Chapter1

Automatic drain cleaner

Water is a basic necessity of humans and all living beings. There is a plenty of water
on earth but that is not suitable for human use. Clean water is more important if it is used for
some purpose. The impurities present in water can prove hazardous and can cause diseases.
As long as the drainage system is considered the function of the main drainage system is to
collect, transport, and dispose of the water through an outfall or outlet .Impurities in drainage
water can be any like empty bottles, polythene bags, papers etc. These impurities present in
drainage water can cause blockage of the drainage system. To avoid such situation these
impurities are needed to be taken out time to time for the smooth working of the drainage
system. The drainage system can be cleaned time to time manually or such a system can be
designed that will automatically throw out these impurities and will keep the water clean.
This project is designed with the objective of keeping clean the drainage system and helps the
smooth working of the system. This project automatically cleans the water in the drainage
system each time any impurity appears, and this forma an efficient and easy way of cleaning
the drainage system and preventing its blockage. It also reduces labour and improves the
quality of water that is cleaned.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The devices are place across drain so that only water flow through lower grids, waste like
bottle, Etc. Floating in drain are lifted by teeth which is connected to chain. This chain is
attached by gear driven by motor. When motor runs the chain starts to circulate making teeth
to lift up the waste materials are lifted by teeth and are stored in waste storage tank.
 Chapter 2

Hardware description

Block diagram

Components

 Collector Jaw
 Frame Bed
 Mounts
 Chain
 Shafts
 Collector Bin
 Battery
  Charging circuit
 Wiper motor

 Power supply

Charging circuit:

Block diagram of charging circuit with reverse charge protection

Bridge rectifier:
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit
configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input

According to the conventional model of current flow (originally established by Benjamin

Franklin and still followed by most engineers today ,current is defined to be positive when it
flows through electrical conductors from the positive to the negative pole. In actuality, free
electrons in a conductor nearly always flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the vast
majority of applications, however, the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant.
Therefore, in the discussion below the conventional model is retained.

In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the diamond is positive,
and the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the upper supply
terminal to the right along the red (positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower
supply terminal via the blue (negative) path.
When the input connected to the left corner is negative, and the input connected to the right
corner is positive, current flows from the lower supply terminal to the right along the red
(positive) path to the output, and returns to the upper supply terminal via the blue (negative)
path

3.3.2Resistor:

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act
to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit current
flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines among
other uses. High-power resistors, that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat,
may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for
generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time
or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a
volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or
chemical activity.

Theory of operation

Ohm's law:

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where
the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is
attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes
flows through that resistor.
Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which will also affect the
relation between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.

The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10 −3 Ω), kilohm (1
kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.

resistor

3.3.3Diode:

operation of diode:

A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode and the
cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, or
selenium. Some diodes are comprised of metal electrodes in a chamber evacuated or filled
with a pure elemental gas at low pressure. Diodes can be used as rectifiers, signal limiters,
voltage regulators, switches, signal modulators, signal mixers, signal demodulators, and
oscillators.

The fundamental property of a diode is its tendency to conduct electric current in only one
direction. When the cathode is negatively charged relative to the anode at a voltage greater
than a certain minimum called forward breakover, then current flows through the diode. If
the cathode is positive with respect to the anode, is at the same voltage as the anode, or is
negative by an amount less than the forward breakover voltage, then the diode does not
conduct current. This is a simplistic view, but is true for diodes operating as rectifiers,
switches, and limiters. The forward breakover voltage is approximately six tenths of a volt
(0.6 V) for silicon devices, 0.3 V for germanium devices, and 1 V for selenium device

3.3.4LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is an electronic light source All early devices emitted low-
intensity red light, but modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infra-red
wavelengths, with very high brightness.

LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased (switched on),
electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is released in the form of light. This
effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is determined by the energy gap
of the semiconductor. The LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2) with integrated
optical components to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection.

LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching.
However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat
management than traditional light sources.

Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy indicators but also for
replacements for traditional light sources in general lighting and automotive lighting. The
compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed,
while their high switching rates are useful in communications technology.
Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or
doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from
the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers
—electrons and holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When
an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of
a photon.

The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy
of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and
holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because
these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap
with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.

LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide.
Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever-
shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors. LEDs are usually built on an n-
type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type
substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially
GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.

2 RECHARGEABLE BATTERY:

A rechargeable battery, storage battery, or accumulator is a type of electrical battery.

It comprises one or more electrochemical cells, and is a type of energy accumulator. It is
known as a secondary cell because its electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible.
Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to
megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different
combinations of chemicals are commonly used, including: lead–acid, nickel cadmium
(NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion
polymer).
 Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and environmental impact than
disposable batteries. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes as
disposable types. Rechargeable batteries have higher initial cost but can be recharged very
cheaply and used many times.

Charging and discharging:

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the
negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow
in the external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for internal ion flow
between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active
participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in lead–acid cells.

The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery
charger using AC mains electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC
power outlet. Regardless, to store energy in a secondary cell, it has to be connected to a DC
voltage source. The negative terminal of the cell has to be connected to the negative terminal
of the voltage source and the positive terminal of the voltage source with the positive
terminal of the battery. Further, the voltage output of the source must be higher than that of
the battery, but not much higher: the greater the difference between the power source and the
battery's voltage capacity, the faster the charging process, but also the greater the risk of
overcharging and damaging the battery.

Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers
without voltage- or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking
14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to
five hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast
chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in
terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or
overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from
overheating.

Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a "C" rate of
current. The C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in
one hour. For example, trickle charging might be performed at C/20 (or a "20 hour" rate),
while typical charging and discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). The
available capacity of electrochemical cells varies depending on the discharge rate. Some
energy is lost in the internal resistance of cell components (plates, electrolyte,
interconnections), and the rate of discharge is limited by the speed at which chemicals in the
cell can move about. For lead-acid cells, the relationship between time and discharge rate is
described by Peukert's law; a lead-acid cell that can no longer sustain a usable terminal
voltage at a high current may still have usable capacity, if discharged at a much lower rate.
Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the discharge capacity on 8-hour or 20-hour or
other stated time; cells for uninterruptible power supply systems may be rated at 15 minute
discharge.

Flow batteries, used for specialized applications, are recharged by replacing the electrolyte
liquid.

Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to VPC; this is volts per cell, and
refers to the individual secondary cells that make up the battery. (This is typically in
reference to 12-volt lead-acid batteries.) For example, to charge a 12 V battery (containing 6
cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's terminals.
 Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinc–carbon cells output 1.5V when new, but this
voltage drops with use. Most NiMH AA and AAA cells are rated at 1.2 V, but have a flatter
discharge curve than alkalines and can usually be used in equipment designed to use alkaline
batteries.

Damage during storage in fully discharged state:

If a multi-cell battery is fully discharged, it will often be damaged due to the cell
reversal effect mentioned above. It is possible however to fully discharge a battery without
causing cell reversal--either by discharging each cell separately, or by allowing each cell's
internal leakage to dissipate its charge over time.

Even if a cell is brought to a fully discharged state without reversal, however, damage
may occur over time simply due to remaining in the discharged state. An example of this is
the sulfation that occurs in lead-acid batteries that are left sitting on a shelf for long periods.
For this reason it is often recommended to charge a battery that is intended to remain in
storage, and to maintain its charge level by periodically recharging it. Since damage may also
occur if the battery is overcharged, the optimal level of charge during storage is typically
around 30% to 70%.
 change over time or number of charge cycles. Generally a rechargeable battery system
will tolerate more charge/discharge cycles if the DOD is lower on each cycle.

Charge Mode:

Constant voltage charge (constant voltage and constant resistance charge) is recommended.
Charging current is limited, so be sure to charge via a charge-limiting resistor.
The specified charge voltage must also be observed.
* If you are considering adopting constant current and constant voltage charge mode, contact
SII.

Charge Voltage Range:

Observe the specified charging voltage range.

* Charging at a voltage higher than the upper limit may degrade the electrical characteristics
or lead to leakage or bursting.
* Charging at a voltage lower than the lower limit significantly reduces discharge capacity.

2.2.1 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF 12V CHARGING CIRCUIT

Charging circuit example:

Explaining of the Circuit:

First of all the circuit is well separated is two sections the power supply on the left
(green line) with the battery pack and the outline with the purple line
 We take the transformer (220V Europe make the calculations over Atlantic reader)
and we connect it in a formation of diodes called bridge. This circuit is what a first year
student learns and remembers it for ever. It’s the simplest circuit to achieve best results,
cheap and realible.Ok, if u like to transform from AC to AC again then the circuit remains the
same u change the diodes of type 4402, 4403, 4002, of course the transformer and the
appropriate relay working in AC. The capacitor of 1000uF value is a filter and a choke to
elevate the power. Connect the diodes to the capacitor and then this one at the line of the
relay. Then the + pole of the device gets to the switch of the relay. At the + pole of the device
we attach a diode or a BY251 and a resistor 33Ohm of 5 Watts (we prefer 5watts so the
resistor isn't get hot when it works and cools down faster)
You will not need any PCB. Take a protorype or better a perforated card and just place the
materials and do the connections. No particular attention needed (of course take all the
precautions when using high voltage such as 220VDC are able to fry you in seconds and send
next to your anchestors for ever) from the + and - we will take line and we will drive it to 2
RCA female (chassis) The one male RCA connected here goes to the charge the battery and
the other goes at the device where we will place a fake battery.

How long time does it take to recharge a rechargeable battery:

Formula for calculating batteries charging time:

hr = mAh / mA

“hours” equal “battery size in milliamp ere-hour” divided by “charger output power in mill
amperes”. (Need more information? The charge formula is explained in details with examples
further below.).
Charging rechargeable batteries:

Type into the calculator your rechargeable battery’s capacity number, normally can be
red on the battery body e.g. 1700 mAh (milli-ampere-hours). Then select the battery type/size
in the left column (NiMH – NiCd – AAA – AA – C – D – 9V (9 volt)) and in the right side
select a current output (electric power output) of your charger in mA (milli-amperes).

Type in a capacity number of one battery only without changing outcome as per
hours/mA a 1-4 batteries can be charged.

You can select and use a specific / special battery sizes at the bottom of the field and
then set a different current output from a battery charger, if needed, by choosing the 1mA
current and multiplying the outcome backwards – dividing in fact by the existing current
value at which your charging equipment operates.

Re-charging 9 volt rechargeable batteries:

Time control for charging of common 9V rechargeable batteries ( NiCd and NiMH 9
V batteries.) The timer takes longer because these can only be charged at much lower current
rate of 0.1C or 1/10C (mAhr/10 = charging time in hours) of their mAh capacity value.
Usually between 30 mA to 100 mA depending on the 9V battery capacity in mAh this is still
great to put up with considering that the 9 volts non rechargeable batteries cost arm and leg,
but they don’t have to.

Common abbreviations – symbols – prefix:

 nickel-metal hydride ( cell ) – NiMH

  nickel-cadmium battery ( cells ) – NiCd

 9 volts battery – 9V – 9 V

 mill ampere hour – milliamp hour – mAh – mAhr – mAhrs

 mill ampere – mA ( 1/1000 of ampere | 1 A = 1000 mA )

 ampere – A ( electric charge amount measure )

 battery current or capacity – C

 hour – h – hr

 hours – hrs

How do I calculate charging time for rechargeable battery manually?

Formula for manual calculation for battery recharging processes

AAA – AA – C – D sizes rechargeable batteries:
hours ( charging time ) equals to 12 x Ahr = hrs OR 12/1000 x mAh = hrs
( 12/1000 x mAh = hours of charging )
Example calculations with this manual formula; calculate charging time length for 2400 mAh
NiMH AA size 1.2v rechargeable batteries with 100 mA charger and secondly with a 3.5
times more powerful 350 mA current output power charger:

100mA battery charger:

12 : 1000 = 0.012
0.012 x 2400 = 28.8 (hrs)
It requires 28.8 hours ( 28 hours and 48 minutes ) to charge or recharge aa size 2400mAh
batteries with charger that has 100mA current output.

350mA battery charger:

12 : 1000 = 0.012
0.012 x 2400 = 28.8
28.8 : 3.5 = 8.2 (hrs)
It takes 8.2 hours ( 8 hours and 12 minutes ) time to charge or recharge 2400mAh batteries
with charger that has 350mA current output. Here is a second example of how long to charge
batteries but this time for charging 1800 mAh 1.2-volt NiMH aa type rechargeable batteries
and with the same current chargers:

100mA battery charger:

12 : 1000 = 0.012
0.012 x 1800 = 21.6 (hrs)

It takes 21.6 hours ( 21 hours and 36 minutes ) to charge or recharge aa size 1800mAh
batteries with charger that has 100mA current output.

350mA battery charger:

12 : 1000 = 0.012
0.012 x 1800 = 21.6
21.6 : 3.5 = 6.2 (hrs)
In total 6.2 hours ( 6 hours and 12 minutes ) is needed to charge or recharge 1800mAh
batteries with charger that has 350mA current output power.

9v (9 volt) rechargeable batteries:

hours equal to battery mAhr/10 ( mAh/10 = hrs )

Basics:

Battery charging time = capacity of the battery / charging current power output of the
charger. hr = mAh / mA.

Usage and applications:

Rechargeable batteries are used for automobile starters, portable consumer devices,
light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric
forklifts), tools, and uninterruptible power supplies. Emerging applications in hybrid electric
vehicles and electric vehicles are driving the technology to reduce cost and weight and
increase lifetime.
 Traditional rechargeable batteries have to be charged before their first use; newer low
self-discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many months, and are typically charged
at the factory to about 70% of their rated capacity before shipping.

Grid energy storage applications use rechargeable batteries for load leveling, where
they store electric energy for use during peak load periods, and for renewable energy uses,
such as storing power generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night.
By charging batteries during periods of low demand and returning energy to the grid during
periods of high electrical demand, load-leveling helps eliminate the need for expensive
peaking power plants and helps amortize the cost of generators over more hours of operation.

The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association has estimated that U.S.

demand for rechargeable batteries is growing twice as fast as demand for non rechargeable.

Wiper motor

The working principle of the wiper motor

Wiper Motor, the power source of the wiper blade, is the core of the whole wiper
system. Therefore, the quality of the wiper motor must be guaranteed to ensure its
performance. The wiper motor is a permanent-magnet direct current (DC) one. It is
equipped on the front windscreen glass with the mechanical parts of the worm gear. The
worm gear functions to slow down and increase torque. Its output shafts spur four-bar
linkage, by which the movement is changed from rotary to swinging.

Three-brush structure is adopted to make speed change more convenient. The

intermittent relay, by which the interval is controlled, utilizing the return of switch contacts
and the charge-discharge function of the resistor-capacitor in the relay, drives the wiper to
wipe in a certain cycle. The wiper blade tape, the tool to clean the rainwater and the filth on
the glass, presses the surface of the glass with springs. Only when the tip of the blade is in a
certain angle with the glass, can the required function be realized.

Generally speaking, there is a wiper control knob, with stalls of low speed, high speed
and intermission, on the handle of auto combination switch. The top of the handle is the key
switch, after pressing which water will erupt to wiper blade, of the scrubber. The scrubber
system, consisting of plastic water tank (1.5—2 liters), micro-electric centrifugal water
pump, pipes, spray nozzles, is very ordinary equipment in automobiles. Water in the tank is
supplied through the pump to 2—4 spray nozzles, by which it is extruded into trickles. Then
the trickles are sprayed onto the windshield glass, to clean the glass with the wiper blade. 

inside the Wipers

The wipers combine two mechanical technologies to perform their task:

 A combination electric motor and worm gear reduction provides power to the

wipers.
 A neat linkage converts the rotational output of the motor into the back-and-forth
motion of the wipers.

Motor and Gear Reduction

It takes a lot of force to accelerate the wiper blades back and forth across the windshield so
quickly. In order to generate this type of force, a worm gear is used on the output of a small
electric motor.

The worm gear reduction can multiply the torque of the motor by about 50 times, while
slowing the output speed of the electric motor by 50 times as well. The output of the gear
reduction operates a linkage that moves the wipers back and forth.

Inside the motor/gear assembly is an electronic circuit that senses when the wipers are in
their down position. The circuit maintains power to the wipers until they are parked at the
bottom of the windshield, then cuts the power to the motor. This circuit also parks the wipers
between wipes when they are on their intermittent setting.

This content is not compatible on this device.

Linkage

A short cam is attached to the output shaft of the gear reduction. This cam spins around as the
wiper motor turns. The cam is connected to a long rod; as the cam spins, it moves the rod
back and forth. The long rod is connected to a short rod that actuates the wiper blade on the
driver's side. Another long rod transmits the force from the driver-side to the passenger-side
wiper blade.

MECHANICALS

The mechanism on windshield wipers is as simple as could be. Inside that gearbox on the
motor is a simple worm gear, spinning a ring gear and bell crank that translate the motor's
circular motion to a linear one, back-and-forth. Simple joints attach the transmission arms to
the ¬wiper pivot shaft, which is fixed to the cowl by some sort of pillow block. Lack of
lubrication, ice buildup or simple corrosion takes its toll and can slow things down. A loose
joint will leave lost motion, which can cause the blades to either flop around or, worse yet,
catch each other and get tangled. The bad news: Sometimes it's difficult to access the area
under the cowl. Worse news: If you go to the trouble of buying an aftermarket service manual
in the hope that it will provide some guidance—any guidance—as to how to remove the
cowl, it probably won't. Cars are complicated enough that not every single thing that needs to
be taken apart can be fit into a bound book, and straightforward stuff like bodywork often
fails to make the cut. (Think about it: Is it ultimately more important to know the torque
values for the connecting-rod bolts or where all the screws to the cowl are hidden?)

Worm Gears
 Figure 8. Worm gear

Worm gears are used when large gear reductions are needed. It is common for worm gears
to have reductions of 20:1, and even up to 300:1 or greater.

Many worm gears have an interesting property that no other gear set has: the worm can easily
turn the gear, but the gear cannot turn the worm. This is because the angle on the worm is so
shallow that when the gear tries to spin it, the friction between the gear and the worm holds
the worm in place.

This feature is useful for machines such as conveyor systems, in which the locking feature
can act as a brake for the conveyor when the motor is not turning. One other very interesting
usage of worm gears is in the Torsen differential, which is used on some high-performance
cars and trucks.

Reduction Gear
A reduction gear is an arrangement by which an input speed can be lowered for a requirement
of slower output speed, with same or more output torque. Reduction gear assembly consists
of a set of rotating gears connected to a wheel work. The high speed incoming motion from
the wheel work is transmitted to the set of rotating gears, wherein the motion or torque is
changed. The number of gears used in the reduction gear assembly depends on the output
speed requirement of the application.The reduction gear assembly is usually known as
reduction gear box.
Why is a Reduction Gear Used?
To understand why a reduction gear is used in a particular machinery we will take an
example of a ship using high speed turbines. It is a basic requirement of a ship that in order to
have high efficiency the steam turbine should operate at a relatively high range of rpm.
However, the effective functioning of a propeller requires a relatively low rpm range. For this
reason, a reduction gear is used, which reduces the high speed motion of the steam turbine
into low rpm range required by the propeller.

Types of Reduction Gears

There are mainly two types of reduction gears:

 Single reduction gear

 Double reduction gear
Single Reduction gear
This arrangement consists of only one one pair of gears. The reduction gear box consists of
ports through which the propeller shaft and engine shaft enters the assembly. A small gear
known as a pinion is driven by the incoming engine shaft. The pinion directly drives a large
gear mounted on the propeller shaft. The speed is adjusted by making the ratio of the speed
reduction to the diameter of pinion and gear proportional. Generally, a single gear assembly
has a gear double the size of a pinion.
 Double Reduction gear
Double reduction gears are generally used in applications involving very high speeds. In this
arrangement the pinion is connected to the input shaft using a flexible coupling. The pinion is
connected to an intermediate gear known as the first reduction gear. The first reduction gear
is then connected to a low speed pinion with the help of one more shaft. This pinion is
connected to the second reduction gear mounted directly on the propeller shaft. Such
arrangement facilitates the reduction of speed to a ratio as high as 20:1.

What is reduction gear ratio?

Gear Reduction. ... The rotary machine's output torque is increased by multiplying the
torque by the gear ratio, less some efficiency losses. While in many applicationsgear
reduction reduces speed and increases torque, in other applications gear reduction is used to
increase speed and reduce torque.

How do you calculate gear ratio?

Two Gears

1. Start with a two-gear train. To be able to determine a gear ratio, you must have at
least two gears engaged with each other — this is called a "gear train." ...
2. Count the number of teeth on the drive gear. ...
3. Count the number of teeth on the driven gear. ...
4. Divide one teeth count by the other.

WHAT IS TORQUE?
Torque is a measure of how much a force acting on an object causes that object to rotate. The
object rotates about an axis, which we will call thepivot point, and will label 'O'. We will call
the force 'F'. The distance from the pivot point to the point where the force acts is called the
moment arm, and is denoted by 'r'. Note that this distance, 'r', is also a vector, and points from
the axis of rotation to the point where the force acts. (Refer to Figure 1 for a pictoral
representation of these definitions.)

Figure 1 Definitions

Torque is defined as

= r x F = r F sin ( ).

In other words, torque is the cross product between the distance vector (the distance from the
pivot point to the point where force is applied) and the force vector, 'a' being the angle
between r and F.

Using the right-hand rule, we can find the direction of the torque vector. If we put our
fingers in the direction of r, and curl them to the direction of F, then the thumb points in the
direction of the torque vector.

Imagine pushing a door to open it. The force of your push (F) causes the door to rotate about
its hinges (the pivot point, O). How hard you need to push depends on the distance you are
from the hinges (r) (and several other things, but let's ignore them now). The closer you are
to the hinges (i.e. the smaller r is), the harder it is to push. This is what happens when you try
to push open a door on the wrong side. The torque you created on the door is smaller than it
would have been had you pushed the correct side (away from its hinges).

Note that the force applied, F, and the moment arm, r, are independent of the object.
Furthermore, a force applied at the pivot point will cause no torque since the moment arm
would be zero (r = 0).
Another way of expressing the above equation is that torque is the product of the magnitude
of the force and the perpendicular distance from the force to the axis of rotation (i.e. the pivot
point).

Let the force acting on an object be broken up into its tangential (Ftan) and radial (Frad)
components (see Figure 2). (Note that the tangential component is perpendicular to the
moment arm, while the radial component is parallel to the moment arm.) The radial
component of the force has no contribution to the torque because it passes through the pivot
point. So, it is only the tangential component of the force which affects torque (since it is
perpendicular to the line between the point of action of the force and the pivot point).

Figure 2 Tangential and radial components of force F

There may be more than one force acting on an object, and each of these forces may act on
different point on the object. Then, each force will cause a torque. The net torque is the sum
of the individual torques.

Rotational Equilibrium is analogous to translational equilibrium, where the sum of the forces
is equal to zero. In rotational equilibrium, the sum of the torques is equal to zero. In
other words, there is no net torque on the object.

Note that the SI units of torque is a Newton-metre, which is also a way of expressing a

Joule (the unit for energy). However, torque is not energy. So, to avoid confusion, we will
use the units N.m, and not J. The distinction arises because energy is a scalar quanitity,
whereas torque is a vector.
Chain drive

Roller chain and sprocket

Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is often
used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly bicycles and motorcycles. It is
also used in a wide variety of machines besides vehicles.

Most often, the power is conveyed by a roller chain, known as the drive

chain or transmission chain,[1] passing over a sprocket gear, with the teeth of the gear
meshing with the holes in the links of the chain. The gear is turned, and this pulls the chain
putting mechanical force into the system. Another type of drive chain is the Morse chain,
invented by the Morse Chain Company of Ithaca, New York, United States. This has inverted
teeth.[2]

Sometimes the power is output by simply rotating the chain, which can be used to lift or drag
objects. In other situations, a second gear is placed and the power is recovered by attaching
shafts or hubs to this gear. Though drive chains are often simple oval loops, they can also go
around corners by placing more than two gears along the chain; gears that do not put power
into the system or transmit it out are generally known as idler-wheels. By varying the
diameter of the input and output gears with respect to each other, the gear ratio can be altered.
For example, when the bicycle pedals' gear rotates once, it causes the gear that drives the
wheels to rotate more than one revolution.

History
Oldest known illustration of an endless power-transmitting chain drive, from Su Song's book
of 1092 AD, describing his clock tower of Kaifeng

Sketch of roller chain by Leonardo da Vinci

The oldest known application of a chain drive appears in the Polybolos, a repeating

crossbow described by the Greek engineer Philon of Byzantium (3rd century BC). Two flat-
linked chains were connected to a windlass, which by winding back and forth would
automatically fire the machine's arrows until its magazine was empty.[3]

Although the device did not transmit power continuously since the chains "did not transmit
power from shaft to shaft, and hence they were not in the direct line of ancestry of the chain-
drive proper",[4] the Greek design marks the beginning of the history of the chain drive since
"no earlier instance of such a cam is known, and none as complex is known until the 16th
century."[3] It is here that the flat-link chain, often attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, actually
made its first appearance."[3]

The first continuous and endless power-transmitting chain was depicted in the
written horological treatise of the Song Dynasty (960–1279) Chinese engineer Su
Song (1020-1101 AD), who used it to operate the armillary sphere of his astronomical clock
tower as well as the clock jack figurines presenting the time of day by mechanically banging
gongs and drums.[5] The chain drive itself was given power via the hydraulic works of Su's
water clock tank and waterwheel, the latter which acted as a large gear.

Chains versus belts

Roller chain and sprockets is a very efficient method of power transmission compared to
(friction-drive) belts, with far less frictional loss.

Although chains can be made stronger than belts, their greater mass increases drive
train inertia.
Drive chains are most often made of metal, while belts are often rubber, plastic, urethane, or
other substances.

Drive belts can slip unless they have teeth, which means that the output side may not rotate at
a precise speed, and some work gets lost to the friction of the belt as it bends around the
pulleys. Wear on rubber or plastic belts and their teeth is often easier to observe, and chains
wear out faster than belts if not properly lubricated.

One problem with roller chains is the variation in speed, or surging, caused by the
acceleration and deceleration of the chain as it goes around the sprocket link by link. It starts
as soon as the pitch line of the chain contacts the first tooth of the sprocket. This contact
occurs at a point below the pitch circle of the sprocket. As the sprocket rotates, the chain is
raised up to the pitch circle and is then dropped down again as sprocket rotation continues.
Because of the fixed pitch length, the pitch line of the link cuts across the chord between two
pitch points on the sprocket, remaining in this position relative to the sprocket until the link
exits the sprocket. This rising and falling of the pitch line is what causes chordal effect or
speed variation.[6]

In other words, conventional roller chain drives suffer the potential for vibration, as the
effective radius of action in a chain and sprocket combination constantly changes during
revolution ("Chordal action"). If the chain moves at constant speed, then the shafts must
accelerate and decelerate constantly. If one sprocket rotates at a constant speed, then the
chain (and probably all other sprockets that it drives) must accelerate and decelerate
constantly. This is usually not an issue with many drive systems; however, most motorcycles
are fitted with a rubber bushed rear wheel hub to virtually eliminate this vibration issue.
Toothed belt drives are designed to avoid this issue by operating at a constant pitch radius.

Chains are often narrower than belts, and this can make it easier to shift them to larger or
smaller gears in order to vary the gear ratio. Multi-speed bicycles with derailleurs make use
of this. Also, the more positive meshing of a chain can make it easier to build gears that can
increase or shrink in diameter, again altering the gear ratio. However, some newer
synchronous belts have "equivalent capacity to roller chain drives in the same width". [7] In
other words, a toothed belt as wide as a chain drive can transmit the same, or even slightly
higher, amount of power.

Both can be used to move objects by attaching pockets, buckets, or frames to them; chains are
often used to move things vertically by holding them in frames, as in industrial toasters, while
belts are good at moving things horizontally in the form of conveyor belts. It is not unusual
for the systems to be used in combination; for example the rollers that drive conveyor belts
are themselves often driven by drive chains.

Drive shafts are another common method used to move mechanical power around that is
sometimes evaluated in comparison to chain drive; in particular belt drive vs chain drive vs
shaft drive is a key design decision for most motorcycles. Drive shafts tend to be tougher and
more reliable than chain drive, but the bevel gears have far more friction than a chain. For
this reason virtually all high-performance motorcycles use chain drive, with shaft-driven
arrangements generally used for non-sporting machines. Toothed-belt drives are used for
some (non-sporting) models.

Use in vehicles

Bicycles

Chain drive was the main feature which differentiated the safety bicycle introduced in 1885,
with its two equal-sized wheels, from the direct-drive penny-farthing or "high wheeler" type
of bicycle. The popularity of the chain-driven safety bicycle brought about the demise of the
penny-farthing, and is still a basic feature of bicycle design today.

Automobiles

Transmitting power to the wheels

Chain final drive, 1912 illustration

Mack AC delivery truck at the Petersen Automotive Museum with chain drive visible

 Austin 1906 plan view

Austin 1906 elevation

French Gladiator car, 1902, with chain drive

Chain drive was a popular power transmission system from the earliest days of
the automobile. It gained prominence as an alternative to the Système Panhard with its
rigid Hotchkiss driveshaft and universal joints.

A chain-drive system uses one or more roller chains to transmit power from a differential to
the rear axle. This system allowed for a great deal of vertical axle movement (for example,
over bumps), and was simpler to design and build than a rigid driveshaft in a workable
suspension. Also, it had less unsprung weight at the rear wheels than the Hotchkiss drive,
which would have had the weight of the driveshaft and differential to carry as well. This
meant that the vehicle would have a smoother ride. The lighter unsprung mass would allow
the suspension to react to bumps more effectively.

Frazer Nash were strong proponents of this system using one chain per gear selected by dog
clutches. The Frazer Nash chain drive system, (designed for the GN Cyclecar
Company by Archibald Frazer-Nash and Henry Ronald Godfrey) was very effective,
allowing extremely fast gear selections. The Frazer Nash (or GN) transmission system
provided the basis for many "special" racing cars of the 1920s and 1930s, the most famous
being Basil Davenport's Spider which held the outright record at the Shelsley Walsh Speed
Hill Climb in the 1920s.

The last popular chain drive automobile was the Honda S600 of the 1960s.

In engines

Internal combustion engines often use a timing chain to drive the camshaft(s). This is an area
in which chain drives frequently compete directly with timing belt drive systems, particularly
when the engine has one or more overhead camshafts, and provides an excellent example of
some of the differences and similarities between the two approaches. For this application,
chains last longer, but are often harder to replace, as they must be enclosed in a space into
which lubricating oil can be introduced. Being heavier, the chain robs more power,
[dubious  –  discuss]
 but is also less likely to fail. The camshaft of a four stroke engine rotates at half
crankshaft speed, so the camshaft sprocket has twice as many teeth as the crankshaft
sprocket. Less common alternatives to timing chain drives include spur gears or bevel
gears combined with a shaft.

Transfer cases

'Silent chain' drives inside a 1912 gearbox

Today, inverted tooth drive chains are commonly used in passenger car and light
truck transfer cases.

Motorcycles

Chain drive versus belt drive or use of a driveshaft is a fundamental design decision in
motorcycle design; nearly all motorcycles use one of these three designs. See Motorcycle
construction § Final drive for more details.
Sprocket

16 tooth sprocket. Do = Sprocket diameter.

Dp = Pitch diameter

A sprocket or sprocket-wheel is a profiled wheel with teeth, cogs,[3] or even sprockets[4] that

mesh with a chain, track or other perforated or indented material.[5][6] The name 'sprocket'
applies generally to any wheel upon which radial projections engage a chain passing over it.
It is distinguished from a gear in that sprockets are never meshed together directly, and
differs from a pulley in that sprockets have teeth and pulleys are smooth.

Sprockets are used in bicycles, motorcycles, cars, tracked vehicles, and

other machinery either to transmit rotary motion between two shafts where gears are
unsuitable or to impart linear motion to a track, tape etc. Perhaps the most common form of
sprocket may be found in the bicycle, in which the pedal shaft carries a large sprocket-wheel,
which drives a chain, which, in turn, drives a small sprocket on the axle of the rear wheel .
Early automobiles were also largely driven by sprocket and chain mechanism, a practice
largely copied from bicycles.

Sprockets are of various designs, a maximum of efficiency being claimed for each by its
originator. Sprockets typically do not have a flange. Some sprockets used with timing
belts have flanges to keep the timing belt centered. Sprockets and chains are also used for
power transmission from one shaft to another where slippage is not admissible, sprocket
chains being used instead of belts or ropes and sprocket-wheels instead of pulleys. They can
be run at high speed and some forms of chain are so constructed as to be noiseless even at
high speed.
Transportation

In the case of bicycle chains, it is possible to modify the overall gear ratio of the chain drive
by varying the diameter (and therefore, the tooth count) of the sprockets on each side of
the chain. This is the basis of derailleur gears. A multi-speed bicycle, by providing two or
three different-sized driving sprockets and up to 11 (as of 2014) different-sized driven
sprockets, allows up to 33 different gear ratios. The resulting lower gear ratios make the bike
easier to pedal up hills while the higher gear ratios make the bike more powerful to pedal on
flats and downhills. In a similar way, manually changing the sprockets on a motorcycle can
change the characteristics of acceleration and top speed by modifying the final drive gear
ratio.

Tracked vehicles

Tread drive sprocket of the Leclerc main battle tank (2006).

In the case of vehicles with caterpillar tracks the engine-driven toothed-wheel transmitting

motion to the tracks is known as the drive sprocket and may be positioned at the front or back
of the vehicle, or in some cases both. There may also be a third sprocket, elevated, driving the
track.
Film and paper

Moving picture mechanism from 1914. The sprocket wheels a, b, and c engage and transport
the film. a and b move with uniform velocity and c indexes each frame of the film into place
for projection.

Sprockets are used in the film transport mechanisms of movie projectors and movie cameras.
[7]
 In this case, the sprocket wheels engage film perforations in the film stock. Sprocket feed
was also used for punched tape and is used for paper feed to some computer printers.

Rack and pinion

A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a pair of gears which convert
rotational motion into linear motion. A circular gear called "the pinion" engages teeth on a
linear "gear" bar called "the rack"; rotational motion applied to the pinion causes the rack to
move relative to the pinion, thereby translating the rotational motion of the pinion into linear
motion.
For example, in a rack railway, the rotation of a pinion mounted on a locomotive or
a railcar engages a rack between the rails and forces a train up a steep slope.

For every pair of conjugate involute profile, there is a basic rack. This basic rack is the profile
of the conjugate gear of infinite pitch radius.[1] (I.e. a toothed straight edge.)

A generating rack is a rack outline used to indicate tooth details and dimensions for the
design of a generating tool, such as a hob or a gear shaper cutter.[1]

Applications[edit]

Lock gate controls on a canal

Rack and pinion combinations are often used as part of a simple linear actuator, where the
rotation of a shaft powered by hand or by a motor is converted to linear motion.

The rack carries the full load of the actuator directly and so the driving pinion is usually
small, so that the gear ratio reduces the torque required. This force, thus torque, may still be
substantial and so it is common for there to be a reduction gear immediately before this by
either a gear or worm gear reduction. Rack gears have a higher ratio, thus require a greater
driving torque, than screw actuators.

Welding
Arc welding
 Gas metal arc welding

Man welding a metal structure in a newly constructed house in Bengaluru, India

Arc welding is a process that is used to join metal to metal by using electricity to create
enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals when cool result in a binding of the metals.
It is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an
electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use
either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes.
The welding region is usually protected by some type of shielding gas, vapor, or slag. Arc
welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automated. First developed in the
late part of the 19th century, arc welding became commercially important in shipbuilding
during the Second World War. Today it remains an important process for the fabrication of
steel structures and vehicles.

Power supplies
 Engine driven welder capable of AC/DC welding.

A diesel powered welding generator (the electric generator is on the left) as used
in Indonesia.

To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different
power supplies can be used. The most common classification is constant current power
supplies and constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the voltage is directly related to
the length of the arc, and the current is related to the amount of heat input. Constant current
power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc
welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they maintain a relatively constant current
even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to
hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to
fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and
as a result, are most often used for automated welding processes such as gas metal arc
welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is
kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance between the wire and the base material is
quickly rectified by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material
get too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and
the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance.[1]

The direction of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding.
Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc
welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or
negatively. In welding, the positively charged anode will have a greater heat concentration
(around 60%)[2] and, as a result, changing the polarity of the electrode affects weld properties.
If the electrode is positively charged, it will melt more quickly, increasing weld penetration
and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged electrode results in more shallow
welds.[3] Non-consumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use
either type of direct current (DC), as well as alternating current (AC). With direct current
however, because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a
positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode
makes deeper welds.[4] Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in
medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited
after every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that
produce a square wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave, eliminating low-voltage time
after the zero crossings and minimizing the effects of the problem.[5]

Duty cycle is a welding equipment specification which defines the number of minutes, within
a 10-minute period, during which a given arc welder can safely be used. For example, an
80 A welder with a 60% duty cycle must be "rested" for at least 4 minutes after 6 minutes of
continuous welding.[6] Failure to observe duty cycle limitations could damage the welder.
Commercial- or professional-grade welders typically have a 100% duty cycle.

Consumable electrode methods

 Shielded metal arc welding

One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), which
is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or stick welding. An electric current is
used to strike an arc between the base material and a consumable electrode rod or stick. The
electrode rod is made of a material that is compatible with the base material being welded and
is covered with a flux that gives off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and provide a layer of
slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination. The electrode core
itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary. The process is very
versatile, requiring little operator training and inexpensive equipment. However, weld times
are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because
slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding.[7] Furthermore, the
process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials, though specialty electrodes have
made possible the welding of cast iron, nickel, aluminium, copper and other metals. The
versatility of the method makes it popular in a number of applications including repair work
and construction.[8]

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), commonly called MIG (for metal/inert-gas), is a semi-

automatic or automatic welding process with a continuously fed consumable wire acting as
both electrode and filler metal, along with an inert or semi-inert shielding gas flowed around
the wire to protect the weld site from contamination. Constant voltage, direct current power
source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current alternating current are used
as well. With continuously fed filler electrodes, GMAW offers relatively high welding
speeds; however the more complicated equipment reduces convenience and versatility in
comparison to the SMAW process. Originally developed for welding aluminium and other
non-ferrous materials in the 1940s, GMAW was soon economically applied to steels. Today,
GMAW is commonly used in industries such as the automobile industry for its quality,
versatility and speed. Because of the need to maintain a stable shroud of shielding gas around
the weld site, it can be problematic to use the GMAW process in areas of high air movement
such as outdoors.[9]

Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) is a variation of the GMAW technique. FCAW wire is

actually a fine metal tube filled with powdered flux materials. An externally supplied
shielding gas is sometimes used, but often the flux itself is relied upon to generate the
necessary protection from the atmosphere. The process is widely used in construction
because of its high welding speed and portability.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding process in which the arc is

struck beneath a covering layer of granular flux. This increases arc quality, since
contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld
generally comes off by itself and, combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld
deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding
processes since the flux hides the arc and no smoke is produced. The process is commonly
used in industry, especially for large products. [10] As the arc is not visible, it is typically
automated. SAW is only possible in the 1F (flat fillet), 2F (horizontal fillet), and 1G (flat
groove) positions.

Non-consumable electrode methods

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten/inert-gas (TIG) welding, is a manual welding

process that uses a non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, an inert or semi-inert gas
mixture, and a separate filler material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this
method is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant
operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds. It can be used on nearly
all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is
often used when quality welds are extremely important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and naval
applications.[11]

A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to
make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control
more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of
its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can
the GTAW process and is much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as
GTAW except magnesium; automated welding of stainless steel is one important application
of the process. A variation of the process is plasma cutting, an efficient steel cutting process.
[12]

Other arc welding processes include atomic hydrogen welding, carbon arc

welding, electroslag welding, electrogas welding, and stud arc welding.

Corrosion issues

Some materials, notably high-strength steels, aluminium, and titanium alloys, are susceptible
to hydrogen embrittlement. If the electrodes used for welding contain traces of moisture, the
water decomposes in the heat of the arc and the liberated hydrogen enters the lattice of the
material, causing its brittleness. Stick electrodes for such materials, with special low-
hydrogen coating, are delivered in sealed moisture-proof packaging. New electrodes can be
used straight from the can, but when moisture absorption may be suspected, they have to be
dried by baking (usually at 450 to 550 °C or 840 to 1,020 °F) in a drying oven. Flux used has
to be kept dry as well.[13]

Some austenitic stainless steels and nickel-based alloys are prone to intergranular corrosion.

When subjected to temperatures around 700 °C (1,300 °F) for too long a
time, chromium reacts with carbon in the material, forming chromium carbide and depleting
the crystal edges of chromium, impairing their corrosion resistance in a process
called sensitization. Such sensitized steel undergoes corrosion in the areas near the welds
where the temperature-time was favorable for forming the carbide. This kind of corrosion is
often termed weld decay.

Knifeline attack (KLA) is another kind of corrosion affecting welds, impacting steels

stabilized by niobium. Niobium and niobium carbide dissolves in steel at very high
temperatures. At some cooling regimes, niobium carbide does not precipitate, and the steel
then behaves like unstabilized steel, forming chromium carbide instead. This affects only a
thin zone several millimeters wide in the very vicinity of the weld, making it difficult to spot
and increasing the corrosion speed. Structures made of such steels have to be heated in a
whole to about 1,000 °C (1,830 °F), when the chromium carbide dissolves and niobium
carbide forms. The cooling rate after this treatment is not important.[14]

Filler metal (electrode material) improperly chosen for the environmental conditions can
make them corrosion-sensitive as well. There are also issues of galvanic corrosion if the
electrode composition is sufficiently dissimilar to the materials welded, or the materials are
dissimilar themselves. Even between different grades of nickel-based stainless steels,
corrosion of welded joints can be severe, despite that they rarely undergo galvanic corrosion
when mechanically joined.[15]

Safety issues

Welding safety checklist

Welding can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice without the proper precautions; however,
with the use of new technology and proper protection the risks of injury or death associated
with welding can be greatly reduced.

Heat, fire, and explosion hazard

Because many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of
burns from heat and sparks is significant. To prevent them, welders wear protective
clothing in the form of heavy leather gloves and protective long sleeve jackets to avoid
exposure to extreme heat, flames, and sparks. The use of compressed gases and flames in
many welding processes also pose an explosion and fire risk; some common precautions
include limiting the amount of oxygen in the air and keeping combustible materials away
from the workplace.[16]

Eye damage
 Auto darkening welding hood with 90×110 mm cartridge and 3.78×1.85 in viewing area

Exposure to the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye in
which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the
eyes. Welding goggles and helmets with dark face plates—much darker than those
in sunglasses or oxy-fuel goggles—are worn to prevent this exposure. In recent years, new
helmet models have been produced featuring a face plate which automatically self-darkens
electronically.[17] To protect bystanders, transparent welding curtains often surround the
welding area. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers
from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc.[18]

Inhaled matter

Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. Processes like flux-
cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce smoke containing particles of
various types of oxides. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of
the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, many processes
produce various gases (most commonly carbon dioxide and ozone, but others as well) that
can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate.

Interference with pacemakers

Certain welding machines which use a high frequency alternating current component have
been found to affect pacemaker operation when within 2 meters of the power unit and 1 meter
of the weld site.[19]

History
 Nikolay Benardos

While examples of forge welding go back to the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, arc welding
did not come into practice until much later.

In 1800 Sir Humphry Davy discovered the short pulsed electric arcs.[20][21] Independently a

Russian physicist Vasily Petrov discovered the continuous electric arc in 1802[21][22][23][24] and
subsequently proposed its possible practical applications, including welding. [25] Arc welding
was first developed when Nikolai Benardos presented arc welding of metals using a carbon
electrode at the International Exposition of Electricity, Paris in 1881, which was patented
together with Stanisław Olszewski in 1887.[26] In the same year, French electrical
inventor Auguste de Méritens also invented a carbon arc welding method, patented in 1881,
which was successfully used for welding lead in the manufacture of lead-acid batteries.
[27]
 The advances in arc welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in the late
19th century by a Russian, Nikolai Slavyanov (1888), and an American, C. L. Coffin. Around
1900, A. P. Strohmenger released in Britain a coated metal electrode which gave a more
stable arc. In 1905 Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed the usage of three-phase
electric arc for welding. In 1919, alternating current welding was invented by C.J. Holslag
but did not become popular for another decade.[28]

Competing welding processes such as resistance welding and oxyfuel welding were

developed during this time as well; [29] but both, especially the latter, faced stiff competition
from arc welding especially after metal coverings (known as flux) for the electrode, to
stabilize the arc and shield the base material from impurities, continued to be developed.[30]
 A young woman arc welding in a munitions factory in Australia in 1943.

During World War I welding started to be used in shipbuilding in Great Britain in place

of riveted steel plates. The Americans also became more accepting of the new technology
when the process allowed them to repair their ships quickly after a German attack in the New
York Harbor at the beginning of the war.[31] Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during
the war as well, and some German airplane fuselages were constructed using this process.
[32]
 In 1919, the British shipbuilder Cammell Laird started construction of a merchant ship, the
"Fullagar", with an entirely welded hull;[33] she was launched in 1921.[34]

During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology, including the 1920
introduction of automatic welding in which electrode wire was continuously fed. Shielding
gas became a subject receiving much attention as scientists attempted to protect welds from
the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the
primary problems and the solutions that developed included the use of hydrogen, argon,
and helium as welding atmospheres.[35] During the following decade, further advances
allowed for the welding of reactive metals such as aluminum and magnesium. This, in
conjunction with developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a
major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then during World War II.[36]

During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. Submerged arc
welding was invented in 1930 and continues to be popular today. In 1932 a
Russian, Konstantin Khrenov successfully implemented the first underwater electric arc
welding. Gas tungsten arc welding, after decades of development, was finally perfected in
1941 and gas metal arc welding followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-
ferrous materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Using a consumable electrode and
a carbon dioxide atmosphere as a shielding gas, it quickly became the most popular metal arc
welding process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted in which the self-
shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly
increased welding speeds. In that same year, plasma arc welding was invented. Electroslag
welding was released in 1958 and was followed by its cousin, electrogas welding, in 1961.[37]
 Chapter 3

advantages and disadvantages

Conclusion

The drain waste water cleaner machine is designed and manufactured by using gear changing
and shaft coupling principle. It consist mainly DC geared motor, shafts, waste removal plates,
dust bin, bearings, sprocket and chains.Construction materials are easily available,creates
employment( construction and maintainence),simple to construct.