CEMENT

HISTORY
 Origin from Greece and Rome
 Materials used were lime and volcanic ash
 It slowly reacted with presence of water to form a hard mass
 Used 2000 years ago
 Pozzalana or Pozzolan – refers to either to the cement itself or to any finely divided aluminosilicate that reacts with water to
form cement.
 Cement is derived from the latin word caementum which meant stone chippings
 Portland Cement
o A successor to a hydraulic lime
o First developed by John Smeaton in 1756
o Invention of Portland cement was credited to Joseph Aspdin of Leeds in 1824
o Real prototype was produced by Isaac Charles Johnson in southeastern England in 1850
o 21st century, India and China had become the world leaders in cement production
INTRODUCTION
 Cement
o Is an adhesive substance or binding material used in building and civil engineering construction
o They are finely ground powders that when mixed with water, set to a hard mass
o Setting and hardening of cement was cause by hydration
o Hydration – is a chemical combination of the cement compounds with water that yields submicroscopic crystals or a
gel like material with a high surface area
o Often called as hydraulic cements
o Most known cement is Portland cement
o Portland Cement
 Most common type of cement
 Basic ingredient for
 Concrete
 Mortar
 Stucco
 Non-specialty grout
 Developed in England in 19th century
 Originates from limestone
 Fine powder produced by heating limestone and clay minerals in a kiln to form clinker, grinding
the clinker and adding small amounts of other materials
 Types
o OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement)
o White Portland Cement

MANUFACTURE

Stages in manufacturing cement:

 Crushing and grinding the raw materials
o Crushed in two stages
o Ground in tube mills
 Grinding is done wet or dry depending on
the process
o Soft materials are broken down by vigorous stirring
water in wash mills producing a fine slurry and is
passed through screens to remove oversize
particles
 Blending the materials in the correct proportions
o Slurry that contains 35-45% of water filters water
content to 20-30%
o Filter cake is then fed to the kiln
 Burning the prepared mix in a kiln
o Earliest kilns were bottle kilns then chamber kilns
and then continuous shaft kilns

o o Kilns are up to 200 meters long and 6

meters in diameter (for wet process)
o For dry processes-consist of a steel, cylindrical
shell lined with refractory materials
o Fuel used are
 Pulverized coal
 Oil
 Natural gas
o Injected through a pipe
o Temperature ranges from 1350 to 1550 degrees
Celsius
 Grinding the burned product known as clinker together with
5% or gypsum
 o Clinker and the required amount of gypsum are ground to a fine powder in a horizontal mills
o Passes straight through the mill or coarser material maybe separated from the grounf product and returned to the
mill for further grinding
o Sometimes, grinding acid is added to the feeding materials
Finished cement is pumped pneumatically to storage silos from which it is drawn for packing in paper bags for dispatch in bulk
containers.
Processes of manufacture
 Wet
o When the raw materials are ground wet and fed to the kiln as a slurry
 Dry
o Ground dry and fed as a dry powder
 Semidry
o Moistened to form nodules that are fed to the kiln
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Three constituents of hydraulic cements
 Lime
 Silica alumina
 Iron oxide

 Tricalcium silicate (C3S)

o Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible
for initial set and early strength.
o Ordinary Portland cements with higher percentages of
C3S will exhibit higher early strength.
 Dicalcium silicate (C2S)
o Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely responsible
for strength increases beyond one week.
 Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
o Hydrates and hardens the quickest.
o It liberates a large amount of heat almost immediately
and contributes somewhat to early strength.
o Gypsum is added to Ordinary Portland cement to retard
C3A hydration.
o Without gypsum, C3A hydration would cause ordinary
Portland cement to set almost immediately after adding water.
 Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF)
o Hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to strength.
o Most ordinary Portland cement color effects are due to C4AF
TYPES OF CEMENT
o Two major standards are
o ASTM C150
o EN 197 (is used worldwide)
 CEM
 TYPE I (ORDINARY)
 Known as common or general purpose cement
 Used for general construction
 For making precast
 For making precast-prestressed concrete that is not to be in contact with soils or ground water
 TYPE II (MODERATE SULFATE RESISTANCE)
 Protection against moderate sulfate exposure
 0.1 to 2% weight water soluble sulfate in soil
 150-5500 ppm sulfate in water (sea water)
 Suitable for large piers
 Heavy abutments
 Retaining
 Moderate heat hydration is also beneficial when placing concrete in warm water
 TYPE III (HIGH EARLY STRENGTH)
 Used for fast track construction
 In cold weather it reduces time required for controlled curing
 TYPE IV (LOW HEAT HYDRATION)
 Used when mass of structure that requires careful control of the heat of hydration.
 TYPE V (HIGH SULFATE RESISTANCE)
 Protection from severe sulfate exposure
 0.2-2% weight water soluble sulfate in soils or 1500-10,800 ppm sulfate in water
In other countries..
 TYPE II is omitted
 TYPE III is called rapid hardening
 TYPE V is known in European countries as Ferrari cement
Other types of hydraulic cement:
 White portland cement
 Blended hydraulic cements (ASTM C595)
 Type IS (Portland blast furnace slag cement)
 Type IP (Portland-pozzolan cement)
 Hydraulic cements (ASTM C1157)
  Type GU (General use)
 Type HE (High early strength)
 Type MS (Moderate sulfate resistance)
 Type HS (High sulfate resistance)
 Type MH (Moderate heat of hydration)
 Type LH (Low heat of hydration)
 Masonry and mortar cements
 Plastic cements Finely-ground cements (ultrafine cements)
 Expansive cements
 Specialty cements
CEMENT HYDRATION
 The most important hydraulic constituents are
o C2S
o C3S.
 Upon mixing with water, the calcium silicates react with water molecules to form calcium silicate hydrate (3CaO · 2SiO 2 ·
3H2O) and calcium hydroxide (Ca[OH]2).
 These compounds are given the shorthand notations C–S–H (represented by the average formula C 3S2H3) and CH
 Hydration reaction can be crudely represented by the following reactions:
2C3S + 6H = C3S2H3 + 3CH 2C2S + 4H = C3S2H3 + CH.
 Hydration Process
 The parent compounds dissolve, and the dissolution of their chemical bonds generates a significant amount of heat.
 Then, for reasons that are not fully understood, hydration comes to a stop. This quiescent, or dormant, period is extremely
important in the placement of concrete.
 Without a dormant period there would be no cement trucks; pouring would have to be done immediately upon mixing.
 Following the dormant period (which can last several hours), the cement begins to harden, as CH and C–S–H are produced.
 This is the cementitious material that binds cement and concrete together. As hydration proceeds, water and cement are
continuously consumed.
 Fortunately, the C–S–H and CH products occupy almost the same volume as the original cement and water; volume is
approximately conserved, and shrinkage is manageable.
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
 The strength developed by portland cement depends on its composition and the fineness to which it is ground.
 The C3S is mainly responsible for the strength developed in the first week of hardening and the C 2S for the subsequent
increase in strength.
 The alumina and iron compounds that are present only in lesser amounts make little direct contribution to strength.
 Set cement and concrete can suffer deterioration from attack by some natural or artificial chemical agents.
 The alumina compound is the most vulnerable to chemical attack in soils containing sulfate salts or in seawater, while
the iron compound and the two calcium silicates are more resistant.
 Calcium hydroxide released during the hydration of the calcium silicates is also vulnerable to attack.
 Because cement liberates heat when it hydrates, concrete placed in large masses, as in dams, can cause the
temperature inside the mass to rise as much as 40 °C (70 °F) above the outside temperature.
 Subsequent cooling can be a cause of cracking. The highest heat of hydration is shown by C3A, followed in descending
order by C3S, C4AF, and C2S.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Portland cements are fine grey powders.
 The particles have a relative density of about 3.14, and most have a size of between 2 and 80 mm.
 The particle size is, of course, dependent on the clinker grinding process, and it can be and is varied depending on
the requirements of the cement.
 The particles are too small for their distribution to be measured by sieve analysis and instead the specific surface
area (SSA), the surface area per unit weight, is normally used as an alternative measurement. This increases as the
particle size reduces i.e. a higher value means smaller average particle size. There are a number of ways of
measuring this, but unfortunately, they all give somewhat different values. It is therefore necessary to define the
method of measurement when specifying, quoting or using a value. The Blaine method, which is the most
commonly used, is based on measuring the rate of flow of air under a constant pressure through a small compacted
sample of the cement.
 Values of SSA measured with this method range from about 300 to 500 m2/kg for most cements in common use.
CEMENT TESTING

FIELD TEST
1. COLOUR
 Color of cement should be uniform. For example, grey colour with a light greenish shade.
2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between fingers.
  If it felts rough it indicates adulteration with sand
 If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement it should feel cool not warm.
 If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water it should sink and not float on the surface
 A thin paste of cement with water should feel sticky between the fingers.
 If the cement contains too much of pounded clay and silt as an adulterant the paste will give an
earthy smell.
3. PRESCENCE OF LUMPS
 Cement should be free from any hard lumps. Such lumps are formed by the absorption of moisture from
the atmosphere.
 Any bag of cement containing such lumps should be rejected.
4. STRENGTH
 Strength of cement can be roughly ascertained in the following ways:
 Briquette with a lean or weak mortar are made. Size of briquette may be about 75mm X 25mm X
12mm. The proportion of cement and sand may be 1:6. The briquettes are immersed in water for a
period of 3 days. If cement is of sound quality, such briquette will not be broken easily and it will be
difficult to convert them into powder form.
 A block of cement 25mm X 25mm and 200 mm long is prepared and it is immersed for 7 days in
water. It is then placed on supports 150mm apart and it is loaded with a weight of 340N the block
should not show signs of failure.
 A thick faster cement with water is made on piece of thick glass and it is kept under water for 24
hours. It should set and not crack.
PHYSICAL LAB TEST
1. FINENESS TEST
a. Measures the surface area per unit weight of the cement by a determination of the rate of passage of air through a
bed of the cement.
i. Other methods depend on
 measuring the particle size distribution
 by the rate of sedimentation of the cement in kerosene or by elutriation (separation) in an
airstream.
 The degree of fineness of cement is the measure of the mean size of the grains in it. There are
three methods for testing fineness: the sieve method—using 90 micron (9 No.) sieve, the air
permeability method— Nurse and Blains method and the sedimentation method— Wagner
turbidimeter method.
2. CONSISTENCY TEST
a. This is a test to estimate the quantity of mixing water to form a paste of normal consistency defined as that
percentage water requirement of the cement paste, the viscosity of which will be such that the Vicat’s plunger
penetrates up to a point 5 to 7 mm from the bottom of the Vicat’s mould.
3. INITIAL AND FINAL SETING TIME
a. When water is added to cement, the resulting paste starts to stiffen and gain strength and lose the consistency
simultaneously.
b. The term setting implies solidification of the plastic cement paste. Initial and final setting times may be regarded as
the two stiffening states of the cement.
c. The beginning of solidification, called the initial set, marks the point in time when the paste has become
unworkable. The time taken to solidify completely marks the final set, which should not be too long in order to
resume construction activity within a reasonable time after the placement of concrete.
d. Vicat’s apparatus used for the purpose is shown in The initial setting time may be defined as the time taken by the
paste to stiffen to such an extent that the Vicat’s needle is not permitted to move down through the paste to within
5 ± 0.5mm measured from the bottom of the mould.
e. The final setting time is the time after which the paste becomes so hard that the angular attachment to the needle,
under standard weight, fails to leave any mark on the hardened concrete. Initial and final setting times are the
rheological properties of cement.
4. SOUNDNESS TEST
a. After it has set, a cement must not undergo any appreciable expansion, which could disrupt a mortar or concrete.
b. This property of soundness is tested by subjecting the set cement to boiling in water or to high-pressure steam.
c. Unsoundness can arise from the presence in the cement of too much free magnesia or hard-burned free lime.

5. SETTING TIME
a. Cement hydrates when water is added to it and cohesion and solidity is exhibited. It binds together the aggregates
by adhesion.
b. The strength of mortar and concrete depends upon the type and nature of cement.
c. So, it should develop a minimum specified strength if it is to be used in structures. Cement is tested for
compressive and tensile strengths.
i. CONDITIONS AFFECTING STRENGTH
o Cement is very strong at early ages if a high lime or high alumina content is there.
o Gypsum and Plaster of Paris in small percentages also tend to increase the strength slightly, but when
present in quantities larger then 3 per cent, these substances provide variable effects.
o The strength of cement is greatly influenced by the degree of burning, the fineness of grinding, and
the aeration it receives subsequent to final grinding.
o An under burnt cement is likely to be deficient in strength.

6. HEAT OF HYDRATION
a. Heat is evolved during hydration of cement, the amount being dependent on the relative quantities of the clinker
compounds.
b. IMPORTANCE
 i.
The evolution of heat causes an increase in temperature of the concrete, being greatest in mass
concreting.
ii. Since the cooling of a mass of concrete can only occur from surfaces exposed to atmosphere the
temperature of the interior is higher than that at the surface and also there is a rapid increase in strength
in the interior than at the surface.
iii. Shrinkage cracks may result from stresses, induced by cooling of the surface while the interior of concrete
is still at higher temperature.
iv. However, in practice, the heat evolution may be taken to its advantage in cold weather provided the
concrete is warm at the time of placing and excessive heat loss is prevented by suitable lagging.
7. SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST
a. Obtained using Le-Chatekier flask
b. Conditions affecting Specific Gravity
i. Long seasoning is the chief cause of a low specific gravity in unadulterated cement. This is because the
freshly ground cement when exposed to air rapidly absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide.
ii. Cements with high contents of iron oxide have a higher specific gravity. The effect of fineness of grinding
upon specific gravity is slight.
iii. Very finely ground cements are likely to have lower specific gravities.
CHEMICAL TEST
1. LOSE ON IGNITION
a. 1g of the sample is heated for 15 minutes in a weighed and covered platinum crucible of 20 to 25 ml capacity by
placing it in a muffle furnace at any temperature between 900° and 1000°C. It is then cooled and weighed.
b. Thereafter, the loss in weight is checked by a second heating for 5 minutes and reweighing.
c. The loss in the weight is recorded as the loss on ignition and the percentage of loss on ignition to the nearest 0.1 is
calculated (loss in weight × 100).
d. The percentage loss on ignition should not exceed 4 per cent.
2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
a. The various tests are carried out to determine the chemical constituents of cement. Following are the chemical
requirements of ordinary cement as per BIS 269-1975
b. Ration of percentage of Alumina (Al2O3) to that of iron oxide (Fe2O3) should not be less than 0.66
c. The BIS set the LSF requirement as 0.66 lower limit for grade 33&43 cement while 0.8 for grade cement
d. The higher value of LSF 1.02 corresponds to a higher content of free lime which makes the concrete vulnerable to
sulphate attack and reduces the soundness of the concrete.
e. When LSF is low than specified the amount of C 2S will also be low resulting to slow setting and slow gaining of
strength during early period.
f. Total sulphate content as sulphuric anhydride SO3% by mass maximum
When C2A ≤ 5 LSF=2.5 for all grade of cement
When C2A > 5 LSF=3 for all grade (33, 43, 53) of cement
g. Insoluble residue % by mass is 4 for 33 grade and 2 for 43 and 53 grade.
SPECIAL CEMENTS
1. Coloured cements
a. are made by grinding 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments with white or ordinary gray portland cement.
2. Air-entraining cements
a. are made by the addition on grinding of a small amount, about 0.05 percent, of an organic agent that causes the
entrainment of very fine air bubbles in a concrete.
b. increases the resistance of the concrete to freeze-thaw damage in cold climates
3. Low-alkali cements
a. are portland cements with a total content of alkalies not above 0.6 percent.
b. These are used in concrete made with certain types of aggregates that contain a form of silica that reacts with
alkalies to cause an expansion that can disrupt a concrete.
4. Masonry cements
a. are used primarily for mortar.
b. They consist of a mixture of portland cement and ground limestone or other filler together with an air-entraining
agent or a water-repellent additive.
c. Waterproof cement is the name given to a portland cement to which a water-repellent agent has been added.
d. Hydrophobic cement is obtained by grinding portland cement clinker with a film-forming substance such as oleic
acid in order to reduce the rate of deterioration when the cement is stored under unfavourable conditions.
5. Oil-well cements
a. are used for cementing work in the drilling of oil wells where they are subject to high teperatures and pressures.
b. They usually consist of portland or pozzolanic cement (see below) with special organic retarders to prevent the
cement from setting too quickly.
6. Gypsum plasters
a. are used for plastering, the manufacture of plaster boards and slabs, and in one form of foor-surfacing material.
b. These gypsum cements are mainly produced by heating natural gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate, CaSO4 · 2H2O)
and dehydrating it to give calcium sulfate hemihydrate (CaSO4 · 1/2H2O) or anhydrous (water-free) calcium sulfate.
Gypsum and anhydrite obtained as by-products in chemical manufacture also are used as raw materials.
7. Expanding and nonshrinking cements
a. expand slightly on hydration, thus offsetting the small cotraction that occurs when fresh concrete dries for the first
time.
b. Expanding cements were first produced in France about 1945.
c. The American type is a mixture of portland cement and an expansive agent made by clinkering a mix of chalk,
bauxite, and gypsum.
8. Slag Cements.
a. The granulated slag made by the rapid chilling of suitable molten slags from blast funaces forms the basis of
another group of constructional cements.
b. A mixture of portland cement and granulated slag, containing up to 65 percent slag, is known in the English-
speaking countries as portland blast-furnace (slag) cement.
 c. The German Eisenportlandzement and Hochofenzement contain up to 40 and 85 percent slag, respectively.
d. Mixtures in other proportions are found in French-speaking countries under such names as ciment portland de fer,
ciment métallurgique mixte, ciment de haut fourneau, and ciment de liatier au clinker.
e. Properties of these slag cements are broadly similar to those of portland cement, but they have a lower lime
content and a higher silica and alumina content.
f. Those with the higher slag content have an increased resistance to chemical attack.
9. Rapid hardening Portland Cement (IS: 8041)
a. has high lime content and can be obtained by increasing the C3S content but is normally obtained from OPC clinker
by finer grinding (450 m2/kg).
b. The basis of application of rapid hardening cement (RHC) is hardening properties and heat emission rather than
setting rate.
c. It is suitable for repair of roads and bridges and when load is applied in a short period of time.
10. High Alumina Cement (IS: 6452)
a. It is resistant to the action of fire, sea water, acidic water and sulphates and is used as refractory concrete, in
industries and is used widely for precasting. It should not be used in places where temperature exceeds 18°C.
11. Water Proof Cement
a. is manufactured by adding strearates of Ca and Al and gypsum treated with tannic acid, etc. at the time of grinding.
It is resistant to penetration of water. Used in Water retaining structures like tanks,
reservoirs, retaining walls, swimming pools, bridge piers, etc.
12. Water Repellent Cement (IS: 8043)
a. It is also called hydrophobic cement.
b. A small amount of hydrophobic surfactants such as stearic acid, boric acid or oleic acid is mixed with the ordinary
Portland cement during grinding of clinker.
c. It is most suitable for basements and for making water tight concrete.
13. Portland Puzzolana Cement (IS: 1489)
a. is manufactured by grinding Portland cement clinker and puzzolana (usually fly ash 10-25% by mass of PPC) or by
intimately and uniformly blending Portland cement and fine puzzolana. Puzzolana (burnt clay, shale, or fly ash) has
no cementing value itself but has the property of combining with lime to produce a stable lime-puzzolana
compound which has definite cementitious properties.
b. It has low heat evolution and is used in the places of mass concrete such as dams and in places of high
temperature.
LIME
HISTORY
 Has been used for over 2000 years
 But has been used since 6000 BC
 Was used as a building material
 Mid-1800s has faded into obscurity
INTRODUCTION
 Lime was a used as the chief cementing material in building construction both for mortar and plasters
 Portland cement replaced lime but lime was more available locally
 Provides a cheap and alternative to cement
 Raw materials for lime -Calcium carbonate (CaO)
 Burning temperature – 800 degrees Celsius
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIME
 Lime possesses good plasticity and is easy to work with.
 It stiffens easily and is resistant to moisture.
 The excellent cementitious properties make it most suitable for masonry work.
 The shrinkage on drying is small because of its high water retentivity.

VARIETIES OF LIME
 Pure limestone
o is called calcite and that containing magnesite is called dolomitic limestone.
o The mineral containing calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate in equimolecular quantities is called dolomite.
 Stone Lime
o is almost pure lime obtained by calcination of limestone and is used for making lime-sand mortar for
superstructures
o lime-surkhi mortar for substructures and lime terracing and flooring.
o Stone lime has hydraulic properties.
 Kankar Lime
o is an impure lime obtained by calcination of kankars dug out from underground sources.
o These occur in the form of nodules and compact blocks.
o It is suitable for making lime- sand mortars for substructures.
o It is commonly used for making hydraulic lime.
 Shell Lime
o is very pure lime obtained by calcination of shells of sea animals and corals.
o It is used for lime punning, white wash and colour wash, soil stabilization and glass production.
 Magnesian lime
o is manufactured from dolomite and contain magnesia more than 5 per cent.
o It is used for making mortar and plaster.
TYPES OF LIME
 QUICK LIME
o It is also known as caustic lime.
o It is obtained by calcination (i.e. heating to redness) of comparatively pure lime stone.
o It is amorphous in nature, highly caustic and possesses great affinity to moisture.
 SLAKED LIME
 o It is also known as hydrate of lime.
o It is obtained by slaking (i.e. chemical combination of quick
lime with water) of quick lime.
o It is ordinary pure lime, in white powder form, available in
market.
o It has got the tendency of absorbing carbonic acid from the
atmosphere in presence of water.
 FAT LIME
 HYDRAULIC LIME
3. FAT LIME
 It is also known as high calcium lime or pure lime or rich lime or white
lime.
 It is popularly known as fat lime as it slakes vigorously and its volume is increased to about 2 to 2.5 times that of quick lime.
 This lime is used for various purposes as white washing, plastering of walls, as lime mortar with sand for pointing in masonry
work, as a lime mortar with surkhi for thick masonry walls, foundations, etc.
4. HYDRAULIC LIME
 It is also known as water lime.
 This lime contains clay and some amount of ferrous oxide.
 It sets under water and hence also known as water lime.
 Depending upon the percentage of clay IS has divided hydraulic lime in three classes namely:
o Class A – Eminently hydraulic
 This lime contains about 25% clay content and sets readily under water within a day /so.
 This lime slakes with difficulty.
 The mortar and lime concrete prepared from this lime is very useful for construction under water or in
damp places.
o Class B – Semi Hydraulic
 Semi-hydraulic lime contains about 15% clay content and sets under water at a slower rate within a week
or so.
 The mortar and concrete prepared from this lime is strong and used for superior type of masonry work.
o Class C – Non-hydraulic (or Fat lime)
 This lime contains about 7.5% of clay content and is
prepared from pure lime stone.
 This slakes vigorously within few minutes but does not
set under water.
 This is used for white washing and colour washing.
MANUFACTURE:

o Fat lime is obtained by burning limestone and hydraulic lime is

obtained by burning kankar.
o Limestone is usually burned in some form of vertical kiln systems.
o Modern furnace fired lime kilns yield about 25-35 cu m of good hydraulic lime per day.
o The process of making lime consists in heating calcite or magnesia limestone

HARDENING
Patterns
o Carboning Hardening
 Mixed water evaporates and calcium oxide hydrate crystallizes out of its saturated water solution
o Hydrate Hardening
 Gradual conversion of lime mortar and concrete mixes from ground unslaked lime into a rock-like hard
body, resulting from the interaction of lime with water and the formation of calcium oxide hydrate.
o Hydro-Silicate
 When lime sand mixtures are treated by high-pressure steam corresponding to temperatures between 175
and 200 degress Celsius, lime and silica interact in the autoclave and form hydro silicate which ensures
high strength and durability of manufactured items.
APPLICATION OF LIME
o Agriculture
 Low cost aid to maintaining fertility and nurturing the land
 Preservation of the chemical condition of the soil
 Improved drainage
 Increased aeration
 Stabilized soil structure
o Construction
 used in building infrastructure
 control expansive clays in highway and airport construction
 increased masonry bond strength in buildings
o Waste Water and Sludge
 Used for correcting Ph balance of acidic waters
 For precipitating and flocculating action of heavy metals and phosphates
 Stabilizing industrial residua sludge
o Steel Metallurgical Application
 Uses in metal extraction process
 Used in flotation of sulphide ores to facilitate concentration of the desired metal
o Food Industry
 Used to capture and remove impurities in the juice of sugar beets
 o Industrial Chemical Application
 Used in production of chemicals such as
 Calcium carbonate
 Propylene oxide
 Sodium carbonate
 Glycerine
 Used as regeant in the production of calcium based
o Refractory Application
o Glass Industry
 Main components of glass
o Pulp and Paper Industry
 Traditionally used to reconstitute caustic soda from the sodiate carbonate left over from the process
COMPARISON OF LIME AND CEMENT