These are found predominantly as members of plane or space

trusses (2D & 3D), as members in transmission towers and as wind

bracing (single or double) for single story or high rise steel structures.
Among the common shapes used as tension members:

Round bar Flat bar Angle Double angle Starred angle

Channel Double Latticed W-section S-section Built-up box

channel channels (wide-flange) (American sections
Standard)
Cross-section of typical tension members. T-1
The strength of a tension member is controlled by the lowest
of the following limiting states:

T T

Net Gross
Area (An) Area (Ag)

A) Yielding of the Gross Area (Ag):

Fn = Fy Ag
B) Failure (Ultimate strength) on the Net Area (An):
Fn = Fu Ae
Where Ae = effective net Area = UAn
U = Reduction Coefficient. T
C) Block Shear Failure through the end bolt:
T-2
A hole is drilled (or punched) by 1/16 inch greater then
the normal diameter of the fastener (rivet or bolt). Hole
punching causes some damage to the edges of the
hole to the amount of 1/32 inch from each side.

Thus the equivalent hole diameter

1 1 1
 bolt diameter   
16 32 32
1
 bolt dia.  inch.
8

T-3
Example (T1):
What is the net area An for the tension member
as shown in the figure?
1
Plate  4 (inches) Standard Hole for a 3 -in. diam bolt.
4 4

T T

Solution: Ag = 4(0.25) = 1.0 sq in.

Width to be deducted for hole  34  18  78 in.
An = [Wg – (width for hole)] (thickness of plate)
 7
 4   0.25   0.78 sq. in.
 8 T-4
For a group of staggered holes along the tension direction, one
must determine the line that produces smallest “Net Area”.
EFFECT OF STAGGERED HOLES ON NET AREA :-
A
A p p

Paths of failure g
T T T T
on net section

B p s
(a) C B (b)
In the above diagram:
p = Pitch or spacing along bolt line
s = Stagger Between two adjacent bolt lines
(usually s = P/2)
g = gage distance transverse to the loading.
In case (a) above : An = (Gross width – Σ hole dia.) . t
In case (b) above : An = (Gross width – Σ hole dia.+ Σ s2/4g) . t T-5
 Example (T2):
Determine the minimum net area of the plate shown in fig. 3.4.2, assuming
15
in,-diam holes are located as shown:
16

Figure 3.4.2 Example 3.4.1

T-6
Solution. According to LRFD and ASD-B2, the width used in deducing for
holes in the hole diameter plus 1/16 in., and the staggered length correction
Is (s2/4g).

1) Path AD (two holes) :

  15 1 
12  2   0.25  2.50sq.in.
  16 16 

2) Path ABD (three holes; two staggers) :

  15 1  2.125  ( 2.125)2 
2

12  3      0.25  2.43sq.in.

  16 16  42.5 4( 4) 

3) Path ABC (three holes; two staggers) :

  15 1  2.125  (1.875)2 
2

12  3     0.25  2.42sq.in.

  16 16  42.5 4( 4) 
(controls) T-7
Angles:
When holes are staggered on two legs of an angle, the gage length (g)
for use In the (s2/4g) expression is obtained by using length between the
centers of the holes measured along the centerline of the angle
thickness, i.e., the distance A-B in Fig: 3.4.3. Thus the gage distance g is

t t
g  ga   gb   ga  gb  t
2 2

Gage dimension for an angle T-8

Every rolled angle has a standard value for the location of holes
(i.e. gage distance ga and gb), depending on the length of the leg
and the number of lines of holes. Table shows usual gages for
angles as listed in the AISC Manual*. T-9
Example (T3):
Determine the net area (An ) for the angle given in figure below
 15 
if  in, dia.  holes are used?
 16 

9½”

*legs and thickness in mm.

1 1 1 1
* g  g1  t  2  2   4
2 4 2 4
Angle with legs shown *flattened* into one plane T-10
 Solutions. For net area calculation the angle may be visualized as being
flattened into a plate as shown in Figure above.
s2
A n  A g   Dt   t
4g
where D is the width to be deducted for the hole.

1) Path AC:
 15 1  9.5"
An = 4.75  2  0.5  3.75 sq.in.
 16 16 
2) Path ABC:

 15 1   (3) 2 (3) 2 
An = 4.75  3  0.5     0.5  3.96 sq.in.
 16 16   4(2.5) 4(4.25) 

Since the smallest An is 3.75 sq in., that value governs. T-11

 When some of the cross section (and not all the section) is

connected by fasteners or welds, we need to use effective net

area concept :-
Ae = U An

where, U = Shear Lag Factor.

 When all elements of the section are connected by

fasteners or welds, U = 1.0.

T-12
 When not all elements are connected.
Gusset
plate
i) Transverse Weld Connection:-
Ae = UA
6”
U = 1.0 T
A = Area of connected part only
Angle
e.g. A = 6 x 1/2 = 3 in2 6x4x1/2 Weld

ii) Longitudinal Weld Connection :-

Gusset
Ae = Ag U plate
(For plate elements only)
U = 1.0 for L  2 w T w

U = 0.87 for 2w  L  1.5 w

Angle
U = 0.75 for 1.5w  L  w 6x4x1/2 L T-13
In bolted and welded connections (except for transverse
welds only), the reduction factor (U) is a function of the
eccentricity ( x ) in the connection.
Thus:- x
U  1   0.9 (LRFD - B3.2)
L

Where:
x = distance between centroids of elements to
the plane of load transfer

L = Length of the connection in the direction of load.

(See Commentary C – B 3.1 & C – B 3.2)

T-14
LFRD Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, December 27, 1999
T-15
American Institute of Steel Construction
 (Commentary P16.1 – 177 AISC)
 For bolted or riveted connections the following values
for (U) may be used:-
a) W, M, S, HP or Tees cut from these Shapes with flange width ≥ 2/3
Depth, and flange connected by 3 or more fasteners per line, U = 0.90.
b) W, M, S, HP or Tees cut from these Shapes with flange width < 2/3
Depth, and flange connected by 3 or more fasteners per line, U = 0.85.
c) W, M, S, HP or Tees cut from these Shapes with web connected by 4 or
more fasteners per line, U = 0.70.
d) Single and double angles connected by 4 or more fasteners per line, U
= 0.80, or connected with 3 fasteners per line, U=0.60 otherwise use U=1-
(x/L) LRFD B3.2.

 If U is computed in LRFD B3.2 then it is permitted yo use the larger value.

T-16a
 (Commentary P16.1 – 177 AISC)
 For bolted or riveted connections the following values
for (U) may be used:-
e) For round and rectangular HSS with gusset plate(s).

 For short tension members such as Gusset plates the effective net
area equals (An), but must not exceed 0.85 of the gross area (Ag).
T-16b
 Example (T-4)
Calculate the Ae values of the following section:-

(i) → flange width (6.54”) > 2/3 x depth (8.0”)

7/8 bolts W 8 x 28
→ Three bolts / line
U = 0.90
Ag = 8.24 m2
An = gross area – hole area
= 8.24 – (2 x 1.0 hole) x web tk 0.285
= 7.68 in2
Ae = U·An = 0.9 x 7.68 = 6.912 in2
(ii)
hole dia = 7/8
C 9 x 15
only 2 bolts / line, U = 1-(x/L)
Ag = 4.41 m2
web tk
An = 4.41 – (2 x 15/16) 0.285 = 3.875 in2
Ae = (1-(x/L))(3.875)
T-17
(iii) L 3 x 3 x 3/8 x = 0.888
x
L = 6 in (3+3)

U = 1 - x /L = 1 -0.888/6 = 0.852 < 0.9

Ag = 2.11 in2
3 3 ¾ dia bolt An = 2.11 – 1 x (3/4 + 1/8) x 3/8 = 2.11 -0.328 = 1.782 in2
Ae = U·An = 0.852 x 1.782 = 1.518 in2
Alternative value of U = 0.85 (3 bolts / line)

(iv) w 10 x 33

All sides connected

U = 1·0
Ag = 9.71 in2 hole
Holes
in web web tk.
An = 9.71 – 4 x 1.0 x 0.435 – 2 x 1.0 x 0.290
Holes flage tk
in flage
7/8 dia. bolt
= 9.71 – 1.74 - 0.58 = 7.39 in2
Ae = U·An = 7.39 in2
T-18
 This third mode of failure is limited to a Gusset
Plate
thin plates. This failure is a combination of
tearing (shear rupture) and of tensile yielding. It
is uncommon, but the code provides on extra
limit state of (LRFD J 4.3). It is usually checked c Shaded area
after design is completed. b may tear out
T
(a) Failure by
tearing out

T-19a
T-19b
Even as tension members are unlikely to be affected by their stiffness, it is
recommended to limit the maximum slenderness ratio (L/r) for all tension
members (except rods) to ≤ 300.

Max. slenderness = L/rmin ≤ 300

 This is to prevent extra sagging and vibration due to wind.

T-19c
The general philosophy of LRFD method: Rn   iQi
For tension members: tTn  Tu
where
t = resistance reduction factor for tensile members
Tn = Nominal strength of the tensile members
Tu = Factored load on the tensile members.
The design strength tTn is the smaller of:
a) Yielding in the gross section;
t Tn = t Fy Ag = 0.9 Fy Ag
b) Fracture of the net section;
t Tn = t Fu Ae = 0.75 Fu Ae
This is to be followed by check of rupture strength (block shear failure),
and limitation of slenderness ratio ≤ 300. T-20
Example (T-5):-
Find the maximum tensile capacity of a member consisting of
2Ls (6 x 4 x ½) can carry for two cases:
(a) welded connection, all sides connected.
(b) bolted connection as shown.
½”
1" dia bolts
Fy = 60 ksi
2½”
Fu = 75 ksi.
2”

5½ 1¾” 1¾”

T-21
(a) welded Connection
Net area = gross area (all sides connected)
= 9.50 in2
Yielding  Ft = 0.9 Fy Ag = 0.9 x 60 x 9.50 = 513 k
Fracture  Ft = 0.75 Fu Ae = 0.75 x 75 x 9.5 = 534 k

Thus tension capacity, t Tn = 513 k (yielding controls)

(b) Bolted Connection

Consider one L

‘An’ Calculation: W g = gross width = 6 + 4 – ½ = 9.5 in.

(cont.) T-22
Straight section : wn = 9.5 – 2 x 1 18  = 7.25 in.
2 2
Zig-Zag = w n  9.5  3  1 81  
(1.75) (1.75)

4  2.5 4 4 2½”
(2.5+2–0.5)
= 6.62 in. (Controls) 9½”
4”
(thickness)
An = 6.62 x ½ = 3.31 in2 for one L
For 2Ls, An = 3.31 x 2 = 6.62 in2
All sides connected, U = 1.0, Ae = U.An = 6.62 in2 1.75” 1.75”

Calculation of t Tn :-
(i) Yielding: 0.9 Fy Ag = 0.9 x 60 x 9.50 = 513 k
(ii) Fracture:0.75 Fu Ae = 0.75 x 75 x 6.62 = 372 k.
(fracture controls)

T-23
 Design is an interactive procedure (trial & error), as we do
not have the final connection detail, so the selection is made,
connection is detailed, and the member is checked again.
Design Procedure:-
 
 A g  Tu 
i) Find required (Ag) from factored load  0.9Fy. 

ii) Find required (Ae) from factored load  A e 
Tu 
.
 0.75Fu 
iii) Convert (Ae) to (Ag) by assuming connection detail.

iv) From (ii) & (iii) chose largest (Ag) value

 L 

v) Find required (rmin) to satisfy slenderness   300 
 min
r 
vi) Select a section to satisfy (iv) and (v) above.

vii) Detail the connection for the selected member.

viii) Check Design Criteria T-24

Example (T-6):-

A tension member with a length of 5 feet 9 inches

must resist a service dead load of 18 kips and a service live
load of 52 kips. Select a member with a rectangular cross
section. Use A36 steel and assume a connection with one
line of 7/8-inch-diameter bolts.
Member length = 5.75 ft.

T-25
 Pu = 1.2 D + 1.6L = 1.2(18) + 1.6(52) = 104.8 kips
Pu 104.8
Required A g    3.235 in.2
0.90Fy 0.90(36)
Pu 104.8
Required A e    2.409 in.2
0.75Fu 0.75(58)

Because Ae = An for this member, the gross area corresponding to

the required net area is
A g  A n  A hole
 7 1
 2.409    t  2.409  t
8 8
Try t = 1 in.
Ag = 2.409 + 1(1) = 3.409 in.2
T-26
Because 3.409 > 3.235, the required gross area is 3.409 in.2, and
Ag 3.409
wg    3.409 in.
t 1
Round to the nearest 1/8 inch and try a 1  3 ½ cross section.
Check the slenderness ratio:
3.5(1)3
Imin   0.2917 in.4
12
A  1(3.5)  3.5 in.2
From I  Ar 2 , we obtain
Imin 0.2917
rmin    0.2887 in.
A 3.5
L 5.75(12)
Maximum   239  300 (OK)
r 0.2887
Use a 3 ½  1 bar.
T-27
Example (T-7):-

Select a single angle tension member to carry (40

kips DL) and (20 kips LL), member is (15)ft long and will be
connected to any one leg by single line of 7/8” diameter
bolts with 4 bolts per line. Use A-36 steel.
Solution:
Step 1) Find Required (Tu):-
Tu = 1.2 DL + 1.6 LL Tu = 1.4 DL
= 1.2 x 40 + 1.6 x 20 or = 1.4 x 40
= 48 + 32 = 80k = 56k
 Tu = 80k (Controls)
T-28
Step 2) Find required Ag & Ae:
Tu 80
(A g )req.    2.47 in2  (A g )1
0.9Fy 0.9  36
Tu 80
(A e )req.    1.84 in2
0.75Fu 0.75  58
Step 3) Convert (Ae) to (Ag):
Since connection to single leg, then use alternative
(U) value = 0.80 (4 bolts per line).

Ae 1.84
( An )    2.3 in 2
U 0.80
For single line 7/8” bolts ; Ag = An + (1)t = 2.3 + t = (Ag)2
T-29
Step 4) Find required rmin.
L 15  12
rmin    0.6 in.
300 300

Step 5) Select angle:

By selecting (t) we get Ag & rmin

t (Ag)1 (Ag)2

1/4 2.47 2.55

select t = 1/4”
3/8 2.47 2.68
(Ag)2 = 2.55 in2
1/2 2.47 2.80
(Controls)
T-30
Selection
L4  3 12  1 4
Ag = 2.67 in2 > 2.55 in2 OK
rmin = 0.727 in > 0.6 OK

Step 6) Design the bolted connection:

Step 7) Re-check the section.

T-31
Example (T-8):-
Select a pair of MC as shown to carry a factored ultimate load
of 490 kips in tension. Assume connection as shown. Steel Fy = 50 ksi,
Fu = 65 ksi (A572, grade 50) length = 30 ft.
10” 2MC 1. Tu = 490 k; per channel, Tu = 245 k
2. Required, (Ag)1 = 245 / 0.9 x 50 = 5.44 in2
Required, (Ae) = 245 / 0.75 x 65 = 5.03 in2
A
Required, (An) = e = 5.03 in2
U
7/8” bolt U = 1.0 (Well connected)

3. Assume that flange thickness ~ 0.5 in and web tk. ~ 0.3 in. (experience !)
An = (Ag)2 – 2 x 1.0 x 0.5 – 2 x 1.0 x 0.3
= (Ag)2 – 1.60
 (Ag)2 = An + 1.60 = 5.03 + 1.60 = 6.63 in.
T-32
(controls)
 l 30 12
4. Required. rmin =   1.2 in (as a buildup section)
300 300
 rmin ≥ 1.2
5. Try MC 10 x 25 ; Ag = 7.35 in2 ; tw = 0.38 and tf = 0.575, rx = 3.87 in.

6. Check capacity y
An = 7.35 – 2 x 1.0 x 0.575 – 2 x 1.0 x 0.38
= 7.35 – 1.910 = 5.44 in2.
Ae = 5.44 in2. x x

(i) Yielding Tn = 0.9 x 50 x (2 x 7.35) = 661.5 k y

(ii) Fracture Tn = 0.75 x 65 x (2 x 5.44) = 530.4 k
Pn = 530.4 k > 490 k. OK

Use 2 MC 10 x 25

T-33
For built-up members, tie plates are required to make the
members to behave as a single unit.

 Between tie plates, each member behaves as a single.

Therefore, l/r between tie-plates corresponds to that for
a single member.

For single , rmin = ry ; ry = 1.0 in

300  1.0
Max. l  ft  25.0ft  30ft. (N.G.)
12

T-34
 Therefore one tie-plate at middle must be used.

Note:

Tie-Plates must be used at ends. See

Manual for min. sizes. LRFDD2, P16.1- 24

15'

Length of tie-plate ≥ 2/3 (dist. between line of connection) = 8"

Thickness of tie-plate ≥ 1/50 (dist. between line of connection) = 1/2"

15'

See LFRD D2. (P. 16.1-24)

T-35