Professional Documents
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COURSE OVERVIEW
The Power System
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AC power versus DC power
DC system:
Case 1: Case 2:
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AC system:
Power is the product of voltage and current, increasing the voltage would
decrease the current for a given amount of power. The line loss and voltage
drop would both decrease as well. Difficult to change the voltage in a DC system.
Power has an average value but pulsates around the average value at twice the system frequency.
We can use transformer to step up the voltage for the transmission.
DC system delivers constant power but to change the voltage is difficult therefore line
losses are more significant.
Advantages of AC systems:
Voltage can be changed using transformers.
AC generators are cheaper to build and maintain than DC generators
The ability to transmit over longer distances with lower losses by using transformers
Polyphase AC system can deliver constant power (discussed later)
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Phasors
Convenient way to represent voltages and currents using phasor form (work in phasor
domain)
In its simplest form, a phasor can be thought as a complex number that has magnitude and
phase of a sinusoidal function and can be represented partially as a vector in the complex
plane.
IMPORTANT: The magnitude of a phasor will always be RMS value of the sinusoid it is
representing.
Voltage phasor magnitude
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Impedance in AC Circuits
Impedance of the inductor:
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Impedance of the capacitor:
NOTE:
1. The current is a negative sine wave, which leads the voltage (cosine wave) by 90 degrees.
2. The RMS of the current is related to the RMS of the voltage by (wC).
Capacitance reactance:
Impedance:
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example
Complex Power
Real power
Reactive power
Power factor
Angle theta is the angle of the current with
respect to the voltage.
If the current lags the voltage (inductive load)
then theta is negative.
If the current leads the voltage (capacitive load)
then theta is positive.
Power factor is always positive and less than 1.
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example
Three-Phase WYE Configuration
Wye:
Consists of three load components connected
with a common point called neutral.
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Three-Phase DELTA Configuration
Delta:
Consists of three load components connected end-
to-end way and has no neutral point. Phases are
connected in a triangle.
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Balanced and unbalanced 3-Phase systems
A balanced system is one in which the line and phase currents and voltages in all three phases
are equal in magnitude and separated by 120 degrees, and the impedances in all three phases
are identical.
An unbalanced system is one in which any of the foregoing requirements are not met.
For a single-phase system, the apparent power is the product of the phase voltage and phase current
For a balanced 3-phase system , the total 3-phase apparent power is three times the power consumed by one phase
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examples
The Per Unit Concept
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examples
The Per Unit Concept (cont.)
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Major Distribution Layout Classifications
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3. A combination of radial and loop
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4. Networks
Networks are designed to provide very reliable service to areas with dense loads such as
downtown and suburban business districts containing many multi buildings.
The network consists of underground secondary lines connected at corners with transformers
feeding the network every one to two blocks.
The network equipment is contained in underground vaults with access through main holes
in streets and alleys. Although networks can be very large, network sections are seldom
larger than four square blocks.
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Overhead and Underground
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1/1 Transformer
Step-Down Transformer
Step Up Transformers
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Transformer classification by cooling:
1. Dry transformers.
2. Oil immersed transformers
Oil immersed transformers in which the windings and core are immersed in oil,
are both cooIed and helped in insulation by the oil.
Dry types are used primarily where minimum cost is a factor and the transformer is
supplied by the customer such as in apartment house and a building distribution systems.
Because the cooling of dry transformers is by convection they are very intolerant of overloads.
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Voltage and Current
For the ideal transformer, all the flux is confined to the
iron core and thus links the primary and secondary. Because the losses are zero in the ideal transformer, the
apparent power in and out of the transformer must be the
same:
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Impedance
Due to the fact that the transformer changes the voltage and current levels in opposite directions,
it also changes the apparent impedance as seen from the two sides of the transformer.
Recollect:
The Reflected (referred) impedance This process is called referring the impedance to
(the impedance looking into the side we move it, and allows us to use
the primary side of the transformers to match impedances between a
transformer) source and a load
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Exciting Current
In real live we deal with real transformers which require current in the primary winding to establish the flux
in the core. The current that establishes the flux is called the exiting current. Magnitude of the exciting
current is usually about 1%-5% of the rated current of the primary for power transformers but may
be much higher for small transformers.
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Equivalent T-circuit
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We can refer the impedances of the secondary to the primary side (or vise versa) yielding the equivalent circuits
All resistances and reactances have been referred All resistances and reactances have been referred
to the primary side to the secondary side
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Series Equivalent Circuit
Note: In large-scale system studies, even cantilever model becomes too complex,
so one final simplification is made.
We completely neglect the magnetizing branch of the transformer model. Only combined
winding resistance and leakage reactance are included, resulting in the first order model
(takes first order differential equation to solve it).
Science there are no shunt elements, the primary and secondary currents are
equal to each other.
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Determining Circuit Parameters
For developed model to be useful, there must be a way to determine the values of the model parameters.
We use two test to determine this parameters:
Short-circuit test One side of the transformer is shorted, and voltage is applied on the other side until
rated current flows in the winding. The applied voltage, winding current, and input
power are measured.
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To conduct the short-circuit test:
- Measure the voltage applied to the transformer high
side Vsc
- Measure the short-circuit current in the high-side
winding Isc
- Measure the power into the transformer Psc.
- Having these parameters we calculate the magnitude
of input impedance:
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Open-circuit test
Procedure: - Measure the voltage applied to the transformer low side Voc, the open-circuit
current in the low-side winding Ioc and the power into the transformer
during open circuit test Poc.
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The input impedance during open-circuit
test is the primary winding in series with
the exciting branch:
Now we have the voltage applied to and the power dissipated, so we can calculate:
Because the magnetizing reactance is in parallel with we first need to find the
reactive power to find reactance:
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Transformer Efficiency
LOSSES
Copper losses (the energy dissipated in Core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses
the resistance of the windings ) in ferromagnetic core of the transformer)
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Losses in the transformer
Winding resistance
Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors.
Eddy currents
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core made from
such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length.
Induced eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux,
and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material.
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost to hysteresis
within the magnetic core, the amount being dependant on the particular core material.
Mechanical losses
The alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the
primary and secondary windings, that induce vibrations.
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Stray losses
Not all the magnetic field produced by the primary is intercepted by the secondary.
A portion of the leakage flux may induce eddy currents within nearby conductive
objects, such as the transformer's support structure, and be converted to heat.
Cooling system
Large power transformers may be equipped with cooling fans, oil pumps or water-
cooled heat exchangers designed to remove heat.
The power used to operate the cooling system is typically considered part of the losses
of the transformer.
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Voltage Regulation
If there were no load on the transformer, the current would be zero and the referred secondary
voltage would be equal to the primary voltage.
The no-load voltage (referred to the primary) of the transformer is the primary voltage.
As the load increases to full load, current flows in the windings of the transformer and there is a
voltage drop across the transformer, and the referred value of the secondary voltage is no
longer equal to the primary voltage.
Voltage regulation:
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Methods for Voltage Regulation
Switch shunt capacitors used across the line to increase the voltage by reducing the inductive VARs drawn
as in power factor correction.
Shunt capacitors are only used for lagging load power factors and their main goal is to correct for load
power factor, and their only current is from the VARs.
Switched capacitor banks are expansive because they must have sensing equipment to monitor the line
voltage and control equipment activate the proper switching.
Series capacitors are connected in series with the line and carry full line current.
The capacitive reactance of the series capacitance is used to cancel the inductive reactance of the line to
reduce the voltage drop along the line.
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Series capacitors operation
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Three-phase transformer connections
1. WYE-WYE
2. Delta-Delta
3. WYE-Delta
4. Delta-WYE
Additionally they take up less space, are lighter, require less on site external wiring
for installation, and more efficient than three single-phase transformers.
Single phase transformer has one voltage ratio which agrees with the turns ratio.
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The WYE-WYE connection has significant
third harmonic content on the secondary
lines (unless the neutral point is grounded)
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There is a 30 degrees phase
shift in both connections.
United States industry
convention is to connect the
secondary so it lags the high
voltage primary by 30 degrees.
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Transformer protection
Transformers, especially power transformers, are expensive. The transformer must be protected from
overcurrent due to faults on its secondary circuit, and from over voltage, which is usually caused by lightning.
The protective devices:
Lightning protection is provided by lightning arresters. Zinc oxide lightning arresters are the most popular now.
The voltage at which the lightning arresters begins conducting, absorbing power, and preventing further voltage
rise on the line is set at a voltage below the maximum insulating voltage of the transformer and above the
maximum operating voltage of the transformer. Lightning arresters are used on both the primary and secondary
side of the power transformers because lightning can strike on either side.
Overcurrent protection is provided by circuit breakers and their associated protective relays, and fuses.
A fuse opens on overcurrent. Circuit breakers open electrical contacts when they receive a trip signal from one
of their associated relays The opening is done by driving the contacts apart with powerful springs. Circuit
breakers are used on the secondary side of the transformer with a fuse back up on the primary side. 42
Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers for electrical power distribution include both medium (between 600 V
and 34.5 kV) and high voltage (above 34.5 kV), high current devices that must
automatically disconnect faulted equipment to protect people, prevent damage to
upstream equipment, and minimize damage to downstream equipment in two to
five cycles.
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Example
The Arc
When current carrying contacts open, the initial electric field between the just parted
contacts is very high.
The high electric field causes any gas between the contacts to ionize and support
current flow through it, or arc.
The higher the voltage that the contacts are breaking the more severe the arcing.
1. To lengthen the arc until it is long and thin. This causes the arc resistance
to rise, thus the arc current to drop, the arc temperature to decrease, and
ultimately results in insufficient energy in the arc to keep it ionized.
2. To open the arc in a medium that absorbs energy from the arc causing it to
cool and quench.
Air, oil, and insulating gas are normally used as the medium.
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Air Circuit Breakers
Air circuit breakers use air as the arc interrupting medium. Because air at atmospheric pressure ionizes easily
some auxiliary equipment must be used to break the arc except for the very lowest voltage and capacity
breakers.
Magnetic blowout refers to the use of a transverse magnetic field near the contacts to stretch
and drive the arc into the interrupting fins.
The magnetic field interacts with the ions of the arc to provide the driving force.
The magnetic field can come from a permanent magnet in small breakers, but is provided by
a properly positioned coil through which the contact current flows in larger low voltage
breakers.
Circuit breakers with magnetic blowout and interrupting fins can even be used for lower
medium voltages.
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Air Blast Circuit Breakers
Cross air blast circuit breakers are special purpose
medium voltage circuit breakers used where
noise is an important factor.
Figure 5.6 A blast of compressed air (to 800 psi) is blown
And figure 5.7 across the circuit breaker contacts as the contacts
open.
Page 164 The blast of high pressure air blows the arc into
the interrupting fins, stretches the arc, and cools it.
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Vacuum Circuit Breakers
Vacuum circuit break contacts are enclosed in a container with a high vacuum.
No significant arcing can occur because there is no air between the contacts to ionize
Sulphur Hexaflouride gas is a popular interrupting medium for high voltage and
extremely big voltage (EHV, above 345 kV) applications. Its voltage withstand
rating is about three times that of air and it is extremely electronegative. That
means its atoms bind for a considerable time to free electrons, thus becoming
negative ions. When free electrons are removed from the arc it is difficult to sustain
because no free electrons are available to accelerate and ionize atoms by collision.
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RECLOSERS
Most faults (80-95%) on distribution and transmission lines are temporary, lasting from a few cycles to a few
seconds.
They are caused by such things as tree limbs falling or blowing across the lines and are removed when the
limb burns off or is blown out of the line. Reclosers allow temporary faults to clear and then restore service
quickly, but disconnect a permanent fault.
Reclosers are essentially special purpose, light duty circuit breakers. They can interrupt overloads but not
severe faults. Reclosers sense an overcurrent, open, then after a preprogrammed time, reclose. They can
be programmed to sense an overcurrent, open, and reclose several times (up to five times is typical) and
after the preset number of operations remain open.
Two types of reclosures are currently manufactured. In one type the times are controlled by pistons in hydraulic
cylinders, and in the other by electronic circuitry.
Electronic reclosers are more flexible, accurate, and easily tested than hydraulic closers, but are also more
expensive so electronic controls are used primarily on heavy duty three-phase reclosers.
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SECTIONALIZERS
The sectionalizer must be manually reset after lock out. If normal line conditions
continue for a preset length of time after an overcurrent, de-energization sequence
below the preset lock out number, the sectionaIizer will reset itself to zero count.
The delay before reset is usually set between 30 and 90 seconds:
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FUSES
Fuses are one-time devices that must be replaced each time they open a fault. They use a metallic element
that melts when an overload current passes through it. The melted element separates breaking the circuit.
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Lightning Arresters
The job of the lightning arresters is to clip the induced voltage transient caused by a lightning
strike at a level below the BIL, but above the normal operating voltage, of the protected
equipment.
The lightning arrester should be an insulator at any , below the protected voltage, and a good
conductor at any voltage above to pass the energy of the strike to ground.
Shield, or static wires, are conductors strung above the load carrying conductors on
transmission and distribution towers and poles to protect the load carrying conductors
from lightning strikes.
The shield wires provide a place for lightning strokes to terminate instead of the power
carrying conductors, thereby protecting the power conductors.
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Shield wires provide a 30°
zone of protection on either
side of a vertical line drawn
from the ground to the wire.
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PROTECTIVE RELAVS
Monitoring relays verify conditions in the power system or power system protection system
and send an alarm when the conditions are abnormal.
Monitoring relays often are used in conjunction with protective relays.
Programming relays sequence events or detect sequences of events. They are used to control
and monitor synchronization and reclosing sequences.
Regulatory relays are used to determine if a parameter, such as line voltage, is between
programmed limits and send a control signal to force the parameter to return to within the limits
Auxiliary relays provide miscellaneous functions within other relaying systems. Timers are
an example of an auxiliary relay function.
Relays must operate reliably, and quickly, be economical, and selective, operatmg only on
the desired input
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Example
Microcomputer Controlled Relays
The use of microprocessors in microcomputer relay systems has allowed relay systems to perform several
relaying functions with a single central relaying package in a very economical manner. The multifunction
capability of microprocessor controlled relay systems has resulted in a drop in the cost per function of such
relays when compared to electromechanical relays.
The current and potential transformers
provide current and voltage information
to the relay from which the relay
microcomputer calculates any
additional parameters needed, such as
impedance, VAR and power quantity and
flow direction, trends over a fixed time,
and running averages of quantities.
The relay will react to out of limit parameters by sending a trip signal to a circuit breaker and an
alarm signal to a central monitoring point via a telecommunication system.
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DISCONNECT SWITCHES
Disconnect switches are designed to open and close a circuit at high voltages. The switches
must have a large gap when open. An air gap of about 11 feet is required at 230 kV.
Disconnect switches cannot open a fault.
High and medium voltage disconnect switches are designed to isolate a section of a circuit
after the protective device has de-energized the circuit.
Disconnect switches can be operated by motors, as most high voltage switches are, by an
insulated lever connected to a actuating arm that moves the switch blade.
Load break disconnect switches can interrupt normal load currents, but not large fault currents.
The wall switch is the most common load break switch.
Most load break switches use motors to open and close the switch blades but the interrupters
are actuated by strong spring pressure.
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Substations generally have:
1. Switching equipment
2. Protection equipment
3. Control equipment
4. One or more transformers
In a large substation:
Circuit breakers are used to interrupt any
short-circuits or overload currents that may
occur on the network.
Other devices such as capacitors and voltage regulators may also be located at a
substation.
Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 and 33 kV depending
on the size of the area served and the practices of the local utility.
Besides changing the voltage, the job of the distribution substation is to isolate faults in
either the transmission or distribution systems.
Distribution substations may also be the points of voltage regulation, although on long
distribution circuits (several km/miles), voltage regulation equipment may also be
installed along the line.
Complicated distribution substations can be found in the downtown areas of large cities,
with high-voltage switching, and switching and backup systems on the low-voltage side.
Collector substation
For economy of construction the collector system operates around 35 kV, and the collector
substation steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for the grid.
The collector substation can also provide power factor correction if it is needed, metering
and control of the wind farm.
Collector substations also exist where multiple thermal or hydroelectric power plants of
comparable output power are in proximity.
Switching substation
Sometimes they are used for switching the current to back-up lines or for
paralellizing circuits in case of failure.
Design
The main considerations taking into account during the design process are:
1. Reliability
2. Cost (sufficient reliability without excessive cost)
3. Expansion of the station, if required.
A small substation at the end of a radial subtransmission line that might be used to serve a small group of
residences. It consists of two dead end poles to terminate the lines, two manual non-load break switches,
and primary fusing.
DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION CONSTRUCTION METHODS
Wood pole substations are inexpensive, and can easily use wire bus structures. Wood is suitable
only for relatively small, simple substations because of the difficulty of building complex bus and
switch gear support structures from wood.
Lattice steel provides structures of low weight and high strength. Complex, lattice steel is
reasonably economical and is the preferred material for substation construction whenever
possible.
Solid steel low profile substations are superior to lattice or wood constructed substations.
However, low profile construction is more expensive than either wood or lattice steel, and requires
more land because multilevel bus structures cannot be used.
The unit substation is a relatively recent development. A unit substation is factory built and tested,
then shipped in modules that are bolted together at the site.
Unit substations usually contain high and low voltage disconnect switches, one or two three-phase
transformers, low voltage breakers, high voltage fusing, bus work, and relays.
DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION LAYOUT
This is the one line of a double throw switch on the primary side which allows the transfer to be
made quickly from one subtransmission circuit to another.
The switch is interlocked with the transformer breaker so it cannot be opened under load.
The switch can be replaced by two manual high voltage breakers that can break the load, and
expected fault current.
The transformer secondary breaker makes possible very effective differential bus protection to
detect faults internal to the bus. The bus relays then trip all of the circuit breakers connected to the
bus upon a bus fault.
3. Two Transformer Distribution Substations
The tie switch between the two transformer connections to the bus
which is in open state when both transformers are in use to prevent
the transformer secondaries from operating in parallel.
Operation:
Assume sources 1 and 2 are connected as radial lines.
1. Source 1 is lost, breaker 1 will open under relay control
disconnecting source 1
2 . Breaker 3 closes connecting transformer 1 to source 2,
and vice versa.
3. If transformer 1 fails, breakers 1, 3, and 4 would open
to disconnect it.
The low voltage bus tie breaker 6 closes to connect all
of the feeders to transformer 2
The low voltage tie breaker is interlocked with
transformer secondary breakers 4 and 5 to prevent
parallel transformer operation.
TRANSMISSION LINE FAULT CALCULATIONS
Fault Classifications :
1. Line to ground.
Line to ground faults are caused by a line touching the ground.
Wind, ice loading, tree falling on a line can cause a line to ground fault.
This category accounts for about 70% of all line short circuit faults.
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Fault Classifications :
2. Line to line.
These faults are caused by high winds blowing one line into another, or by a line breaking and
falling on a line below it.
These account for about 15% of line faults.
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Fault Classifications :
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Fault Classifications :
4. Three-phase faults.
If a line condition occurs in which all three phases are shorted together, an equipment failure,
or all three lines falling to the ground, it is called a three-phase fault.
Accounts for only about 5% of all line faults.
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The point at which a conductor touches ground or another conductor during a fault is usually
accompanied by an arc.
The usual utility practice is to consider the fault resistance zero to calculate the maximum fault
current that can occur at a point of interest on a line.
The fault current that flows depends on the source, line, and fault impedances:
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Bus Protection
Differential protection is effective for bus faults because the current leaving the bus on
feeders and the current entering the bus from sources should be zero at any instant.
Additionally, differential protection can distinguish between internal bus faults and external
feeder faults. A feeder fault can result in the CTs on the feeder saturating, and the dc offset
of a fault worsens the situation. Thus special care must be taken in bus differential relaying
to prevent external faults from causing a trip on the circuit breakers supplying the bus.
1. Linear coupler (LC) system, which works by eliminating the iron core of the CTs.
2. Multi-restraint, variable percentage relays (CA-16).
3. High impedance voltage operated differential relays (KAB).
SUBSTATION GROUNDING
Substation grounding is done safety, and to provide a stable reference voltage for protection systems.
The grounding system of a substation consists of a ground mat made of large size bare conductors,
connected in a grid pattern, and buried beneath the substation.
The perimeter of the grid is connected to metal rods driven about 30 feet into the ground. The grid wires
are about 20 feet apart but the spacing varies with the conductivity of the soil.
All substation structures are to be constructed within the perimeter of the grid.
The fence around a substation has two buried ground wires connected to the fence every few feet.
One runs about 3 feet outside the fence, and one inside the fence.