Chapter 6: Mechanical properties of metals

Outline
Introduction
Concepts of stress and strain
Elastic deformation
• Stress-strain behavior
• Elastic properties of materials
Plastic deformation
• Yield and yield strength
• Ductility
• Resilience
• Toughness

Concepts of stress and strain

Tension, compression, shear, and torsion

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 Stress-strain testing

Tension tests
• engineering stress σ= F
A0
• engineering strain
extensometer specimen
li − l 0
ε= l0 = Δl
l0

Gauge length

Compression tests

Shear stress

Shear and torsional tests

• Shear stress
τ = F = Gγ
A0

• Shear strain γ = Δx/y = tan θ

Δx

y 90º - θ
90º

Geometric considerations of the stress state

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 Elastic deformation

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
δ
F F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
δ

Linear elastic properties

Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

Hooke's Law:
σ=Eε σ F
E

ε
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

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 Stress-strain behavior

Stress-strain for linear elastic deformation

Stress-strain for non-linear elastic deformation

Stress-strain behavior(continue)

Modulus of elasticity E is proportional to (dF/dr)r

Slope of stress strain plot (which is proportional to the elastic
modulus) depends on bond strength of metal

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 Other elastic properties

M
τ
Elastic Shear
G
modulus, G: simple
γ torsion
τ=Gγ test

M
Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
ΔV ΔV P P
P=- K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
Special relations for isotropic materials: vol =Vo.
Vol chg.
E E
G = K = = ΔV
2(1 + ν) 3(1 − 2ν)

Comparison of Young’s moduli

1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete
GFRE*
20
CFRE*
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
Polyester
4 PET
PS
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDP E
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE

5
 Comparison of yield strength

Metals/ Graphite/
Ceramics/ Polymers Composites/
Alloys Semicond fibers
2000
Steel (4140)qt

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
1000

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)a
Yield strength, σy (MPa)
700 W (pure)
600 Cu (71500)cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140)a
Steel (1020)cd

Hard to measure,
300

Hard to measure,
Al (6061)ag
200 Steel (1020)hr ¨
Ti (pure)a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500)hr
100
dry
70 PC
60 Al (6061)a Nylon 6,6
50 PET
40 PVC humid
PP
30 HDPE
20

LDPE
Tin (pure)
10

Elastic properties of materials

Poisson’s ratio

εx ε
ν =− =− y
εz εz

metals: ν ~ 0.33
ceramics: ν ~ 0.25
polymers: ν ~ 0.40

Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
ν: dimensionless

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 Plastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

δelastic + plastic δplastic

F
F
linear linear
Plastic means permanent! elastic elastic
δ
δplastic

Plastic deformation: yield and yield strength

Yielding
Proportional limit
Yield strength

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 Tensile strength

Tensile strength: the stress at the

maximum on the engineering
stress-strain curve TS
Metals: occurs when noticeable σy

engineering
“necking” starts

stress
Ceramics: occurs when crack
propagation starts
Polymers: occurs when polymer Typical response of a metal
backbones are aligned and about
to break
engineering strain

Plastic (permanent) deformation

(At lower temperature: T< Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, σ at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

εp engineering strain, ε

plastic strain

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 Elastic and plastic deformations

Stress-strain relations under uniaxial loading

Ceramics

Polymeric material

Ductility

Ductility: a measure of the degree of plastic

deformation that has been sustained at fracture

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 Mechanic properties of typical metals

Resilience

Resilience: is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is

deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this energy
recovered.

Resilience

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 Toughness

Energy to break a unit volume of material

Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, σ
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister 7e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, ε

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy

Summary

• Stress and strain: These are size-independent

measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches σy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

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