Hor
izont
alConf
li
ct:
Hor
izont
alConf
li
cti
scausedduet
oincompat
ibi
l
ityofgoal
s,shar
ing
l
i
mit
ed r
esour
ces and di
ff
erence i
n t
ime or
ient
ati
on. I
tleads t
o t
ensi
on,
mi
sunder
standi
ngandf
rust
rat
ionont
hepar
tofbot
hthepar
ti
es.

8.Conf
li
ctPr
ocess

5St
agesofConf
li
ctPr
ocess:
Howi
tWor
kinOr
gani
zat
ion

Or
gani
zat
ional
conf
li
ct 
ari
seswhent
hegoal
s,i
nter
est
sorv
aluesofdi
ff
erenti
ndi
vi
dual
sor
gr
oupsar
eincompat
ibl
eandt
hosei
ndi
vi
dual
sorgr
oupsbl
ockort
hwar
toneanot
her
’s
at
tempt
stoachi
evet
hei
robj
ect
ive.
 Conf
li
ctPr
ocessshowshowconf
li
ctwor
kswi
thi
nthe
or
gani
zat
ion.

Wecani
dent
if
ythest
agest
hataconf
li
ctbor
nandgr
owsi
nanor
gani
zat
ion.I
nthi
spost
,
wewi
l
llookatt
hest
agesofaconf
li
ctcov
eri
ngt
hebi
rt
h,r
ise,
andendi
ngi
nit
.
 5St
agesConf
li
ctPr
ocessar
e;

1.Pot
ent
ial
Opposi
ti
onorI
ncompat
ibi
l
ity
.

2.Cogni
ti
onandPer
sonal
i
zat
ion.

3.I
ntent
ions.

4.Behav
ior
.

5.Out
comes.

Conf
li
ctPr
ocessconsi
stsoff
ivest
agest
hatshow how conf
li
ctbegi
ns,gr
ows,and
unf
oldsamong i
ndi
vi
dual
sorgr
oupswi
th 
dif
fer
entgoal
s,i
nter
est
sorv
aluesoft
he
or
gani
zat
ion.

Thesest
agesar
edescr
ibedbel
ow;
 St
age1:
Pot
ent
ial
Opposi
ti
onorI
ncompat
ibi
l
ity

The f
ir
stst
ep i
nthe conf
li
ctpr
ocess i
sthe pr
esence ofcondi
ti
ons t
hatcr
eat
e
oppor
tuni
ti
es f
or conf
li
ct t
o dev
elop. These cause or cr
eat
e oppor
tuni
ti
es f
or
or
gani
zat
ional
conf
li
ctt
ori
se.

Theyneednotl
eaddi
rect
lyt
oconf
li
ct,butoneoft
hesecondi
ti
onsi
snecessar
yift
he
conf
li
cti
stosur
face.

Forsi
mpl
i
cit
y’ssake,
thesecondi
ti
onshav
ebeencondensedi
ntot
hreegener
alcat
egor
ies.

1.Communi
cat
ion,

2.St
ruct
ure,
and

3.Per
sonal
Var
iabl
es.

These3condi
ti
onscauseconf
li
ctar
eexpl
ained;

1.Communi
cat
ions

Di
ff
erentwor
dsconnot
ati
ons,
jar
goni
nsuf
fi
cientexchangeofi
nfor
mat
ionandnoi
sei
nthe
communi
cat
ionchannel
areal
lant
ecedentcondi
ti
onst
oconf
li
ct.

Toomuchcommuni
cat
ion,
aswel
last
ool
i
ttl
ecommuni
cat
ion,
canl
ayt
hef
oundat
ionf
or
conf
li
ct.

2.St
ruct
ure

I
nthi
scont
ext
,thet
erm st
ruct
urei
susedt
oincl
udev
ari
abl
essuchassi
ze,t
hedegr
eeof
speci
ali
zat
ion i
n t
he t
asks assi
gned t
o gr
oup member
s, j
uri
sdi
cti
onal cl
ari
ty,
member
s/goal compat
ibi
l
ity
, 
leader
shi
p st
yles,
 
rewar
d sy
stems 
and t
he degr
ee of
dependencebet
weengr
oups.

Thesi
zeandspeci
ali
zat
ionactasf
orcest
ost
imul
ateconf
li
ct.Thel
argert
hegr
oupand
t
hemor
especi
ali
zedi
tsact
ivi
ti
es,t
hegr
eat
ert
hel
i
kel
i
hoodofconf
li
ct.Tenur
eand
conf
li
ctar
einv
ersel
yrel
ated.
Thepot
ent
ialf
orconf
li
ctst
endst
obegr
eat
estwhengr
oupmember
sar
eyoungerand
whent
urnov
eri
shi
gh.

I
ndef
ini
ngwher
eresponsi
bil
i
tyf
oract
ionl
i
es;
thegr
eat
ert
heambi
gui
tyi
sthegr
eat
ert
he
pot
ent
ialf
orconf
li
ctt
othesur
face.SuchJur
isdi
cti
onalambi
gui
tyi
ncr
easesi
nter
-gr
oup
f
ight
ingf
orcont
rol
orr
esour
cesandt
err
it
ory
.

3.Per
sonal
Var
iabl
es

Cer
tai
n per
sonal
i
tyt
ypes-f
orex
ampl
e,i
ndi
vi
dual
s who ar
e hi
ghl
yaut
hor
it
ari
an and
dogmat
ic-l
eadt
opot
ent
ialconf
li
ct.Anot
herr
easonf
ort
heconf
li
cti
sthedi
ff
erencei
n
v
aluesy
stems.

Val
ue di
ff
erences ar
ethe bestexpl
anat
ions ofdi
ver
se i
ssues such as pr
ejudi
ce
di
sagr
eement
sov
erone’
scont
ri
but
iont
othegr
oupandr
ewar
dsonedeser
ves.

St
age2:
Cogni
ti
onandPer
sonal
i
zat
ion

Conf
li
ctmustbeper
cei
vedbyt
hepar
ti
est
oitwhet
herornott
heconf
li
ctexi
stsi
sa
per
cept
ioni
ssue,
thesecondst
epoft
heConf
li
ctPr
ocess.

I
fnoonei
sawar
eofaconf
li
ct,
theni
tisgener
all
yagr
eedt
hatnoconf
li
ctexi
sts.Because
conf
li
cti
sper
cei
veddoesnotmeant
hati
sper
sonal
i
zed.

Forexampl
e;

Amaybeawar
ethatBandAar
einser
iousdi
sagr
eement
sbuti
tmaynotmakeAt
enseor
nat
ionsandi
tmayhav
enoef
fectwhat
soev
eronA’
saf
fect
iont
owar
dsB.

I
tist
hef
eltl
evelwheni
ndi
vi
dual
sbecomeemot
ional
l
yinv
olv
edt
hatpar
ti
esexper
ience
anxi
ety
,tensi
onorhost
il
it
y.

St
age-
2ist
hepl
acei
nthepr
ocesswher
ethepar
ti
esdeci
dewhatt
heconf
li
cti
saboutand
emot
ionspl
ayamaj
orr
olei
nshapi
ngper
cept
ion.
St
age3:
Int
ent
ions

I
ntent
ionsar
edeci
si
onst
oacti
nagi
venway
,int
ent
ionsi
nter
venebet
weenpeopl
e’
s
per
cept
ionandemot
ionsandt
hei
rov
ertbehav
ior
.

Usi
ngt
wodi
mensi
onscooper
ati
veness(
thedegr
eet
owhi
chonepar
tyat
tempt
stosat
isf
y
t
heot
herpar
ty’
sconcer
ns)andasser
ti
veness(
thedegr
eet
owhi
chonepar
tyat
tempt
sto
sat
isf
yhi
sorherconcer
ns)f
iveconf
li
ct-
handl
i
ngi
ntent
ionscanbei
dent
if
ied.

5Conf
li
ct-
Handl
i
ngI
ntent
ion

Ther
ear
e5conf
li
ct-
handl
i
ngi
ntent
ions;

 Compet
ing(
IWi
n,YouLose)
,

 Col
l
abor
ati
ng(
IWi
n,YouWi
n),

 Av
oidi
ng(
NoWi
nner
s,NoLoser
s),

 Accommodat
ing(
Ilose,
Youwi
n),
and

 Compr
omi
sing(
YouBend,
IBend)
.
Thesear
eal
soknownasconf
li
ct-
handl
i
ngst
ylesandor
ient
ati
onswhi
char
edi
scussed
bel
ow:

1.Compet
ing(
IWi
n,YouLose)

Whenoneper
sonseekst
osat
isf
yhi
sorheri
nter
est
sregar
dlessoft
hei
mpactont
he
ot
herpar
ti
est
otheconf
li
ct,
hei
scompet
ing.

Thecompet
it
ioni
nvol
vesaut
hor
it
ati
veandasser
ti
vebehav
ior
s.

I
nthi
sst
yle,t
heaggr
essi
vei
ndi
vi
dualai
mst
oinst
il
lpr
essur
eont
heot
herpar
ti
est
o
achi
eveagoal
.Iti
ncl
udest
heuseofwhat
evermeanst
oat
tai
nwhatt
hei
ndi
vi
dualt
hinks
i
sri
ght
.

I
tmaybeappr
opr
iat
einsomesi
tuat
ionsbuti
tshoul
dn’
tcomet
oapoi
ntwher
eint
he
aggr
essorbecomest
oounr
easonabl
e.

Deal
i
ngwi
tht
heconf
li
ctwi
thanopenmi
ndi
svi
tal
forar
esol
uti
ont
obemet
.

2.Col
l
abor
ati
ng(
IWi
n,YouWi
n)

Asi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
cht
hepar
ti
est
oconf
li
cteachdesi
ret
osat
isf
yful
l
ytheconcer
nsofal
l
t
hepar
ti
es.

I
ncol
l
abor
ati
ng,t
hepar
ti
esi
ntendt
osol
vet
hepr
obl
em bycl
ari
fyi
ngdi
ff
erencesr
ather
t
hanbyaccommodat
ingv
ari
ouspoi
ntsofv
iew.

Col
l
abor
ati
ngai
mst
ofi
ndasol
uti
ont
otheconf
li
ctbycooper
ati
ngwi
thot
herpar
ti
es
i
nvol
ved.

Hence,
communi
cat
ioni
sani
mpor
tantpar
toft
hisst
rat
egy
.

I
nthi
smechani
sm,t
heef
for
tisex
ert
edi
ndi
ggi
ngi
ntot
hei
ssuet
oident
if
ytheneedsof
t
hei
ndi
vi
dual
sconcer
nedwi
thoutr
emov
ingt
hei
rrespect
ivei
nter
est
sfr
om t
hepi
ctur
e.

Col
l
abor
ati
ngi
ndi
vi
dual
sai
mtocomeupwi
thasuccessf
ulr
esol
uti
oncr
eat
ivel
y,wi
thout
compr
omi
singt
hei
rsat
isf
act
ion.
3.Av
oidi
ng(
NoWi
nner
s,NoLoser
s)

Aper
sonmayr
ecogni
zet
hataconf
li
ctexi
stsandwantt
owi
thdr
awf
rom i
torsuppr
essi
t.
Av
oidi
ngi
ncl
udedt
ryi
ngt
ojusti
gnor
eaconf
li
ctandav
oidi
ngot
her
swi
thwhom y
ou
di
sagr
ee.

I
nthi
sappr
oach,t
her
eiswi
thdr
awalf
rom t
heconf
li
ct.Thepr
obl
em i
sbei
ngdeal
twi
th
t
hroughapassi
ve 
att
it
ude.

Av
oidi
ngi
smost
lyusedwhent
heper
cei
vednegat
iveendout
wei
ghst
heposi
ti
veout
come.

I
nempl
oyi
ngt
his,i
ndi
vi
dual
sendupi
gnor
ingt
hepr
obl
em,t
hinki
ngt
hatt
heconf
li
ctwi
l
l
r
esol
vei
tsel
f.I
tmi
ghtbeappl
i
cabl
eincer
tai
nsi
tuat
ionsbutnoti
nal
l
.

Av
oidancewoul
dmeant
haty
ounegl
ectt
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
hatcomeswi
thi
t.

Theot
heri
ndi
vi
dual
sinv
olv
edmi
ghtt
hinkt
haty
ouar
enegl
ect
ingt
hepr
obl
em.Thus,i
tis
bet
tert
oconf
rontt
hepr
obl
em bef
orei
tget
swor
se.

4.Accommodat
ing(
Ilose,
Youwi
n)

Thewi
l
li
ngnessofonepar
tyi
ngaconf
li
ctt
opl
acet
heopponent
’si
nter
estabov
ehi
sorher
own.

Accommodat
ioni
nvol
veshav
ingt
odeal
wit
hthepr
obl
em wi
thanel
ementofsel
f-
sacr
if
ice;
ani
ndi
vi
dual
set
sasi
dehi
sconcer
nst
omai
ntai
npeacei
nthesi
tuat
ion.

Thus,
theper
sony
iel
dst
owhatt
heot
herwant
s,di
spl
ayi
ngaf
orm ofsel
fl
essness.

I
tmi
ghtcomeasani
mmedi
atesol
uti
ont
othei
ssue;
howev
er,
ital
sobr
ingsaboutaf
alse
mannerofdeal
i
ngwi
tht
hepr
obl
em.

Thi
scanbedi
srupt
ivei
fther
eisaneedt
ocomeupwi
thamor
esoundandcr
eat
iveway
outoft
hepr
obl
em.Thi
sbehav
iorwi
l
lbemostef
fi
cienti
fthei
ndi
vi
duali
sint
hewr
ongas
i
tcancomeasaf
orm ofconci
l
iat
ion.
5.Compr
omi
sing(
YouBend,
IBend)

Asi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
cheachpar
tyt
oaconf
li
cti
swi
l
li
ngt
ogi
veupsomet
hing.

I
ntent
ionspr
ovi
degener
algui
del
i
nesf
orpar
ti
esi
naconf
li
ctsi
tuat
ion.Theydef
ineeach
par
ty’
spur
pose.

Yetpeopl
e’
sint
ent
ioni
snotf
ixed.Dur
ingt
heconf
li
ct,t
heymi
ghtchangebecauseofr
e-
concept
ual
i
zat
ionorbecauseofanemot
ional
react
iont
othebehav
iorofanot
herpar
ty.

Compr
omi
singi
saboutcomi
ngupwi
thar
esol
uti
ont
hatwoul
dbeaccept
abl
etot
he
par
ti
esi
nvol
ved.

Thus,
onepar
tyi
swi
l
li
ngt
osacr
if
icet
hei
rownset
sofgoal
sasl
ongast
heot
her
swi
l
ldo
t
hesame.

Hence,i
tcanbev
iewedasamut
ualgi
ve-
and-
takescenar
iowher
ethepar
ti
essubmi
tthe
sameamountofi
nvest
mentf
ort
hepr
obl
em t
obesol
ved.

A di
sadv
ant
ageoft
hisst
rat
egyi
sthef
actt
hatsi
ncet
hesepar
ti
esf
indaneasyway
ar
oundt
hepr
obl
em,t
hepossi
bil
i
tyofcomi
ngupwi
thmor
ecr
eat
iveway
sforasol
uti
on
woul
dbenegl
ect
ed.

Whent
ouset
heFi
veConf
li
ct-
Handl
i
ngOr
ient
ati
ons

5conf
li
ct-
handl
i
ngor
ient
ati
onsar
enotuni
ver
sal
l
yappl
i
cabl
e.I
tsusesv
aryf
rom t
imet
o
t
ime,
per
sont
oper
sonev
ensi
tuat
iont
osi
tuat
ion.

Wheni
tusesappr
opr
iat
ear
egi
venbel
ow:

Conf
li
ct- Handl
i
ng
BestScenar
iot
oUseConf
li
ct-Handl
i
ngOr
ient
ati
on
Or
ient
ati
on

 Whenqui
ck,
deci
si
veact
ioni
svi
tal
.

Compet
it
ion
 On i
mpor
tant i
ssues wher
e unpopul
ar act
ions need
i
mpl
ement
ing.
  Oni
ssuesv
italt
otheor
gani
zat
ion’
swel
far
eandwheny
ouknow
y
ou’
rer
ight

 Agai
nst peopl
e who t
ake adv
ant
age of non¬compet
it
ive
behav
ior
.

 Tof
indani
ntegr
ati
vesol
uti
onwhenbot
hset
sofconcer
nsar
e
t
ooi
mpor
tantt
obecompr
omi
sed.

 Wheny
ourobj
ect
ivei
stol
ear
n.

 Tomer
gei
nsi
ght
sfr
om peopl
ewi
thdi
ff
erentper
spect
ives
Col
l
abor
ati
on

 To gai
n commi
tment by i
ncor
por
ati
ng concer
ns i
nto a
consensus.

 Towor
kthr
oughf
eel
i
ngst
hathav
eint
erf
eredwi
thar
elat
ionshi
p.

 Whenani
ssuei
str
ivi
al,
ormor
eimpor
tanti
ssuesar
epr
essi
ng.

 Wheny
ouper
cei
venochanceofsat
isf
yingy
ourconcer
ns.

 Whenpot
ent
ial
disr
upt
ionout
wei
ghst
hebenef
it
sofr
esol
uti
on.

 Tol
etpeopl
ecool
downandr
egai
nper
spect
ive.
Av
oidance

 Whengat
her
ingi
nfor
mat
ionsuper
sedesi
mmedi
atedeci
sion.

 Whenot
her
scanr
esol
vet
heconf
li
ctmor
eef
fect
ivel
y.

 Wheni
ssuesseem t
angi
bleorsy
mpt
omat
icoft
hei
rissues.

 Wheny
ouf
indy
ouar
ewr
ongt
oal
l
ow abet
terposi
ti
ont
obe
hear
dtol
ear
nandt
oshowy
ourr
easonabl
eness.

Accommodat
ion
 When i
ssuesar
e mor
eimpor
tantt
o ot
her
sthan y
our
sel
fto
sat
isf
yot
her
sandmai
ntai
ncooper
ati
on.
  Tobui
l
dsoci
alcr
edi
tforl
ateri
ssues.

 Tomi
nimi
zel
osswheny
ouar
eout
mat
chedandl
osi
ng.

 Toal
l
owsubor
dinat
est
odev
elopbyl
ear
ningf
rom mi
stakes.

 Whengoal
sar
eimpor
tant
,butnotwor
tht
heef
for
torpot
ent
ial
di
srupt
ionofmor
easser
ti
vemodes.

 Whenopponent
swi
thequalpowerar
ecommi
tt
edt
omut
ual
l
y
excl
usi
vegoal
s.
Compr
omi
se
 Toachi
eveat
empor
aryset
tl
ementt
ocompl
exi
ssues.

 Toar
ri
veatexpedi
entsol
uti
onsundert
imepr
essur
e.

 Asaback-
upwhencol
l
abor
ati
onorcompet
it
ioni
sunsuccessf
ul.

St
age4:
Behav
ior

Thi
sis a st
age wher
e conf
li
ctbecomes v
isi
ble.The behav
iorst
age i
ncl
udes t
he
st
atement
s,act
ions,
andr
eact
ionsmadebyt
heconf
li
cti
ngpar
ti
es.

Theseconf
li
ctbehav
ior
sar
eusual
l
yov
ertat
tempt
stoi
mpl
ementeachpar
ty’
sint
ent
ions.

Whenmostpeopl
ethi
nkofconf
li
ctsi
tuat
ions,
theyt
endt
ofocusonSt
age4.

Why
?

Becauset
hisi
sast
ageWher
econf
li
ctbecomesv
isi
ble.Thebehav
iorst
agei
ncl
udest
he
st
atement
s,act
ions,
andr
eact
ionsmadebyt
heconf
li
cti
ngpar
ti
es;

Theseconf
li
ctbehav
ior
sar
eusual
l
yov
ertat
tempt
stoi
mpl
ementeachpar
ty’
sint
ent
ions.
Butt
hesebehav
ior
shav
east
imul
usqual
i
tyt
hati
ssepar
atef
rom i
ntent
ions.

As a r
esul
tofmi
scal
cul
ati
ons orunski
l
led enact
ment
s,ov
ertbehav
ior
s somet
imes
dev
iat
efr
om or
igi
nal
int
ent
ions.
I
thel
pst
othi
nkofst
age4asady
nami
cpr
ocessofi
nter
act
ion.

St
age5:
Out
comes

Theact
ion-
react
ioni
nter
playbet
weent
heconf
li
cti
ngpar
ti
esr
esul
tsi
nconsequences.

Theseout
comesmaybef
unct
ionali
nthatt
heconf
li
ctr
esul
tsi
nani
mpr
ovementi
nthe
gr
oup’
sper
for
mance,
ordy
sfunct
ional
int
hati
thi
nder
sgr
oupper
for
mance.

Conf
li
cti
sconst
ruct
ivewheni
timpr
ovest
hequal
i
tyofdeci
sionst
hatst
imul
atescr
eat
ivi
ty
andi
nnov
ati
onsencour
agei
nter
estandcur
iosi
tyamonggr
oupmember
stopr
ovi
det
he
medi
um t
hroughwhi
chpr
obl
emscanbeai
redandt
ensi
onsr
eleasedandf
ost
eran
env
ironmentofsel
f-
eval
uat
ionandchange.

Conf
li
cti
sdy
sfunct
ionalwhenuncont
rol
l
edopposi
ti
onbr
eedsdi
scont
ent
,whi
chact
sto
di
ssol
vecommont
iesandev
ent
ual
l
yleadst
othedest
ruct
ionoft
hegr
oup.

Amongt
hemor
eundesi
rabl
econsequencesar
ear
etar
dingofcommuni
cat
ion,
reduct
ions
i
ngr
oupcohesi
venessandsubor
dinat
ionofgr
oupgoal
stot
hepr
imacyofi
nfi
ght
ing
bet
weenmember
s.

9.Di
scussont
hef
unct
ional
i
tyanddi
s-f
unct
ional
i
tyofconf
li
ct

Posi
ti
veout
comesofconf
li
ct

 Bet
teri
deaspr
oduced
 Peopl
ear
efor
cedt
osear
chofnewappr
oaches
 Longst
andi
ngpr
obl
emsbr
oughtt
othesur
faceandr
esol
ved
 Cl
ari
fi
cat
ionofi
ndi
vi
dual
views
 St
imul
ati
onofi
nter
est&cr
eat
ivi
ty
 Achancef
orpeopl
etot
estt
hei
r
capaci
ti
esNegat
iveout
comesofconf
li
ct

 Somepeopl
efeel
def
eat
ed&demeaned
 Thedi
stancebet
weenpeopl
eincr
eased
 Acl
i
mat
eofmi
str
ust&suspi
ciondev
eloped
 I
ndi
vi
dual
s&gr
oupsconcent
rat
eont
hei
rownnar
rowi
nter
est
s
 Resi
stancedev
elopedr
athert
hant
eam wor
k
 Ani
ncr
easei
nempl
oyeet
urnov
er
ORGANI
SATI
ONALBEHAVI
OURFORMBASTUDENTS
10.
Def
ineconf
li
ct.El
abor
ateont
her
olesofconf
li
cti
nOB
I
tisdef
inedasapr
ocessi
nwhi
chonepar
typer
cei
vest
hati
tsi
nter
est
sar
ebei
ng
opposedornegat
ivel
yaf
fect
edbyanot
herpar
ty.

Conf
li
cti
sasi
tuat
ionwher
etwopeopl
edi
ff
erf
rom eachot
herr
egar
dingacommon
goal
orobj
ect

Conf
li
cti
sasi
tuat
ionwhi
char
isesf
rom di
sagr
eementov
ert
hegoal
stoat
tai
nort
he
met
hodsusedt
oaccompl
i
sht
hesegoal
s

Posi
ti
veout
comesofconf
li
ct
 Bet
teri
deaspr
oduced
 Peopl
ear
efor
cedt
osear
chofnewappr
oaches
 Longst
andi
ngpr
obl
emsbr
oughtt
othesur
faceandr
esol
ved
 Cl
ari
fi
cat
ionofi
ndi
vi
dual
views
 St
imul
ati
onofi
nter
est&cr
eat
ivi
ty
 Achancef
orpeopl
etot
estt
hei
rcapaci
ti
es
11.
Howt
odoy
ousol
veor
gani
zat
ional
conf
li
ct?
St
rat
egi
esf
ormanagi
ngconf
li
ct

 Opent
oideas

 Cl
ari
fi
cat
ionofgoal
s&obj
ect
ives

 Resour
cedi
str
ibut
ion

 Const
ruct
iveconf
li
ct

 Av
oidi
ng

 Accommodat
ing

 Consi
der
ati
on(
donotl
etot
her
sready
ourmi
nd)

 Non–monet
aryr
ewar
ds

 Gr
oupact
ivi
ti
es

 Dev
elopmentofi
nter
per
sonal
ski
l
ls