1.

Power angle Characteristics of Synchronous Machine:

For cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine

The power Vs load angle curve has sinusoidal shape and is called power angle characteristic.
For salient pole synchronous machine
Ef Vt V2  1 1 
P  sin   t    sin2
Xd 2  X q X d 


fundamental second harmonic

component component
The fundamental component of power is called electromagnetic power, because its existence depends
on the existence of both armature winding and the field winding.
The second component is called reluctance power because it exists due to different reluctances along d
and q-axis.

2. Synchronizing Power and Synchronizing Torque:

dP
Psy 
d (in watts/electrical radians)
The rate at which synchronous power P varies with δ is called synchronizing power coefficient P sy
dP Ef Vf
Psy   cos 
d Xs
Ef Vf V2  1 1 
 cos   t    cos 2
Xd 2  X q X d 

It is also called stiffness of coupling, rigidity factor or stability factor.
The efficient Psy is equal to slope of the power-angle curve. It is the measure of the stiffness of
electromagnetic coupling between stator and rotor fields.

Psy is inversely proportional to Xs or Xd and directly proportional to Ef, the excitation voltage.
Consequently, an overexcited synchronous machine is more rigidly coupled than the one which is
under excited. Large airgap decreases the value of X s or Xd, thus a synchronous machine with longer
airgap is stiffer than with smaller airgap.

The variation of synchronous power associated with the change of load angle is called synchronizing
power. It is transient in nature, i.e. it comes into play only when there is a sudden disturbance in
steady state operating condition. Once the steady state after the distance is reached, the
synchronizing power reduces to zero. This exists during period of disturbance only.

The synchronizing power flows from or to the bus in order to maintain the relative velocity between
interacting stator and rotor field zero – once this equality is reached, the synchronizing power
vanishes.

2.1. Hunting:
A synchronous machine operates satisfactorily if the mechanical speed of the rotor is equal to the
stator field speed i.e., if relative speed between rotor and stator fields is equal to zero. any departure
from these conditions gives rise to synchronizing forces, which tend to maintain this equality.

The phenomena of oscillation of rotor about its final equilibrium position is called hunting. The
orientation of phasor Ef changes relative to Vt and because of this reason, hunting is called phase
swinging.

2.2. Electro Magnetic Torque:

The appearance of load angle δ rf between Fr and If gives rise to the development of electromagnetic
torque
 2
Te  P Ff r sin rf
8
When torque Te, applied is equal to the applied prime-mover torque, the generator works under steady
state conditions. Then it will happen that F r and Ff are in phase but no longer in phase as it must holds
Fr  Ff  Fa
and Fa comes into existence. The active power V t Ia cos θ for generating and motoring
modes, is proportional to the mechanical torque as expected.
 3. Phasor Diagram of Alternator:

 Vt cos   Ia ra    Vt cos   Ia X s 
2 2
Ef 
For lagging power factor, figure (a),

 Vt  Ia ra    Ia Xs 
2 2
Ef 
For unity power factor, figure (b),

 Vt cos   Ia ra    Vt cos   Ia X s 
2 2
Ef 
For leading power factor, figure (c),

4. Synchronous Motor Phasor Diagram:

 Vt cos   Ia ra    Vt cos   Ia X s 
2 2
Ef 
For lagging power factor, figure (a),

 Vt  Ia ra    Ia Xs 
2 2
Ef 
For unity power factor, figure (b),

 Vt cos   Ia ra    Vt cos   Ia X s 
2 2
Ef 
For leading power factor, figure (c),
 5. Power Flow:

E1 E2
I = difference between two currents Z and Z
E E 
I1   1  2 
Z Z 

If lagging their respective voltages by θ2, where θ2 is the impedance angle.
Power P1 at some end of impedance Z,
P1 = E1 (Comp. of in phase with E1)

E1E2 E2R
 sin    2   12
Z Z

Power at the load end,

E1E2 E2R
P2  sin    2   22
Z Z

5.1. For Cylindrical Rotor Alternator:

E1  Ef , E2  Vt
Z  Zs  ra  j Xs
Ef Vf E2
 Pig  sin    2   f2 ra
Zs Zs
Ef Vt V2
Pog  sin    2   t2 ra
Zs Zs

5.2. For synchronous Motor:

 Ef Vt V2
Pim  sin     2   t2 ra
Zs Zs
Ef Vt E2
Pog  sin     2   f2 ra
Zs Zs

5.3. Maximum Power Condition:

With constant Ef, Vt and Zs, the condition for maximum input or output is obtained with only
variable δ.
Maximum Power Output
dPog dPom Ef Vt
  cos     2   0
d d Zs
   2  90o    90o   2  2
Hence for maximum power output, load angle, δ = impedance angel, θ 2.
Ef Vt Vt2
Pog max    2 ra
Zs Zs
Ef Vt Vt2
Pom max    2 ra
Zs Zs
Ia  Zs  Ef2  Vt2  2 Ef Vt cos 
At maximum power output condition, alternator p.f. at which it operates is,
 E  Vt cos 2 
cos    f 
 Ia Zs 
In case θ2 is known, the motor p.f. under maximum power output condition is,
Vt  Ef cos 
cos  2    
Ia Zs

Maximum Power Input

dPig dPim Ef Vt
  cos    2   0
d d Zs
   90o  2    2  2  180o  2
   2  2
For maximum power input, load angle, δ = 90o + α2 = 180o – impedance angle, θ2
Ef Vt Vt2
Pig  max    2 ra
Zs Zs
Ef Vt Vt2
Pim  max   2 ra
Zs Zs

5.4. Reactive power:

Vt Ef V2
 cos    2   t2 X s
Zs Zs
Since output terminal of the generator is same as the input terminals for the motor
∴ Qim = - Qog with δ replaced by (-δ) Qim takes maximum value at δ = 180o + δ2
Vt Ef Vt2
Qim  max   2 Xs
Zs Zs
When Pim is maximum δ = 90 + α2, then reactive power under this condition is
 Vt2
Qim  Xs
Zs2
Vt Ef Vt2
Qavg max     2 Xs
Zs Zs
When Pavg is maximum, δ = θ2 = 90 – α2, then reactive power under this condition is given by

5.5. Generating mode:

If ra = 0, then
Ef Vt V2  V
Qim   cos    t   t  Vt  E f cos  
Xs  Xs  Xs
Ef cos δ > Vt, motor delivers power to infinite bus and is operating at leading p.f.
Ef cos δ = Vt (normally excited), Qim = 0. Motor neither absorbs nor delivers reactive power
to the infinite bus (unity p.f.)
Ef cos δ < Vt (under excited), Qim = (+) ve, i.e., motor will absorb power from infinite bus as
it is absorbing active power. Under this condition it operates at lagging power factor.

Hence under the conditions of maximum values of active or reactive power, then motor always
absorbs power.

6. Parallel Operation of the Alternators:

Interconnection of the electric power systems is essential from the economical point of view and
for reliable and Parallel Operation. Interconnection of AC power systems requires synchronous
generators to operate in parallel with each other. In generating stations, two or more generators
are connected in parallel. The alternators are located at different locations forming
a grid connected system. They are connected parallel by means of transformer and transmission
lines. Under normal operating conditions all the generators and synchronous motors in an
interconnected system operate in synchronism with each other. A machine must be adjusted for
optimum operating efficiency and greater reliability if the generators are connected in parallel.

As the load increases beyond the generated capacity of the connected units, additional generators
are parallel to carry the load. Similarly, if the load demand decreases, one or more machines are
taken off the line as per the requirement. It allows the units to operate at a higher efficiency.

6.1. Reasons of Parallel Operation:

Alternators are operated in parallel for the following reasons:

Several alternators can supply a bigger load than a single alternator.

One or more alternators may shut down during the period of light loads. Thus, the
remaining alternator operates at near or full load with greater efficiency.
When one machine is taken out of service for its scheduled maintenance and inspection,
the remaining machines maintain the continuity of the supply.
If there is a breakdown of the generator, there is no interruption of the power supply.
Number of machines can be added with disturbing the initial installation according to the
requirement to fulfil the increasing future demand of the load.
Parallel operation of the alternator reduces the operating cost and the cost of energy
generation.
It ensures the greater security of supply and enables overall economic generation.

6.2. Necessary Conditions for Parallel Operation of the Alternator:

Most synchronous machines will operate in parallel with other synchronous machines. The process
of connecting one machine in parallel with another machine or with an Infinite Busbar system is
known as Synchronizing. The machine carrying load is known as Running Machines while the
alternator which is to be connected in parallel with the system is known as the Incoming machine.
The following condition should be satisfied for parallel operation are as follows:

The phase sequence of the Busbar voltages and the incoming machine voltage must be the
same.
The Busbar voltages and the incoming machine terminal voltage must be in phase.
The terminal voltage of the incoming machine and the alternator which is to be connected
in parallel or with the Busbar voltage should be equal.
The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming machine and the frequency of the
voltage of the Busbar should be equal.

7. Procedure for Parallel operation of Alternators:

The figure below shows an alternator (generator 2) being paralleled with a running power system
(generator 1). These two machines are about to synchronize for supplying power to a load.
Generator 2 is about to parallel with the help of a switch, S1. This switch should never be closed
without satisfying the above conditions.

7.1. Advantages of Parallel Operating Alternators:

When there is maintenance or an inspection, one machine can be taken out from service
and the other alternators can keep up for the continuity of supply.
Load supply can be increased.
During light loads, more than one alternator can be shut down while the other will operate
in nearly full load.
High efficiency.
The operating cost is reduced.
Ensures the protection of supply and enables cost-effective generation.
The generation cost is reduced.
Breaking down of a generator does not cause any interruption in the supply.
Reliability of the whole power system increases.