Contents

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................2
CHAPTER II
PROPERTIES...........................................................................................................3
CHAPTER III
LITERATURE SURVEY..........................................................................................6
CHAPTER IV
MARKET SURVEY..................................................................................................8
CHAPTER V
PROCESS SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION.......................................................9
CHAPTER VI
MATERIAL BALANCE.........................................................................................13
CHAPTER VII
ENERGY BALANCE.................................................................................................17
CHAPTER VIII
REACTIONS KINETICS........................................................................................19
CHAPTER IX
MAJOR EQUIPMENT DESIGN.............................................................................21
CHAPTER X
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL..............................................................22
CHAPTER XI
PLANT UTILITY....................................................................................................26
CHAPTER XII
SAFETY, HEALTH AND POLLUTION CONTROL............................................28
CHAPTER XIII
PLANT LOCATION AND LAY OUT...................................................................40
CHAPTER XIV
COST ESTIMATION..............................................................................................46
CONCLUSION........................................................................................................52

1
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Butadiene Sulfone also called sulfolene is a cyclic organic compound with a sulfone
functional group. Sulfolane obtained from catalytical hydrogenation of sulfolene; is
used in petrochemical Industry as solvent for extraction of aromatics from
hydrocarbon streams.
Sulfolene was first prepared 1819.
The worldwide capacity for production of Ethylene Glycol via hydrolysis of ethylene
oxide is estimated to be 7×106 ton/annum.

CHEMISTRY:
Sulfoxides are named by simply designating, in alphabetical order, the organic groups
attached to the −S(=O)− group, followed by the word sulfoxide (e.g., ethyl methyl
sulfoxide, CH3S(O)C2H5), or by forming a prefix from the name of the simpler of the
groups using the particle -sulfinyl- (e.g.,4-(methylsulfinyl)benzoic acid).
The nomenclature of sulfones is similar to that of sulfoxides; a chemical compound
containing a sulfonyl-functional group attached to two carbon atoms. The central
hexavalent sulfur atom is double bonded to each of two oxygen atoms and has a
single bond to each of two carbon atoms, usually in two separate hydrocarbon
substituents the particle -sulfonyl- is used in complicated cases. Most sulfoxides are
colorless liquids or solids with low melting points.
A sulfonyl group can refer either to a functional group found primarily in sulfones or
to a substituent obtained from a sulfonic acid by the removal of the hydroxyl group
similarly to acyl groups. Sulfonyl groups can be written as having the general formula
R-S(=O)2-R', where there are two double bonds between the sulfur and oxygen.

Formula Common name IUPAC name

C4H6SO2 Sulfolene 1,3 Butadiene Sulfone
Other Chemical names:

 BETA-SULFOLENE
 BUTADIENE SULFONE
 2,5-DIHYDROTHIOPHENE 1,1-DIOXIDE
  2,5-DIHYDROTHIOPHENE DIOXIDE
 2,5-DIHYDROTHIOPHENE S,S-DIOXIDE
 2,5-DIHYDROTHIOPHENE SULFONE
 NCI-C04557
 SULFOL-3-ENE
 SULFOLENE
 3-SULFOLENE
 SULPHOLENE
 1-THIA-3-CYCLOPENTENE 1,1-DIOXIDE
 THIOPHENE, 2-5-DIHYDRO- 1.1-DIOXIDE

CHAPTER
II
PROPERTIES

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
 Sulfolene is colorless, odorless, crystalline.
 Its solubility is low however in non polar solvents, such as benzene, toluene,
dichloroethane, and chloroform, completely miscible with many polar solvents, water,
alcohols, glycol ethers and acetone. Its solubility is low, however in nonpolar
solvents, such as benzene, toluene, dichloromethane and chloroform.
 It is toxic, hazardous when comes in contact with skin, eye, etc.
 The widespread use of Sulfolene as a lubricant is based on its ability to adhere
to the surface easily.
Table 2.1 Physical Properties.P
Sr. Physical Properties
no.

1. Molecular formula C4H6SO2

2. Molecular weight 118

3. Density 1.24g/cc
4. Boiling point oC at 101.3 Kpa 151
5. Melt point oC 65

6. Heat of vaporization at 101.3 KPa; KJ/mol 42.99

7. Heat of fusion (25oC) MJ/mol 11.11

8. Critical Temp. K 523.01

9. Critical pressure, Kpa 6707.62

10. Critical volume, m3/Kg-mol 0.31

11. Refractive index, ŋ 1.4318

12. Cubic expansion coefficient at 20 oC, K-1 0.18*10-3

13. Viscosity at 20oC; mPa S 19.83

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
 It dissolves unaltered in concentrated acids (such as nitric acid or sulfuric acid)
and can even be recrystallized from conc. HNO3.
 The hydrogen atoms in the 2- and 5-positions of the 3-sulfolene can be rapidly
and completely exchanged by deuterium atoms (from deuterium oxide) under
alkaline conditions or when catalyzed by sodium cyanide

 Under basic conditions or when catalyzed by cyanide ions, 3-

sulfolene isomerizes to a mixture of 2-sulfolene and 3-sulfolene. The ratio of
2-sulfolene and 3-sulfolene dependens on the ratio of cyanide and sulfolene
 Sulfolene reacts in aqueous solution with bromine to form
dibromotetrohydrothiophenedioxide (Bromine derivative); which is
dehydrobrominated to thiophene dioxide. This solution of thiophene dioxide in
Tetrahydrofuran can be used directly in cycloaddition with
dimethylaminofluven for synthesis of blue aromatic hydrocarbon azulene.
 The reversibility of formation of sulfolene and its decomposition into its
starting materials butadiene and sulphur dioxide suggests the use if butadiene
sulfone as a recyclable aprotic dipolar solvent, in replacement of dimethyl
sulfoxide(DMSO), which is often used but difficult to separate and poorly
reusable.
 Even though we know that butadiene-sulphur dioxide-butadiene sulfone
system does not form ideal solution, variation from ideality is small. In
absence of activity coefficient data, the mixture is assumed to be ideal.

CH2=CH-CH=CH2 + SO2 ⇋ C4H6SO2

The structure of C4H6SO2 is given by

 The reaction mechanism is given by the reaction itself however some side
reactions also take place:
 CHAPTER III
LITERATURE SURVEY

The literature survey has been done with an aim to obtain information concerning
Butadiene Sulfone, and its production from number of sources. Such information
sources include chemical abstracts, periodicals and books on chemical technology,
handbooks, encyclopedias and internet websites. The literature survey yielded very
little information on Butadiene Sulfone. The information that I obtained is presented
hereafter.
During the project many Journals, Manuals and Hand book have been sited The
manufacturing process have been taken from “John H. Mcketa” The demand
growths, Major producer in India & World have been taken from Internet.

DERIVATIVES OF BUTADIENE SULFONE:

Chlorine derivative:

Direct chlorination of butadiene sulfone through the above pathway leads to a

chloronized product consisting of both cis and trans Isomers.

This plant is designed such a way that it accepts butadiene sulfone in molten form
with product specifications of

C4H6≤ 0.5wt%

SO2≤ 0.3 wt%

3.1.2 Some other derivatives:

The solution of thiophene-1,1-dioxide in THF can be used directly in a [4+6]
cycloaddition with 6-dimethylaminofulvene for the synthesis of the blue aromatic
hydrocarbon azulene. The overall yield of azulene is 33%.
The reaction of 3-sulfolene with carbon dioxide at 3 bar pressure and in the presence
of diazabicycloundecene produces 3-sulfolene-3-carboxylic acid in 45% yield

With diazomethane, 3-sulfolene forms in a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition a fused, five-

membered ring system in 90% yield

STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION:

Butadiene sulfone is not usually corrosive in nature so so steel can be used for both
storage and as a part of MOC of the plant. Since butadiene also has a low vapor
pressure; It can be handled without any problems. Keep container tightly closed in a
dry and well-ventilated place. Electrical installations / working materials must comply
with the technological safety standards. It is transported in railroad tank cars, tank
trucks, and tank ships. Tanks are usually made of steel: high grade materials are only
required for special quality requirements.

PRODUCT SAFETY:
When considering the use of Butadiene Sulfone in any particular application, review
and understand our current Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the necessary
safety and environmental health information. Before handling any products you
should obtain the available product safety information from the suppliers of those
products and take the necessary steps to comply with all precautions regarding the use
of ethylene glycol. No chemical should be used as or in a food, drug, medical device,
or cosmetic, or in a product process in which it may come in contact with a food,
drug, medical device, or cosmetic until the user has determined the suitability of the
use. Because use conditions and applicable laws may differ from one location to
another and may change with time, Customer is responsible for determining whether
products and the information are appropriate for Customer’s use.

CHAPTER IV
MARKET SURVEY

ECONOMIC ASPECTS:
Butadiene Sulfone is one of the major products of the chemical industry. Its economic
importance is founded on its two major commercial uses as lubricant and for
production of derivatives such as azulene, chlorine derivatives among others. Since
Butadiene Sulfone is currently produced exclusively from Butadiene production plant
are always located close to plant that produce ethylene oxide.
About 50% of the butadiene sulfone that is used as lubricant. Another 50% is used in
derivatives plant.
LEADING PRODUCERS IN WORLD:

FIG.4.2.1 LEADING PRODUCERS

 The research report includes diverse topics like total market size, key market drivers,
challenges, growth opportunities, technological changes, key players etc. of Butadiene
sulfone market. To calculate the market size, the report considers the 90-95% of the
total addressable market (TAM) by the major players across the various segments.
This report provides detailed analysis of worldwide markets for Butadiene sulfone
from 2012-2017 and provides extensive market forecasts (2018-2023) by
region/country and subsectors. It covers the volumes, prices, historical growth and
future perspectives in the Butadiene sulfone market and further lays out an analysis of
the factors influencing the supply/demand for Butadiene sulfone and the
opportunities/challenges faced by industry participants. It also acts as an essential tool
to companies active across the value chain and to the new entrants by enabling them
to capitalize the opportunities and develop business strategies.

LEADING PRODUCER IN INDIA:

 Thirumalai Chemicals India pvt ltd.
 India chemicals
 Ultimate Chem India pvt. Ltd

QUALITY SPECIFICATION:
Since Butadiene Sulfone is produce in relatively high purity difference in quality are
not accepted. The directly synthesized product meets high quality demands.

CHAPTER V
PROCESS SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION

5.1. PROCESS SELECTION:

The process selection starts with selecting the type of

equipment required for the reaction to take place. It also depends on quantity and
quality of raw materials chosen.
PROCESS FLOWSHEET:

PROCESS DESCRIPTION:

The liquid phase reaction of sulfur dioxide and 1,3-butadiene to form butadiene
sulfone is carried out in a three-stage cascade of stirred tank reactors at a temperature
of 900C and a gauge pressure of 10.2 Kg/cm2. A high conversion (95% based on
butadiene) is necessary to minimize compressor size and product concentration in the
recycle stream. Butadiene sulfone in recycle stream would foul up the condenser
tubes because its operating temperature is below the freezing point of the product.
The major portion of unconverted reactants is evaporated from the product. The vapor
from the evaporator, which contains approximately 85 mol% sulfur dioxide is
liquified by compression and cooling and then recycled to reactor. The liquid from the
reactor is stripped with nitrogen gas to remove remaining sulfur dioxide and
butadiene from product. The recovered reactants in stripping section are removed
from the nitrogen stripping gas by compression and sub sequent cooling, then
recycled to the reactor.

 REACTOR-

Three Stage cascade stirred tank reactors are chosen and the operating
temperature range for butadiene is limited between 650C and 1100C. Because
of this limitation and high exothermic nature of the reaction, temperature
control is critical. Temperature control in a tubular control is impossible
because of existence of transverse and longitudinal temperature gradients. This
temperature control problem does not obtain in a continuous stirred tank
reactor because of mixing.
Because the high required conversion and the slow rate of reaction necessitate
a long residence time, use of tubular reactor presents technical and economic
problems. Either a very small diameter pipe, with attendant high pressure
drop, or several parallel pipes, which introduce feed distribution problems are
required. A three-stage cascade system was found to approximate the
residence time of reactors. Because there is more deviation from plug flow
than from ideal mixing the two-reactor system can be considered almost
equivalent. Reactor volume per stage is kept constant.

 SEPARATION-

Because of temperature limitation on butadiene sulfone, evaporation and

stripping of reactants are the only feasible separation techniques that could be
used to meet the high purity requirements of product. Other methods such as
 distillation, absorption, extraction, etc are either too expensive or are
technically unfeasible to meet the new product specifications.
The main separation of reactant and product is carried out in a long tube,
upward flow evaporator. This type of evaporator offers high heat transfer
coefficient, low residence time. A once-through circulation is specified to
prevent the heat sensitive butadiene sulfone from repeatedly contacting the hot
tubes of evaporator, which would result in decomposition of product. Low
pressure steam is used because of its lower cost and lower saturation
temperature (1210C) as compared with 10.546 Kg/cm2 gauge steam.
Feed enters the bottom instead of the side of the evaporator to reduce
entrainment of butadiene sulfone into recycle stream. This type of entrainment
would result from flashing of sulfur dioxide as it enters the low-pressure
evaporator. An evaporator temperature of 800C was the lowest possible that
would keep butadiene sulfone carry over minimum in the recycle stream,
whilst providing enough heat to vaporize sulfur dioxide that is removed in the
stripper. An evaporator pressure of 2.1 Kg/cm2 abs was the lowest that could
be used to minimize sulfur dioxide stripping and still provide driving force for
liquid flow to stripper, thus eliminating the need for a pump.
The stripping column reduces sulfur dioxide concentration. Nitrogen gas is
used as stripping agent as it is inert and will not condense at the temperature
and pressures encountered in the process.

 RECOVERY-

The evaporator overhead which contains about 85 mol% sulfur dioxide, is

compressed to 4.2 Kg/cm2 and then condensed. The stripper gas contains
about 50 mol% sulfur dioxide must be compressed to to produce low sulfur
dioxide concentration in stripper feed gas.

The above mentioned are the major equipments required for the process are
mentioned above. Other equipments include recycle compressor, liquid recycle
accumulator, inter-stage cooler, etc.
 CHAPTER VI
MATERIAL BALANCE
Material balances are the basis of process design. A material balance taken over
complete process will determine the quantities of raw materials required and products
produced. Balances over Individual process until set the process stream flows and
compositions. The general conservation equation for any process can be written as
Material out = material in + accumulation
For a steady state process the accumulation term is zero. If a chemical reaction is
taking place a particular chemical species may be formed or consumed. But if there is
no chemical reaction, the steady state balance reduces to:
Material out = Material in
A balance equation can be written for each separately identifiable species present,
elements, compounds and for total material. [10]

BASIS:
Basis: 100TPA = 100000 KG per Annum.
The process is planned and developed as a continuous process. A plant is operated for
24 Hours per day and 90% of the year.
No of working days = 90% of 365 days = 333 days
Since we know that product specifications are
0.5wt % C4H6= 500 Kg/yr
0.3wt % SO2= 300 Kg/yr
99.2wt % C4H6SO2= 99200Kg/yr

MOLECULAR WEIGHT (KG / Kmol):

Butadiene Sulfone 118
Sulphur Dioxide [SO2] 64
Butadiene [C4H6] 28

MATERIAL BALANCE OF INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT:

Product in moles:
 99200/118 = 840.67 Kg mol/yr.
Fresh feed required to make 840.67 Kg mol/yr of product is:
SO2= 840.67*64 = 53802.88 Kg/yr.
C4H6= 840.67*54= 45396.18 Kg/yr.
Total fresh feed :
SO2= 53802.88+500= 54302.88 Kg/yr.
C4H6= 45396.18+300= 45696.18 Kg/yr.
Stream flow rates:
SO2= 54302.88/(8760*.9)= 6.887 Kg/hr.
C4H6= 45696.18/(8760*.9)= 5.79 Kg/hr.
Recycle Stream:
Assuming R= 2.27 Kg /hr.
XSO2= 0.80
XC4H6= 0.133
XC4H6SO2= 0.067
That is flowrates:
SO2= 1.816 Kg/hr.
C4H6= 0.302 Kg/hr.
C4H6SO2=0.152 Kg/hr.

Reactor:

Butene = (5.79+0.302) Kg/hr. Butadiene Sulfone= 12.826 Kg/hr

Sulphur dioxide = (6.887+1.816)
Kg/hr.
REACTOR
Temp. = 90 0C Butene = 0.302 Kg/hr
Pressure = 0.13MPa
Sulphur dioxide= 1.817 Kg/hr.

In the reactor following reaction take place

C4H6 + SO2 C4H6SO2 + C4H6 + SO2

Let the stream of C4H6 from the storage be represented by F, SO2 by S and Recycle by
R then the product from the reactor be P.

F+S+R = P------------------[1]
Therefore, P= 6.887+5.79+2.27= 15 Kg/hr.
With 85% conversion i.e, XC4H6SO2= 0.85
Therefore, C4H6SO2 in product stream = 0.85*15= 12.826 Kg/hr--------------[2]
C4H6 +SO2 in product stream = 15-12.826= 2.124 Kg/hr--------------[3]
From component balance
F*XC4H6 + R*XC4H6= P* XC4H6----------------------[4]
Therefore, mole fraction of C4H6 in P stream =0.022
Stream rate = 0.022*15= 0.328 Kg/hr.
F*XSO2 + R*XC= P* XSO2--------------------[5]
Therefore, mole fraction of SO2 in P stream =0.128
Stream rate= 0.12*15= 1.913 Kg/hr.

Table 6.1 Material balance over reactor

Component In, Kg/hr Out, Kg/hr
Butadiene sulfone 0.152 12.836
Butadiene 6.092 0.328
Sulphur dioxide 8.703 1.913

Evaporator:
Major portion of unconverted reactants is evaporated from the product. The vapor
from the evaporator contains approximately 85mol % SO2.
Total feed entering the evaporator= 12.836+0.328+1.913= 15.067 Kg/hr
Number of moles of each component entering the evaporator:
SO2= 1.913/64 = 0.0298
C4H6= 0.328/54= 0.0067
C4H6SO2= 12.836/118 =0.108
Therefore, total number of moles entering the evaporator = 0.1445
Mols SO2 in the overhead stream = 0.85*0.0298= 0.025 mol
Stream rate of SO2= 0.025*64= 1.6 Kg/hr.
Feed to stripper contains= 15.067-1.6=13.467 Kg/hr.

Table 6.2 Material balance over evaporator

Component In, Kg/hr Out, Kg/hr
Liquid phase Vapor phase
Sulfur Dioxide 1.913 0.313 1.6
Butadiene 0.328 0.328 -
Butadiene Sulfone 12.836 12.826 0.01

Stripping Column:
BDS=0.01 kg/hr
SO2 = 0.275 kg/hr
C4H6=0.265 kg/hr
BDS = 12.836kg/hr .

SO2=0.313 kg/hr
Stripping column
C4H6 = 0.328kg/hr

BDS= 12.826kg/hr

SO2=0.038 kg/hr
C4H6=0.063 kg/hr

Feed to stripping column= Final product + SO2 to recycle

 CHAPTER VII
ENERGY BALANCE

The first law of thermodynamics demands that energy be neither created nor
destroyed. The following is a systematic energy balance performed for each unit of
the process. The datum temperature for calculation is taken as 0C.
The different properties like specific heat, heat of reaction, heat of vaporization, etc.
are taken to be constant over the temperature range.

REACTOR:

Butadiene Sulfone = 12.826 Kg/hr.

Butadiene = 6.902 Kg/hr. Sulphur Sulphur dioxide= 1.913 Kg/hr.

REACTOR T= 90 C
dioxide= 8.703 Kg/hr. Butadiene Sulfone= Butadiene= 0.328 Kg/hr.

0.152 Kg/hr.

In the reactor following reaction take place

C4H6 + SO2 C4H6SO2---------------------------(1)

Table 7.1 Heat capacity and Enthalpy data

COMPONENT kj kj
H 0 f ( ) Cp ( )
298
kmol kmol k
IN
Butadiene -905000 117.01
Sulphur dioxide - 297011.592 40.96
OUT
Butadiene Sulfone -88760.16 213.5267

Butadiene -285831 189.39

Sulphur dioxide -297011.592 40.96

Assume reference temp. = 250C

1. The heat of reaction can be depicted as

ΔHRT = ΔHR + ΔHreactants + ΔHproducts
 For this problem,
ΔHRT= 111.788 KJ/mol

2. Reactants from storage enter at 34.4

C SO2 from recycle enters at 30 C
Heat released from reaction = ΔHR
Overall conversion= 0.95
ΔHR= (0.95)*(0.107)*(111.788)= 11.386 KJ/K
ΔH to heat feed to 90 Celsius =mCpΔT
SO2 = 6.87*1.553*55.55=592.669 J/ K (CP of SO2 = 1.553 J/Kg K)
C4H6=5.83*2.68*55.55=867.93 J/K (CP of C4H6 = 2.68 J/Kg K)
Recycle SO2= 2.27*1.553*60 =211.518
Total ΔH= 1672.1176 J/K= 1.672 KJ/K
Qcooling = 11.386-1.672=9.714 KJ/K

mCpΔT=9.714 KJ/K
m= 0.07Kg/hr

18
12.826Kg/hr
 SO2 EVAPORATOR
SO2 to be evaporated = 1.6Kg/hr
Total feed wF = 15.077 Kg/hr
The balances applying to this problem are:
wSS + wF (tF – t1) Cp = w11
SO2=1.913 Kg/hr
SO2= 1.6kg/hr
C4H6= 0
Evaporator
C4H6=0.328 Kg/hr

C4H6SO2= 12.836Kg/hr
SO2=0.313 Kg/hr

C4H6=0.328 Kg/hr

C4H6SO2=12.8526

Kg/hr

12.826Kg/hr
 tF = 900C ts=121.110C (temperature of steam used)
Consider steam is entered at 10.5 kg/cm2
Cp avg. =  xiCpi
= 0.23125 KJ/Kg K
1 =402 KJ/Kg
WSS + wF (tF – t1) Cp = w11
(WS x 1973.62) + (1.6 x - 31.11 x 0.23125) = 1.6 x 402
WS= 0.3317 Kg/hr.
Therefore, quantity of steam required for separation of SO2 in the
evaporator is 0.3317kg/hr

CHAPTER VIII
REACTIONS KINETICS

8.1 REACTOR KINETICS:

Equilibrium Conversion where X is the fraction converted and N is the number of
moles:

NSO2= NSO2o-XNC4H6
NC4H6= NC4H6o(1-X)
NC4H6SO2= X NC4H6
Ntotal=NSO2o+NC4H6o(1-X)

The molar equilibrium constant KX is (Ntotal)( NC4H6SO2)/( NC4H6)(NSO2) AND Xeq is

the equilibrium conversion:

KX = [NSO2o+(NC4H6)(1-Xeq)][XeqNC4H60]/[ (NC4H6)(1-Xeq)][NSO2o-XeqNC4H60]

= Xeq[M+1- Xeq]/[M- Xeq][1- Xeq] (Where M= NSO2o/ NC4H60)

19
 Xeq =

2. Reaction equation:

SO2+C4H6 ⇋ C4H6SO2

-r= K1 (CSO2 )(CC4H6)-K1’ (CC4H6SO2)

Where C= N/V

K1= K1’(Xeq)(1+ɛ Xeq)/((CC4H6o)(M- Xeq)(1- Xeq)

3. At 34.4 Centigrade with V=m3/h

Density of butadiene = 598.731 Kg/m3

Density of Sulphur dioxide = 1363.968 Kg/m3
Density of butadiene sulfone = 1214.2 Kg/m3

Vxi= (6.092/598.731) + ((8.7031/1363.968)

= 0.016 m3/h

Vxo= (12.826/1214.2) + (0.328/598.731) + (1.913/1363.968)

= 0.0125 m3/h

ɛ= (Vxo- Vxi/ Vxi) = -0.128

Therefore,
CC4H6o= NC4H6o/ Vxo = (6.092/54)/(0.0125) = 8.96 kg. mol/m3
4. For M=1.2; T= 34.4degree
celsius KX= 165
K1’ = 0.027 hr-1
Xeq= 0.970
 CHAPTER IX
MAJOR EQUIPMENT DESIGN

DESIGN OF REACTOR:

1. General Equation:

CSTR: τmin= (CC4H6o)(X)/(-r)--------------(for one tank)

=(CC4H6o)(Xf-Xi)/(-rf)---------------(two or more tanks)

TR: τmin=(CC4H60)*

2. For a one tank CSTR with X=0.986, M=1.6

τ = (CC4H6o)(X)/((K1(CC4H602)(M-X)(1-X)/(1+ɛX)2)-(K1’(CC4H6)(X)/( 1+ɛX)))

=5470 min = 91.17 hrs.

3. For a 3 tank CSTR with X= 0.95, T=90 with X = 0.95, M=1.2 and
assuming τ1= τ2= τ3 . Solving these equations, X1=0.74, X2=0.90, X3=0.95
and τ1= τ2= τ3=70.0
4. Tubular reactor:
τ=(CC4H60)

-r=(K1(CC4H60)(M-X)(1-X))/ (1+ɛX)2

A graph of (1+ɛX)/(M-X)(1-X) VS X is plotted. Area between X=0

and X=0.95 by Simpson’s rule

τ = 160 min.
 CHAPTER X
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

WHY IS INSTRUMENTATION REQUIRED?

Instruments are provided to monitor the key process variables during plant operation.
Instruments monitoring critical process variables will be fitted with automatic alarms
to alert the operators to critical and hazardous situations.
The primary objectives of the designer when specifying instrumentation and control
schemes are:
Safe Plant Operation:
 To keep process variables within known safe operating limits.
 To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms and
 Automatic shutdown systems.
 To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating procedures.
Production Rate and Quality:
 To achieve the designed product output.
 To maintain the product composition within the specified quality standards.
Cost:
 To operate at the lowest production cost and to compensate with other
objectives.
Process instrumentation is thus brain and nerves of a process plant.
The instrumentation can be pneumatic, hydraulic or electric. The recent trend is to go
for electronic instrumentation, but pneumatic instrumentation is still in use. The
instrumentation is required to measure temperature, pressure, flowrate, level, physical
properties as density, pH, humidity, chemical composition etc.

TYPICAL MONITORING SYSTEMS:

Flow Measurement:
Due to nature of flow it is necessary to provide effective flow measuring devices in
each supply lines. The various types of flow meters available are orifice meter,
venturi meter, pitot tube etc. In spite of these the various types of area flow meters
can also be used.
Depending on temperature and velocity condition the suitable meter is selected for
measurement of flow rates and velocity.
Temperature Measuring Devices:
Many devices are used to measure the temperature variations in the process such as
mercury in glass thermometer, bimetallic thermometer, pressure spring thermometer,
thermocouples, resistance thermocouples, radiation pyrometers and optical
pyrometers are used.
Out of all these the industrial thermocouples are competitively good as they provide
large measuring range, without introducing error. Automatic control is also possible
with such devices.

Table-10.1 List of Thermometers with temperature Range

Measuring Instrument Temp. Range ºC

Mercury in glass – thermometer -27 to 400
Mercury in pressure thermometer -40 to 540
Vapor pressure thermometer -85 to 425
Resistance -200 to 1700
Thermocouple -250 to 1700
Thermistor Up to 300
Pyrometer 1300 to 2500

Pressure Measuring Devices:

Equipments, in which the important monitoring parameter is pressure, pressure
measuring devices like pressure gauges are widely used. Safety of chemical plants
depends up on the timely measurement of pressure and its control at a specified level.
Any excess pressure development than the design pressure may damage the
equipment in addition to the fire and other explosion hazard.
Mainly in filter pressures where the pressure is an important criterion, this device is
used.
 Various pressure measuring devices are:
 U – Tube Manometer
 Differential Manometer
 Inclined Manometer
 Bourdon Tube
 Bellows
 Diaphragm valve
 McLeod gauge
 Pirani gauge
In addition to all measuring devices described above various measurements like
density, viscosity, pH measurements etc. are installed.
For measuring quality standards in laboratory various laboratory instruments are also
necessary.
10.2.5. Liquid Level:
Liquid level detectors measure either the position of a free liquid surface above a
datum level or the hydrostatic head developed by the liquid is measured.
The liquid level is measured both by direct and indirect means. Direct methods
involve direct measurement of the distance from the liquid level to a datum level.
Indirect method follows changing liquid surface position on bubble tube method,
resistance method, radiation method, etc.

DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM (DCS):

Caprolactam production process deals with the benzene and cyclohexane which are
having low boiling points. So the process is risky and also the product quality is
important. Therefore for the faster control DCS can be used. It provides ease of
constant monitoring the process at a distance much far away from the site and the
changes can be made in the process parameters very accurately from the control room
itself.
Merits of DCS:
1. From quality point of view:
 More accuracy and reliability.
 Self tuning of any control loop is possible, so optimization of any process is
possible.
2. Management Consideration:
 Less cost of cables.
 Less cost of installation.
 Less space required.
 Less hardware required.
 Inventory information can be made available.
 Less man power is required.
 Less production cost.
 Management information can be generated at regular intervals which assist
management to take decisions.
3. Operational point of view:
 Ease in operation.
 Any combination of control group, trend group, over view path can be
formed.
 Because of dynamic graphic role picture of process is available.
 Easy diagnostics of trip and emergency conditions.
 Automatic logging of data is done by printer and hence eliminating weakness
related human being.
 Control is available through dynamic graphics which gives feeling to operator
as if he is inside the plant and controlling the process.
 Alarm systems can be regrouped to various sub groups so that operator can
detect the error and causes easily.
4. Engineer’s Point of view:
 Latest software is available for all types of complex function.
 Required less time for designing and detail engineering.
 Operators action can be logged which eliminates confusions in the event of
plant trips and consequent analysis.
 Flexibility is available at each level of hardware and software.
Demerits of DCS:
In present control room lot of paramagnets are seen without any intentional, efforts
hence operator feels himself existing in between the information.
In case of new DCS systems, all information and data though presented in a
systematic format, is hidden behind the CRT and hence to be called by operator. This
requires more skill and knowledge. With acceptance of DCS, number of operators in
 control room decreased and hence, in case of emergency decision has to be taken by
almost single handed as against group decision in present situation.
In single loop control system failure of one controller affects only one control loop,
while case of DCS one component / card carries out lot of functions and hence failure
of it causes failure of many loops.
This calls for very high MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures) and high degree of
redundancy making such systems costly.
A limitation may be felt in operating number of control loops simultaneously in case
of emergency, if adequate numbers of CRT consoles are not installed. Skilled
personnel are required.

CHAPTER
XI PLANT
UTILITY

The utilities such as water, air, steam, electricity etc. are required for most of the
chemical process industries. These utilities are located at a certain distance from
processing area, from processing area hazardous and storage area etc, where a
separate utility department works to fulfill the utilities requirements.

 Steam Generation
 Cooling water
 Water
 Electricity
 Compressed air
The utilities required for the plant are summarized as below.

STEAM GENERATION:
Steam is used in plants for heating purpose, where direct contact with substance is
not objectionable. The steam, for process heating, is usually generated in water tube
boiler using most economical fuel available i.e. coal, fuel oil on the site.
In reboiler of distillation column drying column and evaporator steam is used at
different temperature depending on requirement.
COOLING WATER:
Cooling water is generally produced in plant by cooling towers. Cooling tower is used
to cool the water of high temperature coming from process. Cooling tower mainly
decreases temperature of water from process. There are two types of cooling tower.
Natural Type:
In this cooling tower the water from the process is allowed to fall in a tank. From
some height when falling it comes in contact with an air & gets cool.
Mechanical Type:
They are classified in three types:
 Induced draft
 Forced draft
 Balanced draft
In induced draft a fan is rotating at the bottom while in balanced draft fan is rotating
at the centre. In forced draft a fan rotating at top.
 Cooling by sensible heat transfer
 Cooling by evaporation

WATER:
A large reservoir has to be made which received water from nearby river. Storage also
must provide to such extent that turbidity is settling and then sent to raw water plant
for further treatment. Chlorine dose must be given to kill bacteria which prevent
organic matter. Then this water is sent to further treatment. To cooling tower, DM
plant, service water system, drinking water system, fire water system.
Cooling water is required for heat cooler, condenser etc. for cooling effect. Here in
cooling tower water is fall from high level and contacted with cross flow of air. Latent
heat of water is high that even a small amount of water evaporates produce large
cooling effect. The temp of CW is up to 25 to 30 ˚C.
DM water is use for process . DM water is produced by removing impurities salts,
pass through anion exchanger.

ELECTRICITY:
It is required for motor drives , lighting and general use. It may be generated on site or
purchase from GEB & G.I.P.C.L. Transformers will be to step-down the supply
 voltage to the voltage used on the site. A three-phase 415-volt system is used in
general industrial purposes and 240-volt single phase for lighting and other low power
requirements. For large motors, high voltage 600 to 1100 is used.

COMPRESSED AIR:
Compressed air is used during the chocking of pipes and for cleaning purpose.
Compressed air can be obtained from air compressor.

CHAPTER XII
SAFETY, HEALTH AND POLLUTION CONTROL

SAFE OPERATIONS:
The goal of chemical plant is not only to produce the chemicals, but to produce them
safely. In the plant’s chain of processes and operations, loss of control anywhere can
lead to accidents and losses of life and property from hazards. Attempts should be to
prevent troubles from the inspection, while designing, fabricating and operating.
Safety generally involves:
(1) Identification and assessments of the hazards
(2) Control of hazards
(3) Control of the process by provision of automatic control system, interlocks,
alarm trips, etc
(4) Limitation of the loss, by press relief, plant layout, etc.

MSDS FOR BUTADIENE SULFONE: [10]

 MATERIAL NAME: ETHYLENE OXIDE
USES: Chemical intermediate
SYNONYMS: 3-Sulfolene
 HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION
Appearance and Odour:
Clear liquid under pressure.
 Health hazards:
Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye contact (irritant), of
ingestion, of inhalation.
Environmental Hazards:
Harmful to aquatic organisms. May cause long-term adverse effects
in the aquatic environment.
.
Skin
Contact:
Exposure to rapidly expanding gases may cause frost burns to eyes
and/or skin. Liquid solutions of ethylene oxide cause serious chemical
burns of the skin and eye lesions. Onset of effects may be delayed for
several hours.
Skin Protection: Wear protective gloves and clean body-covering clothing.
Eye Contact: Couses burns
Eye Protection:
Use chemical splash goggles. Maintain eye wash fountain and quick-
drench facilities in work area.

FIRST AID MEASURES:

Ingestion:

Do not induce vomiting. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt
or waistband. If the victim is not breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation. Seek immediate medical attention..
Inhalation:

Allow the victim to rest in a well ventilated area. Seek immediate

medical attention.
Skin Contact:

After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of water.

and thoroughly wash the contaminated skin with running water and
non-abrasive soap. Be particularly careful to clean folds, crevices,
creases and groin. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient. If irritation
persists, seek medical attention. Wash contaminated clothing before
reusing.
Eye
Contact:
Check for and
remove any contact
lenses. Do not use
an eye ointment.
 Seek medical attention.
Advice to Physician:
Contact a Poison Control Center or toxicologist for guidance.

FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES:

(Clear fire area of all non-emergency personnel.)

Flash point -57oC / -71oF (PMCC / ASTM D93)
Explosion 2.6 – 99.99% (V)
Flammability limits in air Auto ignition: 428oC / 802oF
Specific Hazards:
The vapour is heavier than air, spreads along the ground and distant
ignition is possible. Sustained fire attack on vessels may result in a
Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion.
Extinguishing Media:
Shut off supply. If not possible and no risk to surroundings, let the fire
burn itself out.
Unsuitable: Do not use water in a jet.
Extinguishing Media Protective Equipment :
Wear full protective clothing and self-contained breathing apparatus.
Additional Advice:
If the fire cannot be extinguished the only course of action is to
evacuate immediately. Large fires should only be fought by properly
trained fire fighters. Evacuate the area of all non-essential personnel.

 ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES:

Small Spill:
Use appropriate tools to put the spilled solid in a convenient waste
disposal container. Finish cleaning by spreading water on the
contaminated surface and dispose of according to local and regional
authority requirements.
Large Spill:
 Use a shovel to put the material into a convenient waste disposal
container. Finish cleaning by spreading water on the contaminated
surface and allow to evacuate through the sanitary system.

HANDLING AND STORAGE:

Handling
:
Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Empty
containers pose a fire risk, evaporate the residue under a fume hood.
Ground all equipment containing material. Do not ingest. Do not
breathe dust. Wear suitable protective clothing In case of insufficient
ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment If ingested, seek
medical advice immediately and show the container or the label. Avoid
contact with skin and eyes.

Storage:
Keep container dry. Keep in a cool place. Ground all equipment
containing material. Keep container tightly closed. Keep in a cool,
well-ventilated place. Combustible materials should be stored away
from extreme heat and away from strong oxidizing agents.

Product Transfer:
Electrostatic charges may be generate during pumping. Electrostatic
discharge may cause fire. Lines should be purged with nitrogen before
and after product transfer. Refer to supplier for further product transfer
instructions if required.

DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS:

Material Disposal:

Do not dispose into the environment in drains or in watercourses. Waste arising from
a spillage or tank cleaning should be disposed of in accordance with prevailing
regulation, preferably to a recognized collector or contactor. The competence of the
collector or contactor should be established beforehand.

LOCAL LEGISLATION:
 Disposal should be in accordance with applicable regional, national,
and local laws and regulations.

MSDS FOR BUTADIENE:

 PRODUCT NAME: BUTADIENE

USES: Industrial Uses
 HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION:

Color: Colorless
Physical State: Liquid
Odor: Mildly aromatic
 POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS:
Eye Contact:
May cause slight eye irritation. Corneal injury is unlikely. Vapor or
mist may cause eye irritation.
Skin
Contact:
Brief contact is essentially nonirritating to skin
Skin Absorption:
Prolonged skin contact is unlikely to result in absorption of harmful
amounts.
Inhalation
:
At room temperature, exposure to vapor is minimal due to low
volatility. With good ventilation, single exposure is not expected to
cause adverse effects.
Effects of Repeated Exposure:
Repeated excessive exposure may cause irritation of the upper
respiratory tract. In humans, effects have been reported on the
following organs: Central nervous system.

 FIRST-AID MEASURES:
Eye Contact:
Immediately flush eyes thoroughly with water for at least 15 minutes.
Hold the eyelids open and away from the eyeballs to ensure that all

Skin Contact:
 surfaces are flushed thoroughly. Contact an ophthalmologist
immediately.

Immediately flush eyes thoroughly with water for at least 15 minutes.

Inhalation: Hold the eyelids open and away from the eyeballs to ensure that all
surfaces are flushed thoroughly. Contact an ophthalmologist
immediately.

Remove to fresh air and keep at rest in a position comfortable for

breathing. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is
difficult, trained personnel should give oxygen. Call a physician.

 FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES:

Extinguishing Media:
Carbon dioxide, Dry chemical, Water spray or fog.

Special Protective Equipment for Firefighters:

Standard protective clothing and equipment (Self Contained Breathing
Apparatus) for fire fighters. Wear gas tight chemically protective
clothing in combination with self-contained breathing apparatus.
Fire- fighting Instructions:
Evacuate all personnel from the danger area. Use self-contained
breathing apparatus (SCBA) and protective clothing. Immediately cool
containers with water from maximum distance. Stop flow of gas if safe
to do so, while continuing cooling water spray. Remove ignition
sources if safe to do so.
 HANDLING AND STORAGE HANDLING:
Handling:
Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, sparks, open flames and other
ignition sources. No smoking. Use only non-sparking tools. Use only
explosion-proof equipment Ensure equipment is adequately grounded
Leak-check system with soapy water; never use a flame.
Storage
:
 Store only where temperature will not exceed 125°F (52°C). Post “No
Smoking/No Open Flames” signs in storage and use areas. There must
be no sources of ignition. Separate packages and protect against
potential fire and/or explosion damage following appropriate codes and
requirements (e.g, NFPA 30, NFPA 55, NFPA 70, and/or NFPA 221 in
the U.S.) or according to requirements determined by the Authority
Having Jurisdiction (AHJ). Always secure containers upright to keep
them from falling or being knocked over. Install valve protection cap,
if provided, firmly in place by hand when the container is not in use.
Store full and empty containers separately. Use a first-in, first-out
inventory system to prevent storing full containers for long periods.

 PERSONAL PROTECTION:

Eye/Face Protection:
Wear safety glasses with side shields. Wear safety glasses with side
shields or goggles when transfilling or breaking transfer connections.
Provide readily accessible eye wash stations and safety showers.
Skin Protection:
Use protective clothing chemically resistant to this material. Selection
of specific items such as face shield, boots, apron, or full body suit will
depend on the task. Remove contaminated clothing immediately.
Hand protection:
Wear protective gloves made of PVC

 STABILITY AND REACTIVITY:

Stability/Instability:
May polymerize. Inhibitor usually added. Stable under normal
Conditions.
Thermal Decomposition
Decomposition products depend upon temperature, air supply and the
presence of other materials. Decomposition products can include and
are not limited to: Aldehydes. Alcohols. Ethers.
 ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION:
Chemical Oxygen Demand:
1.19 mg/mg
Theoretical Oxygen Demand:
1.29 mg/mg
 DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS:
All disposal practices must be in compliance with all Federal,
State/Provincial and local laws and regulations. Regulations may vary
in different locations. Waste characterizations and compliance with
applicable laws are the responsibility solely of the waste generator. Do
not attempt to dispose of residual or unused quantities. Return
container to supplier.

GOOD MANUFACTURE TECHNIQUES TO PREVENT ACCIDENTS

Filling drum - Keep hose pipe little inside the drum rather than on the hole.
Using fuming chamber - In laboratory while working with hazardous chemicals like
H2S,
Reduce heat of reaction -Add sulfuric acid to bucket full of water and not water to
bucket full of sulfuric acid.
Opening flanges - While opening a flange on pipeline containing corrosive liquid,
chances of liquid coming out with a spray are there. To avoid accident due to such
spray or acid or alkali use plastic sheet while opening valve. So that it will not contact
with body.
Location of gauge glass - Gauge glass for reading level in the tank should be located
away from path where many people may be working.
Location of safety valve/ vent line - The vent pipe should not be located in a closed
area.
Location of flammable material - Storage should be away from any source of flame.
Smoking - Do not smoke in unauthorized area where flammable materials are likely to
be present.
Purging with inert atmosphere - Before entering a reactor or a distillation column
containing hazardous vapors, the equipment must be purged with air/inert gas for
sufficiently long time.
 Machinery guards - Install guards on moving machinery parts.
Incompatible chemicals - Do not mix incompatible materials together.
Earthling of equipment - When two phase mixtures is being separated into different
tanks, the tank should be earthed to avoid spark due to accumulation of static
electricity.
Explosion due to dust - In the operation of fine grinding, solid temperature increases
which can lead to dust explosion initiated by hot metal. It can be prevented by cooling
grinder with water or inert gas purging.
Drying and ignition of flammable liquids - Keep air flow rate high so that air vapor
mixture is not near flammable limit.
Mixing - It should be effective to take care of exothermic heat of reaction.
Good house keeping - Do not store waste flammable materials near flame source.
Labeling of chemicals - Label the chemicals so that they do not get mixed up with
incompatible chemicals.
Pipetting - Do not suck with mouth, use rubber bulb.
Free excess energy exit - Do not store anything in passage way destructing free
movement in emergency.

FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION:

1. Regulation for the prevention of Fire:
Ban on carrying of a potential source of ignition, Ban on lighting fires in
battery area. Ban on smoking. Ban on carrying lamps. Use of Sparks’s
arrestors.

2. General Precautions:
Maintain good housekeeping. Follow the laid down procedure strictly.
Sampling and draining of hydrocarbon should be done under strict
supervision. Do not operate an equipment unauthorized. Use only approved
type of tools. Anticipate the hazards during vessel cleaning and take
prevention steps in advance.

3. Fire emergency mock drill:

An emergency manual can be prepared to outline procedures and drills and detail
responsibilities of each individual involved.
  Training
 Valuable Check on The Adequacy and Condition of exits
and Alarm system
 Instills a Sense of Security Among the Occupiers if Careful Plans Are Made.
 Exits Drills
 Plant Drills (Mock drills in plant area)
 Mutual Aid Drills
 On-Site / Off site Drills etc.

SAFETY IN PROCESS DESIGN:

Accidents are minimized by correct deign using scientific and performance data
without false economy.
Reactor:
The reactor is a heart of plant and vital for safety. Most reactions have hazard
potential. Here, reaction is exothermic and at higher pressure compared to
atmospheric pressure and also deals with the materials like Benzene and Cyclohexane
which are highly volatile.
Heat Transfer:
For safe operation,
 Prevent mixing.
 Provide different surface, for cleaning, insulation, expansion.
 Prevent flame travel in furnace.
 Use safety over design factor of 15 – 20 %.

Mass Transfer:
Safe guards are,
 Prevent liquid injection and vigorous flashing in hot column.
 Provide both pressure and vacuum relief.
 Use detection and warning devices for build up of hazardous material.
 Provide thermal expansion in system.
Pressure Vessels:
It includes,
 Corrosion allowance must be provided.
 Take care weld joint efficiency.
  Design pressure is maximum operating pressure plus static pressure
plus 5 %.
 Design temperature is 25-30 ºC above maximum operating
temperature.
 Use safety over design factor of 15 – 20 %.
Instrumentation and Safety devices:
 Thermocouple burnout, stem or cooling water failure.
 Fusible plugs to relive pressure above design value.
 Combustible gas monitor with alarms for flammable.
 Over temperature switch.

ENVIORNMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

The environmental considerations include:

1. Control of all emission from the plant.
2. Waste management.
3. Smells.
4. Noise pollution prevention.
5. The visual impact.
6. Liquid effluent specifications
7. Environmental friendliness of the products.
WASTE MANAGEMENT:

Waste arises mainly as byproducts or unused reactants from the process, or as off-
specification product produced through mis-operation. In emergency situations,
material may be discharged to the atmosphere through vents normally protected by
bursting discs and relief valves.

GASEOUS WASTES:
It is to be remembered that practice of relying on dispersion from tall stacks is seldom
entirely satisfactory. The gaseous pollutants can be very easily controlled by using
adsorption or absorption. Dispersed solids can be removed by scrubbing, or ESP If the
gas is flammable it is to be burnt. As in the present case the gaseous waste being
carbon dioxide. But the gases should not be sent to vent or to atmosphere and hence
the suitable scrubber system requires to be installed down stream to minimize
pollution.
 LIQUID WASTE:
If the liquid effluent is flammable, it can be burnt in the incinerator. But as in this case
if it contains salts; acids and substantial amount of alkali it is to be subjected to
effluent treatment. Generally common effluent treatment plant (if the facility is
situated in and Industrial area with the CETP) serves the purpose. The level of
effluent treatment up to secondary treatment is sufficient for the effluent from the
plant like one on the hard.
SOLID WASTE:
Solid wastes can be burnt in suitable incinerators or disposed by burial at licensed
land fill sites. Dumping of toxic solid waste should be avoided.
AQUEOUS WASTE:
The principle factors which determine the nature of an aqueous industrial effluent and
on which strict controls will be placed by responsible authority are:
 pH
 Suspended solids
 Toxicity
 Biological oxygen demand

For the present case pH of the effluent stream is expected to be alkaline and hence
addition of acids is recommended to neutralize the same. The suspended solids can be
removed by settling, using Chemical treatment may be given to remove some of the
chemicals.
Oxygen concentration in waste course must be maintained at a level sufficient to
support aquatic life. For this reason the biological oxygen of an effluent is of
paramount importance. Standard BOD 5 tests can be applied for the determination of
the same. The test measures the quantity of oxygen which a given volume of effluent
will absorb in 5 days at constant temperature of 20 0C. It is a measure of the organic
matter present in the effluent. Ultimate oxygen demand test can be performed if
required.
Waste water should be discharged into sewers with the agreement of the local water
pollution control authorities or state pollution control boards.
NOISE:
Noise can cause serious nuisance in the neighborhood of a process plant. Care need to
be taken when selecting and specifying equipments such as compressors, air-cooler
fans, induced and force draft fans for furnaces, and other noisy plant. Excessive noise
can also be generated when venting through steam and other relief valves, and from
 flare stacks. Such equipments should be fitted with silencers. Noisy equipments
should be as far away form the site boundary.
VISUAL IMPACT:

The appearance of the plant should be considered at the design stage. Few people
object to fairyland appearance of a process plant illuminated at the night, but it is
different scene at daytime. There is little that can be done to change the appearance of
modern style plant, where most of the equipment and piping will be outside and in full
view but some steps should be taken to minimize the visual impact.
ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING:
The company should go for a systematic examination of how a business operation
affects the environment. It will include all emissions to air, land and water and cover
the legal constraints the effect on the community the landscape and the ecology.
Following are some of the objectives of the environmental audit:
 To identify environmental problems associated with the manufacturing
process and the use of the products before they become liabilities.
 To develop standards for good working practices.
 To ensure compliance with environmental legislation.
 To satisfy requirements of insurers.
 To be seen to be concerned with environmental questions: important for public
relation
 To minimize the production of waster: an economic factor

CHAPTER XIII
PLANT LOCATION AND LAY OUT

PLANT LOCATION:
Plant location means to discover an exact place where an industrial experience can be
started more profitable & a plant is a place where men, material, money, equipment,
machinery etc. are brought together for manufacturing products. Plant location
involves two major activities. Plant location plays a major role in the design or
production as it determines the cost of:
  Getting suitable raw material.
 Processing raw material to finished products.
 Finished products distribution to customers.
The final selection of the plant location has a strong influence on the success of any
industrial venture. The following eighteen factors should be considered in choosing a
plant side.

Raw material supply

The source of raw material is one of the most important factors influencing the
selecting of the plan. The raw material should be cheaply & regularly available at the
plant site because this permits considerable reduction in transportation & storage
charges.
The major raw material used in this plant is Ethylene oxide. This can be easily
available in the places nearer to Baroda (because of the huge plants at IPCL, Baroda
itself) & hence any industrial area near by Baroda can be a suitable place for the plant
location.
Therefore, the industrial area around Baroda can be comfortably chosen as an ideal
place for our plant.

Markets
The location of markets or intermediates distribution centers can heavily affect the
cost of product distribution. Primarily to large market can be beneficial in the
following three ways:
 The cost of transportation of the finished goods to the market is brought
drastically down.
 The delay in supplying the goods to the market can be continently reduced &
avoided.
 The market is studied properly & easily i.e. the future requirements can be
easily & accurately predicted.

Energy availability
Electricity power, steam supply & heating oil requirements are high in most of the
chemical plants. The power & fuel can be considered as one major factor in the choice
of the plant site. The local cost of power can help in determining whether power
should be purchased or self generated. As far as our plant is concerned, both
electricity power & fuel (gaseous, liquid or solid) as well as heating oil can be made
available easily in Baroda or from nearby sources.

Water supply
The chemical process industries use large quantities of water for cooling, heating,
washing & as a raw material. Therefore, the plant site should be nearer to the source
of water. Baroda has plenty of such source like Ajwa lake, Mahi river & so. So, the
situation favors Baroda.

Climate
Weather can have serious effect on the economic operating of the plant. Temperature
& humidity of weather should be favorable.

Transportation
The everyday products are always needed to be transported from the plant site to the
marked or other plants & the raw materials necessary from the sources to the plant.
Hence transportation holds a great deal in the final product cost. A plant should have
easy access to transport facilities. Not only that, the transport facilities available to the
plant should also be sufficient, quick & available at reasonable rates. Water, railway
& national high-ways are the most common means of transportation. These facilities
are very much necessary for the transfer of raw material & product transportation.
Luckily Baroda has all of these facilities.
Labor supply
Availability of skilled laborers with constant supply & reasonable pay rate should be
considered in the selection of the plant site. Labor problem should be minimum.

Waste disposal
The plant site should be such that it should have the best & adequate facilities for
waste disposal. The permissible tolerance levels for various methods of waste disposal
should be considered carefully & attention should be given to potential requirements
for waste treatment facilities.
 Taxes & legal phases
The state & local tax rates on property (such as plant machinery, building etc.),
income, and unemployment insurance & similar items have major influence on the
plant site selection.

Site characterization
The characteristics of the land at the proposed plant site should be examined
carefully. The topography of the tract of the land & the soil structure must be
considered, since either or both have pronounced effect on construction costs.

Fire & explosion protection

The site should be such that it should have the best possible & quickest fire protection
facility available during the emergency. If possible (means if the company can afford)
the plant should be having its own fire station, fully equipped latest fire fighting
equipments & skilled firemen team. So, in case of emergencies it won’t have to rely
totally on the external sources.

Advanced library & training center

This is the characteristic of a good & developed organization. To develop the plant
properly, trained staff is a prime requirement & for further research & development of
in-house technologies, advance library facilities covering the subjects in detail is
necessary. The training center should be fully equipped with skilled trainers &
training facilities.

Community attitude
Success of an industry depends very much on the attitude of the local people &
whether they want work or not.

Presence of related industries

This means the industries supplying raw materials or the power or energy
requirements should be in a handy reach to avoid chaotic situations to take place.
 Existence of hospitals, marketing centers, schools, banks, post offices, clubs

An ideal industry or organization is that which takes full care of its employees &
persons who are directly or indirectly involved with it. To cope up with the situation
of casualties or accidents pressure of a well-equipped hospital is a must. Other than
this a reputed school & the banking & postal facilities are the prime requirement of
the families of the employees.

13.1.16. Housing facilities

Housing facilities (i.e., residential quarters) for the company employees should be
well maintained & provided with constant supply of water, electricity & things
necessary for life.

3.1.17 Securities
The security of the plant site & the housing facility from the unsocial elements is
necessary & should be given equal attention.

Facilities for expansion

Considering all the major factors discussed above affecting the plant location, it is
quite reasonable to select Baroda, to establish an industrial estate for the plant
location. Justification for the same is discussed below.
 All the transportation facilities (rail, road & water) are easily available to
Baroda & are very adequate.
 Waste disposal will not be a much problem as it is a separate chemical estate
& no specific attention is required.
 Electricity & water supply are easily in abundant in supply.
 The raw materials necessary are easily available from the nearby industrial
area & the industrial estate is always running with large number of chemical
industries, & hence getting skilled & experienced labor at reasonable rates is
not a problem.

PLANT LAYOUT:
After the process flow diagrams are completed & before detailed piping, structural &
electrical design can begin, the layout of process units in the plant must be planned.
Plant layout means the allocation of space, arrangement of equipment & machinery in
such a manner so that maximum utilization of manpower, machines & material is
done & minimum material handling is required.
The following factors should be considered in selecting the plant layout.
 New site development or additions to previously developed site.
 Type & quantity of product to be produced.
 Possible future expansion.
 Economic distribution of utilities & services.
 Type of building & building code requirements.
 Health & safety considerations.
 Waste disposal problems.
 Sensible use of floor & elevation space.
 Operational convenience & accessibility.
 Type of process & product control.
 Space available & space required.
 Maximum advantages of gravity flow are taken to reduce the operational cost
in the piping & flow design.

Storage Layout:
Adequate storage of raw materials, intermediate products, final products, recycle
materials & fuel are essential to the operating of process plants. Storage of
intermediate products may be necessary during plant shutdown for emergency repairs,
while storage of final products makes it possible to supply customer even during a
plant difficulty of unforeseen shutdown. An additional use of adequate storage is
often encountered when it is necessary to meet seasonal demands from steady
production.

Equipment Layout:
In making plant layout, a due consideration should be given to that an ample space
should be assigned to each piece of equipment & their accessories. The relative levels
of the several pieces of equipment & their accessories determine their placement.
Gravity flow is preferable to reduce material handling cost during production,
however it is not altogether necessary because liquids can be transported by pumping
& solids can be moved by mechanical means. In making the equipment’s layout, the
 grouping should be done so that the service of equipment’s performing similar
function is grouped together & so the better co-ordination of the operating is
achieved.

CHAPTER XIV
COST ESTIMATION

A plant design obviously must present a process that is capable of operating under
conditions, which will yield a profit. Since net profit equals total income minus all
expenses, it is essential that the chemical engineer be aware of many different types of
costs involved in manufacturing processes.

ESTIMATION CAPITAL COST:

Purchased Equipment Cost:

Table-14.1 Purchase Cost of equipments

Sr. No. Equipment No. of Cost per Estimated

Equip- Unit (Rs. Cost
Ments Thusd) (Rs. Thusd)
BUTADIENE
1 1 200 200
STORAGE TANK
SULPHUR DIOXIDE
2 STORAGE 1 200 200
TANK
THREESTAGE
3 1 500 500
CSTR
4 EVAPORATOR 1 70 70
5 STRIPPER 1 85 85
CENTRIFUGAL 6 10 60
6
PUMP
7 CONDESER 2 20 40
8 COOLER 2 50 100
9 COMPRESSOR 2 25 50

TOTAL PURCHASE EQUIPMENT COST (PEC) = 1305 Thusd Rs.

 Direct Costs:
Table-14.2 Direct Cost

Sr. No. Item % of PEC Cost (Rs. Thusd)

Purchased Equipment
1 100 1305
Delivered cost
Purchased
2 Equipment 40 522
Installation cost
Instrumentation & Control cost
3 (Installed) 15 195.75
4 Piping cost (Installed) 60 783
5 Electrical Installation cost 12 255
6 Building cost 18 156.6
7 Yard improvement cost 10 130.5
8 Service facilities cost 70 913.5
9 Land purchase cost 10 130.5

TOTAL DIRECT COST = 4391.35 Thusd Rs.

Indirect Costs:

Table-14.3 Indirect Cost

Sr. No. Item % of TDC Cost (Rs.

Thusd)
1 Engineering & Design Cost 15 658.70
2 Construction expenses 20 878.27
3 Contractors Fees 5 219.56
4 Contingencies 10 439.135

Total Indirect Cost = 2195.665 thusd Rs.

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = Total Direct Cost + Total Indirect Cost
= 4391.35+2195.665
= 6587.015 Thusd Rs.
Working Capital Investment (WCI) = 20% of Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)
 = 0.2 x6587.015
= 1317.403 thusd Rs.

TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT (TCI) = Fixed Capital Investment

+Working Capital Investment
= 6587.015+1317.403
= 7904.418 Thusd Rs.

ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCTION COST:

Manufacturing Cost
 Direct Production Cost
(1)Raw Material Cost
Working Days = 330
Table-14.4 Raw material cost
Raw Material Amount Cost Cost ( thuds
Rs)
Butadiene 45696.18 (Kg/Yr) 129(Rs / Kg) 5894.807
Sulphur dioxide 54302.88(Kg/Yr) 80(Rs/kg) 4344.23

TOTAL COST OF RAW MATERIAL = 10239.037 thusd Rs.

(2) Utilities Cost = 20% of Raw Material Cost
= 0.2 x 10239.037
= 2047.807 thusd Rs.
(3) Maintenance and Repair Cost = 10 % of Fixed Capital Investment
= 0.1 x 6587.015
= 658.7015 thusd Rs.

(4) Operating Labour & Supervision Cost = 5% of Raw Material Cost

= 0.05 x 10239.037
= 511.95 thusd Rs
(5) Lab & Other Service Cost = 1% of Raw Material Cost
= 0.01 x 10239.037
= 102.39 Thuds Rs

DIRECT PRODUCTION COSTS

= Raw Material Cost + Utilities Cost + Maintenance and
Repair Cost + Operating Labour & Supervision Cost
+ Lab & Other Service Cost [19]
= 13559.8855 thusd Rs

 Fixed Cost:

(1) Depreciation = 10 % of Fixed Capital Investment

= 0.1 x 6587.015
= 658.7015 thusds Rs.

(2) Local Taxes = 2 % of Fixed Capital Investment

= 0.02 x 6587.015
= 131.740 thusds Rs.

(3) Insurance Cost = 3 % of Fixed Capital Investment

= 0.03 x 6587.015
= 197.610 thusds Rs.

TOTAL FIXED COST = Depreciation + Local Taxes + Insurance Cost

= 988.051 thusds Rs.

 Plant overhead Cost:

These costs are 100% of Labour cost,

So, plant overhead cost is 511.95 thusds Rs.

TOTAL MANUFACTURING COST = Direct Production Costs + Total Fixed Cost +

Plant overhead cost
 = 15059.8865 thusds Rs.

General Expenses:

(1) Administrative Cost = 1% Of Manufacturing cost

= 0.01 x 15059.8865
= 150.059 thusds Rs.
(2) Distribution & Marketing cost = 2% Of Manufacturing cost
= 0.02 x 15059.8865
= 301.198 thusds Rs.
TOTAL GENERAL EXPENSES = 451.257 thusds Rs.

TOTAL PRODUCTION COST = Total Manufacturing Cost +Total General Expenses

= 15059.8865+ 451.257
= 15511.1435thusds Rs.

BREAK EVEN POINT:

Let N TPA be the break-even production rate.

Fixed Cost = 988.051 thusds Rs/yr

At break even production,

Fixed charges + Direct Production Cost = Selling Cost
(988.051 + 13559.8855) thuds Rs. = 60 X 100 X N
N = 2426 TPA = 17.17 TPD
Hence, the break-even production rate is 6.64 TPD of the considered
plant capacity.

PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS:
Working days = 333
Table-14.5 Selling price
Product Amount kg/year Selling Price Rs./kg

Butadiene Sulfone 99200 60

Total Selling Cost (TSC) = 59520 thusds Rs.

Gross Profit = Total Selling Cost – Total Production Cost

= 59520 – 15511.1435
 = 44008.8565 thusds Rs.

Tax Paid = 0.4 x Gross Profit

= 0.4 x 19559.51

= 17603.5426 thusds Rs.

Net Profit = Gross Profit – Tax Paid

= 44008.8565– 17603.5426

= 26405.313 thusds Rs.

PAY OUT PERIOD:

It is given by P.O.P
Fixed Capital Investment per year
P.O.P = Net Profit + Depreciation

6587.015
= 26405.313+ 658.7015
= 0.243Years
RATE OF RETURN:

It is given by R.O.R

Net Profit X 100

R.O.R = Total Capital Investment

= 26405.313/7904.418
= 334.05 %
 CONCLUSION

I was successful in collecting the data regarding the raw materials that are required for
production of Butadiene Sulfone. I believe that I was able to do all the calculations
and design calculations required for establishment of the plant. The Material safety
data sheets are also shown. Thus, the production of 100000 Kgs of Butadiene Sulfone
is a very smooth process.
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