CIRCUITS AND

6.002x ELECTRONICS

Incremental Analysis

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Review The  6.002x  world  
Lumped  Circuit  Abstrac3on  
KVL/KCL  
Linear   Node  
Superposi3on  
Composi3on  
Thevenin,  Norton  
VS
RL
Nonlinear  
A  =  1   C
Analy3cal  
B   =  1   Graphical  
RON RON Small  Signal  Model  

VS
RL
C

Digital   A B

For  fixed  input  values  …  

vOUT

v IN
2  
Review
Nonlinear Analysis
u Analytical method
u Graphical method
u Piecewise Linear method
Today
u Incremental analysis or small signal method

Reading: Section 4.5

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Method 3: Incremental Analysis
(Actually a particular disciplined use of a circuit)
Motivation: music over a light beam. Can we pull this off?
iD iR
vI (t) + +
– vD LED AMP
- light
intensity
light intensity XR in
X D ∝ iD iR ∝ X R
vI photoreceiver
Remember
music signal LED: Light
t Emitting
expoDweep J 4
Problem: The LED is nonlinear à distortion
iD + iD iR
iD + vD LED
– -
AMP
vI

vD
t vD = vI

vD
iD
vD
t

5
t
Problem: The LED is Nonlinear

iD iD

t vD

vD
t
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Insight

iD

small region looks linear

(about some given VD , ID)

vD

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Imagine iD vI +
+
vD LED
iD
– -

vD

Boost
and
t

Shrink  
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How to implement this trick vI +
+
vD LED
iD
– -
iD

ID

vD
vd

VD

“Boost and Shrink”

Shrink signal of interest vi
Add DC offset to it VI 9  
Result vI
vi (t ) +
– +  
v D LED
iD

VI + -­‐  
–

vD = vI iD

t t

So, this is really a very clever and disciplined way of

using a circuit so that we can get a more or less linear
Demo
response out of a nonlinear circuit 10  
The incremental method:
(or small signal method)

1. Operate at some DC offset

or bias point VD, ID .
2. Superimpose small signal vd
(music) on top of VD .
3. Response id to small signal vd
is approximately linear.

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What does this mean mathematically?
Or, why is the small signal response linear?

Using Taylor’s Expansion to expand f(vD) near vD=VD :

Why is the small signal response linear?
d f (v D )
iD ≈ f (VD ) + ⋅ ΔvD
d vD vD =VD
constant constant w.r.t. ΔvD
w.r.t. ΔvD slope at VD, ID

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Why is the small signal response linear? pe at
slo
d f (v D ) V D, I D
X : I D + ΔiD ≈ f (VD ) + ⋅ Δ vD
d vD vD =VD

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In our example X : I D + ΔiD ≈ f (VD ) +
d f (v D )
d vD
⋅ Δ vD
v D =VD

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Graphical interpretation
I D = a ebVD operating point
id = I D ⋅ b ⋅ vd

iD

we are
approximating
vD A with B
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 vI (t) iD
+ +
– vD LED
-

We studied the small signal
vD = f (vD ) = a ebVD
I D = a ebVD
id = I D ⋅ b ⋅ vd
graphically
mathematically
Next, circuit view

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A circuit view of the small signal model vI (t)
+ +
iD

Large signal circuit: – vD LED

-

vD = f (vD ) = a ebVD
I D = a ebVD
id = I D ⋅ b ⋅ vd

Where did you see

Small signal reponse: i = constant x v
before?

1
R=
d f (v D )
d vD v D =VD
For small signals, device behaves like a resistor! 18  
So, We Can Build a Small Signal Circuit vI (t)
+
+
vD
iD
LED
–
-
Large signal circuit:
ID I D = a ebVD
VI +!
–!
+   I D = a e bVD id = I D ⋅ b ⋅ vd
LED VD
-­‐  

Small signal reponse: We can build a small signal circuit:

+   vd -­‐  
id = I D b vd
id 1
R=
ID b
For small signals, device
behaves like a resistor! See pages 222 – 228 of textbook 19  
Small Signal Circuit Method
Find operating point using DC bias inputs
1
from large signal circuit

Develop small signal (linearized) models for each Key: we can use
2 of the elements around the operating point. superposition
and other linear
circuit tools
with linearized
circuit!

Replace original elements with small signal element models.

3 Analyze resulting linearized circuit to obtain small signal

response…
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Step 2: Voltage Sources and DC Supply V0 iS
IS +!
large +! V+! vS
signal
0
–!
V0+! V = V –!
–! S 0
–!

Small
signal

DC voltage source behaves as short to small signals.

DC current source behaves as open to small signals. See page 416 of textbook
Current Sources iS
IS = I 0 +!
large I0 vS
signal +! IS = I 0
I0 VS –!
–!

Small
signal

DC voltage source behaves as short to small signals.

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DC current source behaves as open to small signals.
Voltage Source Containing Both DC and Small Signal

large
signal
vi (t ) +!
–!
vI (t ) +!
–!
VI +!
–!
Small
signal

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Similarly, R
iR
IR +! +!
large VR = R I R R vR
signal VR
R –! –!

small
signal

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For Non-Linear Device D iD
ID +! iD = a ebvD
large +! I D = a ebVD D vD
signal D VD –!
–!

small
signal

We will visit small signal circuits again shortly… 25  

Small signal circuit analysis example

26  
Step 1

27  
Step 2

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Step 3

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