W

ISOLATED
TOS 5:UNIT 5A:SHALLOW FOOTING
FOUNDATIONS DESIGN

Objectives: COMBINED
1: To Understand broadly Shallow FOOTING
Foundations and their types DESIGN

2: To Understand the Design of Isolated

Footings

3: To Understand the need and Design of

Combined Footing

4: To Understand Strip and Raft

Foundations.
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TOS V: Unit 5a: Shallow Foundations:

Definition: Foundation is the lower portion of the building usually located below ground level, which
transmits the loads of the super structure to the supporting soil. A foundation is therefore that part of the
structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which loads are transmitted.

Functions of foundations:
1. REDUCTION OF LOAD INTENSITY
Foundation distributes the loads of the super structure, to a larger area so that the intensity of the load at
its base (i.e. total load divided by the total area) does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the sub-soil.
2. EVEN DISTRIBUTION OF LOAD
Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the super structure evenly to the sub soil. For example, two
columns carrying unequal loads can have a combined footing which may transmit the load to sub soil
evenly with uniform soil pressure. Due to this, unequal or differential settlements are minimized. Unequal
settlements can be very costly considering the damage to finishes of the Super- Structure.
3. PROVISION OF LEVEL SURFACE
Foundations provide a leveled and hard surface over which the super structure can be built.
4. LATERAL STABILITY
It anchors the super structure to the ground, thus imparting lateral stability to the super structure. The
stability of the building, against sliding and overturning, due to horizontal forces (such as wind, earthquake
etc.) is increased due to foundations.
5. SAFETY AGAINST UNDERMINING
It provides the structural safety against undermining or scouring due to burrowing animals and flood
water.
6. PROTECTION AGAINST SOIL MOVEMENTS
Special foundation measures prevents or minimizes the distress (or cracks) in the super structure, due to
expansion or contraction of the sub soil because of moisture movement in some problematic soils.

A vexed question which should be brought to the front of this discussion is why are walls and
columns made broader or wider at the base ?

This is because the loads from a material with a greater yield strength e.g. concrete M20 Grade (of 20
N/mm² yield strength or 5N/mm² permissible stress in compression ) and hence of a certain area is
transmitting the load to a material i.e. Soil of much lower strength i.e. about 0.25N/mm² safe bearing
capacity or 250 kN/m² . So just but by plain arithmetic it can be seen that an area larger (about 20 times
larger in this case, and hence may be 4.5 times in each direction considering a square) will be required to
carry the same load

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So after having addressed this question of a large spread required at the foundation level depending on the
safe bearing capacity of soil, I would like you to get a clearer picture of the soil bearing capacities of various
soils.
The Soil Bearing Capacities of Different kinds of Soils are as follows.

Type S.B.C in kN/m²

i. Black Cotton Soil 50-100
ii. Soft Murrum 150-200
iii. Hard Murrum 250-300
iv. Soft Rock 350-400
v. Hard Rock 500-600
vi. Granite 800

Foundations are Classified as Shallow and Deep Foundations.

• Shallow foundations: Include Pads (Isolated Footings), Combined Footings, Strip footings and Raft
Foundations.
• Deep foundations : Include Piles, Pile walls, Diaphragm Walls and Caissons.

1. Shallow foundations:
Shallow foundations are those founded near to the finished ground surface; generally where the founding
depth (Df) is less than the width of the footing and less than 3m. These are not strict rules, but merely
guidelines: basically, if surface loading or other surface conditions will affect the bearing capacity of a
foundation it is 'shallow'. Shallow foundations (sometimes called 'spread footings') include pads ('isolated
footings'), strip footings and rafts.
Shallows foundations are used when surface soils are sufficiently strong and stiff to support the imposed
loads; they are generally unsuitable in weak or highly compressible soils, such as Poorly-Compacted Fill,
Peat, Soft Murrum, Black Cotton Soil and Alluvial deposits, etc.
Shallow foundations are also called spread footings or open footings. The 'open' refers to the fact that the
foundations are made by first excavating all the earth till the
bottom of the footing, and then constructing the footing.
During the early stages of work, the entire footing is visible to
the eye, and is therefore called an open foundation. The idea
is that each footing takes the concentrated load of the
column and spreads it out over a large area, so that the
actual weight on the soil does not exceed the safe bearing
capacity of the soil.

A. Pad foundations or Isolated Footings

Pad foundations are used to support an individual point load

such as that due to a structural column. They may be circular,
square or rectangular. They usually consist of a block or slab

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of uniform thickness, but they may be stepped or sloped if they are required to spread the load from a
heavy column. Pad foundations are usually shallow, but deep pad foundations can also be used.

Pad foundations are used to support an individual point load such as that due to a structural column. They
may be circular, square or rectangular. They usually consist of a block or slab of uniform thickness, but they
may be stepped or sloped if they are required to spread the load from a heavy column. Pad foundations
are usually shallow, but Deep Pad foundations can also be used.

Design of Isolated Footing:

We shall herein learn to design a Single block or Slab of uniform thickness as an Isolated Footing
for a Column.
1. Size: Find Size of Base Required for spreading the Load. Area of Footing A = (Load + 10%)/S.B.C
• If the column is Square one can provide a Square Footing. Side of Footing = √A
• However if the column is Rectangular
a) One may provide a Square footing and thus Unequal Overhangs and calculate the B.Mmax for
the larger Overhang or Rectangular footings
b) One may provide a Rectangular Footing, such that overhangs are equal. The easiest way to
provide equal Overhangs would be as follows 1. Let b x d be size of column. Calculate (d - b)/2
and Add to the side of the Square footing to get the First Side and Subtract it from the side the
square Footing to get the Second Side

1. Find the Upward Pressure = Load/Area Provided. Upward Pressure < S.B.C (Check)
Calculate Overhang of the Footing and B.Mmax = Upward Pressure x (Over- Hang) ²/2
2. Find Depth de required for the Factored B.Mmax by M.R = 1.5B.Mmax = = 0.134 fck b d²
After this some books prescribe 1. Calculation of Depth for Single Shear assuming a certain
percentage of steel and also 2. Calculation of Depth for Double Shear and then Selection of the
greatest depth among the three. Some books recommend increasing the depth by 150 or 200 mm
to take care of Shear on the Footing.
However I am recommending that we double the depth to take care of Shear
So this is the way I will proceed.
Take de = 2de calculated,
Calculate do = de + cover + ½ (diameter), Cover for Footing = 50mm, Take Main Steel as either
12mm or 16mm, Round off do, and recalculate de.

3. Calculate Astxx and Astyy and Spacing of steel in both directions.

Remember dexx = deyy – Diameter of bar (Like in two way slabs)
4. Check for Single Shear which I.S.456 recommends is effective at a distance of de from the face
of the column and Compare it to Design Shear Strength for provided percentage of Steel
5. Check for Double Shear at a distance of de/2 from the face of the column. This should be
lesser than 0.25√fck
6. Make Schedule and Draw Sketch of Reinforcement

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Problem 1. Design the Isolated Pad Footing for a Column of Size 300 x 600 carrying a load of
1300kN and resting in a soil of S.B.C 240kN/m². Check for Single Shear and or Check for Double
Shear

1. Size of Footing
Area of Footing = (Load + 10%)/S.B.C = (1300 + 130)/240 = 5.95m²
Size of Square Footing = √5.95 = 2.44m
However as our column is rectangular we will shall convert this square size of 2.44 x 2.44 by
adding and subtracting from each side (600-300)/2 = 150 i.e. (d – b)/2. This will give us equal
overhangs.
Hence One side = 2440 +150 = 2590 ≈ 2600
Hence the other side = 2440 -150 = 2290 ≈ 2300
Hence size of base of footing = 2600 x 2300

2. Depth by B.M
Upward Pressure = Load/ (Area provided) = 1300/2.6 x 2.3 = 217.39 ≈ 218 < S.B.C so fine
B.Mmax = Upward Pressure x OverHang²/2 = 218 x 1 x 1²/2 = 109kNm
Factored B.Mmax = 163.5 x 10⁶Nmm
Calculate Depth de by M.R = 0.134 fck b de²
163.5 x 10⁶ = 0.134 x 20 x 1000 x de², b = 1000
de = 246.99mm
As generally this depth fails in shear we shall double it and consider two layers of 12mm Steel
de = 493.99, do = 493.99 + 50 +12 + ½ (12) = 561.99 ≈600, Hence de = 600 – 50 – 12 - ½ (12) = 532

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Hence final de = 532 and do = 600

3. Ast = M.R/ O.87fy x 0.81de = 163.5 x 10⁶/0.87 x 500 x 0.81 x 532 = 872mm²
Spacing of 12mm bars = Area of 1 bar x 1000/Ast = 113 x 1000/872 ≈125c/c
So Provide 12mm Steel in both directions at 125c/c
No of bars in 1000mm are 8no
4. Check for Single Shear
% of steel ≈ 100Ast/b x de = 100 x 113 x 8/1000 x 532 = 0.169%
Design Shear Strength Table
0.15% 0.28N/mm²
0.25% 0.36N/mm² Hence for 0.169% Interpolate = 0.295N/mm² (0.28 + (0.36 – 0.28) x 1.9/10)
Single Shear is effective at a distance of de from the face of the column.
Remaining Distance = 1000 – 532 = 468mm = 0.468m

As Shown in the Diagram Area under Singe Shear = 468mm x 2300mm

Hence Single Shear = Upward Pressure x Area = 218 x 0.468 x 2.3 = 234.65kN
Hence Factored Single Shear = 1.5 x 234.65 = 351.982kN = 351982N
Single Shear Stress = Factored Single Shear/ Area Resisting Single Shear
= 351982/532 x 2300 = 0.287N/mm² < 0.295N/mm² So Safe in Single Shear.

5. Check for Double Shear

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Double Shear is Effective at a distance of de/2 i.e. at a distance of 532/2 = 266 from face of
Column

Area under Double Shear = (2.6 x 2.30) – (0.832 x 1.132) = 5.03m²

Double Shear Force = 218 x 5.03 = 1098.32kN
Factored Double Shear = 1.5 x 1098.32 = 1647kN = 1647 x 10³N
Area Resisting this Double Shear is the perimeter of this Area x de
= 2 (1132 + 832) x de = 3928 x 532
Shear Stress = Factored Double Shear/ Area Resisting Double Shear
= (1647 x 1000)/ 3928 x 532
= 0.78N/mm² < 1.11N/mm² (i.e. 0.25√fck = 0.25√20 = 1.11N/mm²)
Hence Safe in Double Shear
6. Schedule of Footing
Col on Size of Depth of Steel along Steel along Cover
Ground Footing Footing Shorter Longer
Floor Span Span
300 x 600 2600 x 2300 600 12 Tor @ 12 Tor @ 50mm
125c/c 125c/c

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N.B: Please note that

in-spite of doubling the depth, the single shear stress requirement is just met; it would be a
good idea to have even more depth or more spread to reduce Upward Pressure

Problem 2. Design the Isolated Pad Footing for a Column of Size 325 x 325 carrying a load of
800kN and resting in a soil of S.B.C 250kN/m². Check for Single Shear and /or Check for Double
Shear

Answers:
Column on Size of Depth of Steel along Steel Along Cover
Ground Floor Footing Footing Shorter Span Longer Span
325 x 325 2000 x 2000 500 12 Tor @ 12 Tor @ 50mm
160c/c 160c/c

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B. Combined Footings
Combined Footings are provided in the following cases

1. When Individual pads begin to overlap, due to any of the following reasons
a. Column Loads are very High and Column sizes are kept small using greater percentage of
steel
b. Columns are closely spaced
c. S.B.C of soil is low
2. So that loads are evenly distributed to effect equal settlement in foundations
3. When one Footing goes beyond the Property Line

Here it is very important to see that the centre of gravity of the columns passes through the
geometrical centre of the footing base. This is later on explained in the problem

Problem: Two columns of size 400 x 400 and 500 x 500 each carrying a load of 1200 and 1500
kN rest in a soil of 220 kN/m². They are spaced 2.4m apart centre to centre.

1. Do the above columns require a combined footing? If so

2. Design the base of the combined footing. Draw a plan of the same.

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1. Need for combined footing

%   
1. Base of footing for column no 1. = = 6m²
.. 
2. Side of square footing = √6= 2.449m.

% 
3. Base of footing for column no 2. = = 7.5m²
.. 
4. Side of square footing = √7.5 = 2.738m
5. Half of base of col 1. Footing + Half of base of col 2. Footing = 1.224+1.369=2.593>2.4m (c/c
distance between the columns)
6. The individual pads over-lap. Hence there is a need for combined footing.

2. Design the Pad of the Combined Footing

Area of combined footing
= (Total load+10%)/ (S.B.C) = (1200+1500+120+150)/220= 1980/220= 13.5m²
For a combined footing we may have to assume one side as 1.2m or 1.5m or 1.8 m
Or take length as 2times or 2.5times or 3times the width.( AS PER DIFFERENT CIRCUMSTANCES)
Let l = 2b
Hence l x b = 13.5, 2b x b = 13.5, b = 2.598
Let us take b = 2.6m and l = 5.2m
We will have to see that the c.g. of the two loads passes through the geometric centre
R x Y= 1500 x 2.4 (moment of resultant about col1 = moment of col 1 + moment of column2)
Hence 2700 x Y = 1200 x 0 + 1500 x 2.4
Hence Y = 1.333m = 1333mm

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We shall calculate the overhangs in the following manner. Note the Overhang is greater on the
side of the higher load.

The Final Dimensions of the footing are:

Note: The Decision about the proportions of the length and Width is a prerogative of the Structural
Designer
The syllabus asks us to draw a typical S.F.D and B.M.D OF THIS Combined Footing to understand
the Reinforcement Detailing. This is like a Overhanging Beam we have learnt in T.O.S. 1.

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Upward Pressure = Load/ Area provided = 2700/5.2 x 2.6 = 199.7kN/m²

Hence upward load per unit meter = 199.7 x 2.6 = 519.22kN/m

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C. Strip Foundations:
Strip foundations are used to support a line of loads, either due to a load-
bearing wall, or if a line of columns need supporting where column positions
are so close that individual pad foundations would be inappropriate. In case
of a soil with poor S.B.C where it is likely that the individual pads or isolated
footings will overlap, a Strip footing is used,
Strip foundations can be used for most sub-soils, but are most suitable for soil
which is of relatively good bearing capacity. They are particularly suited to
light structural loadings such as those found in many low-to-medium rise
domestic buildings - where mass concrete strip foundations can be used. In
other situations, reinforced concrete may be required.
Very broadly, the size and position of strip foundations is typically related to
the wall’s overall width. The depth a traditional strip foundation is generally
equal to or greater than the overall wall width, and the foundation width is
generally three times the width of the supported wall. This results in the load
being transmitted at 45º from the wall base to the soil.

D. Raft Foundations
Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large area, normally the
entire area of the structure. They are used when column loads or other structural loads are close
together and individual pad foundations would interact.

A raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab which extends over the entire loaded area.
It may be stiffened by ribs or beams incorporated into the foundation.

Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlements as the concrete slab
resists differential movements between loading positions. They are often needed on soft or loose
soils with low bearing capacity as they can spread the loads over a larger area.

Sometimes in Soils of Low S.B.C Settlement Reducing Piles are usually incorporated beneath the
central part of a raft foundation in order to reduce differential settlement to an acceptable level.
Such piles act to reinforce the soil beneath the raft and help to prevent dishing of the raft in the
centre.

There are Three Different Types of Raft Foundation Depending upon the Structural System:
• A slab with constant thickness usually referred as flat slab type raft foundation
• A slab-beam type raft foundation
• A Cellular type raft foundation

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A. Flat Slab Type Raft Foundation:

When column situated at equal distance and column loads are equally distributed on the
foundation, in such cases raft may be designed as having the uniform slab thickness. This type of
foundation is known as flat slab type raft foundation. The foundation slabs are reinforced, with
two steel meshes. One placed at the lower faces and another at the upper face.

B. Slab-Beam Type Raft Foundation:

When column loads are unequally distributed or
where foundation is of a very heavy structure
where stiffness is principal requirement to avoid
excessive distortion of the structure as a result of
variation in the load distribution on the raft, in
such case slab and beam type raft foundation is
provided. In this type of raft foundation beams
are provided with the flat slabs. The beams add
stiffness to the raft foundation. The foundation
slabs are reinforced with two more steel meshes.
One placed on the lower face and another at the
upper faces of the raft foundation. The beams are
reinforced with strong stirrups and bars placed at
the upper and lower faces

C. Cellular Type Raft Foundation:

When the foundation is constructed for
very heavy loads and on loose soil or where
soil tends for uneven settlement. In such
case, the thickness of the raft slab may
exceed 1 meter. In such case, cellular raft
foundation is more preferable than ordinary
raft foundation.

This type of foundation consists of two

slabs where a beam is constructed of two
slabs in both directions forming hollow
cellular raft foundation. These foundations
are highly rigid and more economical than
other foundations in such type of poor soil
condition.

TOS 5 Unit 5a Shallow Foundations Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho