Digital Communications I: Modulation

and Coding Course

Term 3 - 2008
Catharina Logothetis
Lecture 4
Last time we talked about:
 Receiver structure
 Impact of AWGN and ISI on the transmitted
signal
 Optimum filter to maximize SNR
 Matched filter receiver and Correlator receiver

Lecture 4 2
Receiver job
 Demodulation and sampling:
 Waveform recovery and preparing the received
signal for detection:
 Improving the signal power to the noise power (SNR)
using matched filter
 Reducing ISI using equalizer
 Sampling the recovered waveform
 Detection:
 Estimate the transmitted symbol based on the
received sample

Lecture 4 3
 Receiver structure

Step 1 – waveform to sample transformation Step 2 – decision making

Demodulate & Sample Detect

z (T ) m̂i
r (t ) Threshold
Frequency Receiving Equalizing
comparison
down-conversion filter filter

For bandpass signals Compensation for

channel induced ISI

Received waveform Baseband pulse

Baseband pulse Sample
(possibly distored)
(test statistic)

Lecture 4 4
Implementation of matched filter receiver

Bank of M matched filters

z1 (T )
 z1 
*
s (T − t )
1
Matched filter output:
r (t )   = z
z Observation
  vector

*  z M 
sM (T − t ) zM (T )

zi = r (t ) ∗ s ∗ i (T − t ) i = 1,..., M
z = ( z1 (T ), z 2 (T ),..., z M (T )) = ( z1 , z 2 ,..., z M )

Lecture 4 5
Implementation of correlator receiver
Bank of M correlators
s ∗ 1 (t )
T z1 (T )
∫ 0
 z1  Correlators output:
r (t )   = z
z Observation
 
∗ vector
s M (t )
T  z M 
∫ 0 z M (T )

z = ( z1 (T ), z 2 (T ),..., z M (T )) = ( z1 , z 2 ,..., z M )
T
zi = ∫ r (t )s (t )dt
0
i i = 1,..., M

Lecture 4 6
Today, we are going to talk about:

 Detection:
 Estimate the transmitted symbol based on the
received sample
 Signal space used for detection
 Orthogonal N-dimensional space
 Signal to waveform transformation and vice versa

Lecture 4 7
Signal space
 What is a signal space?
 Vector representations of signals in an N-dimensional
orthogonal space
 Why do we need a signal space?
 It is a means to convert signals to vectors and vice versa.
 It is a means to calculate signals energy and Euclidean
distances between signals.
 Why are we interested in Euclidean distances between
signals?
 For detection purposes: The received signal is transformed to
a received vectors. The signal which has the minimum
distance to the received signal is estimated as the transmitted
signal.

Lecture 4 8
 Schematic example of a signal space
ψ 2 (t )
s1 = (a11 , a12 )

ψ 1 (t )
z = ( z1 , z 2 )

s 3 = ( a31 , a32 )

s 2 = ( a21 , a22 )
s1 (t ) = a11ψ 1 (t ) + a12ψ 2 (t ) ⇔ s1 = (a11 , a12 )
Transmitted signal
s2 (t ) = a21ψ 1 (t ) + a22ψ 2 (t ) ⇔ s 2 = (a21 , a22 )
alternatives
s3 (t ) = a31ψ 1 (t ) + a32ψ 2 (t ) ⇔ s 3 = (a31 , a32 )
Received signal at z (t ) = z1ψ 1 (t ) + z 2ψ 2 (t ) ⇔ z = ( z1 , z 2 )
matched filter output
Lecture 4 9
Signal space
 To form a signal space, first we need to know
the inner product between two signals
(functions):
 Inner (scalar) product:
∞
< x(t ), y (t ) > = ∫
−∞
x(t ) y * (t )dt
= cross-correlation between x(t) and y(t)

 Properties of inner product:

< ax(t ), y (t ) > = a < x(t ), y (t ) >
< x(t ), ay (t ) > = a * < x(t ), y (t ) >
< x(t ) + y (t ), z (t ) > = < x(t ), z (t ) > + < y (t ), z (t ) >
Lecture 4 10
Signal space …
 The distance in signal space is measure by calculating
the norm.
 What is norm?
 Norm of a signal:
∞
∫
2
x(t ) = < x(t ), x(t ) > = x(t ) dt = Ex
−∞
= “length” of x(t)
ax(t ) = a x(t )
 Norm between two signals:

d x , y = x(t ) − y (t )
 We refer to the norm between two signals as the
Euclidean distance between two signals.
Lecture 4 11
Example of distances in signal space
ψ 2 (t )
s1 = (a11 , a12 )

E1 d s1 , z
ψ 1 (t )
E3 z = ( z1 , z 2 )
d s3 , z E2 d s2 , z
s 3 = ( a31 , a32 )

s 2 = ( a21 , a22 )

The Euclidean distance between signals z(t) and s(t):

d si , z = si (t ) − z (t ) = (ai1 − z1 ) 2 + (ai 2 − z 2 ) 2
i = 1,2,3

Lecture 4 12
Orthogonal signal space
 N-dimensional orthogonal signal space Nis characterized by
N linearly independent functions {ψ j (t )} j = 1 called basis
functions. The basis functions must satisfy the orthogonality
condition
T
0≤ t ≤ T
< ψ i (t ),ψ j (t ) > = ∫ ψ i (t )ψ (t ) dt = K iδ
*
j ji
0
j , i = 1,..., N
where  1→ i = j
δ ij = 
0→ i ≠ j

 If all K i = 1, the signal space is orthonormal.

Lecture 4 13
 Example of an orthonormal basis
 Example: 2-dimensional orthonormal signal space
 2
ψ
 1 (t ) = cos(2π t / T ) 0≤ t < T ψ 2 (t )
 T

 ψ (t ) = 2 sin( 2π t / T ) 0≤ t < T
 2 T
T
ψ 1 (t )
0
< ψ 1 (t ),ψ 2 (t ) > = ∫ ψ 1 (t )ψ 2 (t ) dt = 0
0

ψ 1 (t ) = ψ 2 (t ) = 1
 Example: 1-dimensional orthonormal signal space

ψ 1 (t )
1 ψ 1 (t ) = 1
T ψ 1 (t )
0
0 T t
Lecture 4 14
 Signal space …
Any arbitrary finite set of waveforms { si (t )}
M
 i= 1

where each member of the set is of duration T, can be

expressed as a linear combination of N orthonogal
waveforms {ψ j (t )} Nj= 1 where N ≤ M .
N
si (t ) = ∑ aijψ j (t ) i = 1,..., M
j= 1 N≤ M
where
T
1 1 j = 1,..., N
aij =
Kj
< si (t ),ψ j (t ) > = ∫
Kj 0
si (t )ψ *j (t )dt
i = 1,..., M
0≤ t ≤ T

∑
2
s i = (ai1 , ai 2 ,..., aiN ) Ei = K j aij
j= 1
Vector representation of waveform Waveform energy
Lecture 4 15
 Signal space …
N
si (t ) = ∑
j= 1
aijψ j (t ) s i = ( ai1 , ai 2 ,..., aiN )
Waveform to vector conversion Vector to waveform conversion

ψ 1 (t ) ψ 1 (t )
T ai1 ai1
∫ 0
 ai1  sm
 ai1 
si (t )   = sm
  si (t )
ψ N (t )     ψ N (t )
T  aiN   aiN 
∫ 0 aiN aiN

Lecture 4 16
Example of projecting signals to an
orthonormal signal space
ψ 2 (t )
s1 = (a11 , a12 )

ψ 1 (t )

s 3 = ( a31 , a32 )

s 2 = ( a21 , a22 )

s1 (t ) = a11ψ 1 (t ) + a12ψ 2 (t ) ⇔ s1 = (a11 , a12 )

Transmitted signal
alternatives s2 (t ) = a21ψ 1 (t ) + a22ψ 2 (t ) ⇔ s 2 = (a21 , a22 )
s3 (t ) = a31ψ 1 (t ) + a32ψ 2 (t ) ⇔ s 3 = (a31 , a32 )
T
aij = ∫ s (t )ψ
i j (t )dt j = 1,..., N i = 1,..., M 0≤ t ≤ T
0 Lecture 4 17
 Signal space – cont’d
 To find an orthonormal basis functions for a given
set of signals, the Gram-Schmidt procedure can be
used.
 Gram-Schmidt procedure:
Given a signal set { si (t )} i = 1 , compute an orthonormal basis {ψ j (t )} j = 1
M N


1. Define ψ 1 (t ) = s1 (t ) / E1 = s1 (t ) / s1 (t ) i − 1
2. For i = 2,..., M compute d i (t ) = si (t ) − ∑ < si (t ),ψ j (t ) > ψ j (t )
If d i (t ) ≠ 0 let ψ i (t ) = d i (t ) / d i (t ) j= 1

If d i (t ) = 0, do not assign any basis function.

3. Renumber the basis functions such that basis is
{ψ 1 (t ),ψ 2 (t ),...,ψ N (t )}

 This is only necessary if d i (t ) = 0 for any i in step 2.

 Note that N ≤ M

Lecture 4 18
 Example of Gram-Schmidt procedure
 Find the basis functions and plot the signal space for the
following transmitted signals:
s1 (t ) s2 (t )
A
T 0 T t
−A
0 T t T

 Using Gram-Schmidt procedure:

T ψ 1 (t ) s1 (t ) = Aψ 1 (t )
∫
2
1 E1 = s1 (t ) dt = A 2
0 1 s2 (t ) = − Aψ 1 (t )
T
ψ 1 (t ) = s1 (t ) / E1 = s1 (t ) / A s1 = ( A) s 2 = (− A)
T
2 < s2 (t ),ψ 1 (t ) > = ∫ 0
s2 (t )ψ 1 (t )dt = − A 0
s2
T t

d 2 (t ) = s2 (t ) − (− A)ψ 1 (t ) = 0
s1
ψ 1 (t )
-A 0 A
Lecture 4 19
Implementation of the matched filter receiver

Bank of N matched filters

∗
z1
ψ (T − t ) Observation
1
 z1  vector
r (t )
  = z
z
 
ψ ∗
N (T − t )  z N 
zN
N
si (t ) = ∑
j= 1
aijψ j (t ) i = 1,..., M
z = ( z1 , z 2 ,..., z N ) N≤ M
z j = r (t ) ∗ ψ j (T − t ) j = 1,..., N

Lecture 4 20
Implementation of the correlator receiver
Bank of N correlators

ψ 1 (t )
T z1
∫ 0
 r1 
r (t )   = z
z Observation
ψ N (t )   vector
T  rN 
∫ 0 zN
N
si (t ) = ∑ j= 1
aijψ j (t ) i = 1,..., M

z = ( z1 , z 2 ,..., z N ) N≤ M
T
zj = ∫ r (t )ψ
0
j (t ) dt j = 1,..., N
Lecture 4 21
 Example of matched filter receivers using
basic functions
s1 (t ) s2 (t ) ψ 1 (t )
A 1
T T
0 T t
0 T t −A 0 T t
T

1 matched filter
ψ 1 (t )
1
r (t ) T z1
[ z1 ] = z z

0 T t

 Number of matched filters (or correlators) is reduced by 1 compared to using

matched filters (correlators) to the transmitted signal.

Lecture 4 22
White noise in the orthonormal signal space

 AWGN, n(t), can be expressed as

n(t ) = nˆ (t ) + n~ (t )
Noise projected on the signal space Noise outside on the signal space
which impacts the detection process.
N
nˆ (t ) = ∑
j= 1
n jψ j (t )
Vector representation of nˆ (t )
n j = < n(t ),ψ j (t ) > j = 1,..., N n = (n1 , n2 ,..., nN )

< n~ (t ),ψ (t ) > = 0

j
j = 1,..., N {n } N
independent zero-mean
j j= 1
Gaussain random variables with
variance var(n j ) = N 0 / 2

Lecture 4 23