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GATE - NOTES - LINEAR ALGEBRA

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R.Dhanaraj

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May 3, 2020

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1 Determinants

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A square array of elements that represents the sum of certain products of

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these elements. The order of the determinant is defined by the number of
rows or columns. Determinant of third order is

a1 a2 a3 

 b1 b2 b3 


Ci
 
 c1 c2 c3 
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The value of the determinant is defined through the combination of three

second order deteminants as shown here:
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b2 b3  b1 b3  b1 b2 
 − a2 
a1  c1 c3  + a3 c1 c2  = a1 (b2 c3 − b3 c2 ) − a2 (b1 c3 − b3 c1 ) + a3 (b1 c2 − b2 c1 )
  
c2 c3 
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The value of the determinant of order n is the sum of the values of n deter-
minants of order (n − 1).
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1.1 Properties of Determinants

1. The value of the determinant is not altered when rows are changed as
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columns and columns are made as rows.

2. If any two rows or columns are interchanged, there is change in sign

of the determinant value.
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3. If the corresponding elements in a row or column depend on each other

then the value of the determinant is zero.

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 4. If every element of a row or a column is multiplied by a number c, then

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the value of the new determinant is c times the value of the original

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determinant.

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5. If every element in a row or column is expressed as sum of two quanti-
ties, then the determinant can be expressed as sum of two determinants
of same order.

n
     
a1 + α a2 + β a3 + γ  a1 a2 a3  α β γ 

io
     
 b1 b2 b3
 =  b1 b2 b3  + b1 b2 b3 
     

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 c1 c2 c3   c1 c2 c3  c1 c2 c3 

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6. The value of the determinant is not altered when elements in a row
(column) are added by constant multiples of corresponding elements

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of any number of rows (columns).
     
a1 + k b1 a2 + k b2 a3 + k b3  a1 a2 a3 
Ci b1 b2 b3 
     

 b1 b2 b3  =  b1 b2 b3  + k b1 b2 b3 
    
 c1 c2 c3   c1 c2 c3  c1 c2 c3 
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The second term determinant value is zero and hence the value of the
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given determinant remains same.

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7. The sum of the products of the elements in any row (column) and the
co factors of the corresponding elements of any other row (column) is
zero.
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8. The determinant is zero, if all the elements in any row (column) are
zero.
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9. Product of determinants. The product of two determinants is as fol-

lows:
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a1 a2 a3  α1 α2 α3  a1 α1 + a2 α2 + a3 α3 a1 β1 + a2 β2 + a3 β3 a1 γ1 + a2 γ2 + a3 γ3 
  
 b1 b2 b3 × β1 β2 β3  =  b1 α1 + b2 α2 + b3 α3 b1 β1 + b2 β2 + b3 β3 b1 γ1 + b2 γ2 + b3 γ3 
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 c1 c2 c3   γ1 γ2 γ3   c1 α1 + c2 α2 + c3 α3 c1 β1 + c2 β2 + c3 β3 c1 γ1 + c2 γ2 + c3 γ3 

10. A determinant is symmetric if aij = aji .

11. The determinant is skew symmetric if aij = − aji . Hence the main
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diagonal elements will be zero.

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 12. Solution to set of linear,algebraic simultaneous equations can be ob-

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tained by using determinants. Consider the following equations.

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a1 x + a2 y + a3 z = α1

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b1 x + b2 y + b3 z = α2
c1 x + c2 y + c3 z = α3

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The values of the unknowns x,y and z are obtained as

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∆1 ∆2 ∆3
x = y = z = where
∆ ∆ ∆

at
   
a1 a2 a3  α1 a2 a3 
 
∆ =  b1 b2 b3  ∆1 = α2 b2 b3 

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 c1 c2 c3  α3 c2 c3 

rc
   
a1 α1 a3  a1 a2 α1 
 
∆2 =  b1 α2 b3  ∆3 =  b1 b2 α2 
 c1 α3 c3 
The above is known as Cramer’s rule.
Ci  c1 c2 α3 

13. The system of equations has Unique Solution when ∆ 6= 0 and they
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are referred as Consistent Equations. If ∆ = 0, the given set of
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equations may or may not have solution and is known as Inconsistent

Equations.
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2 Matrix Algebra
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The basics of matrices were first proposed by the French Mathematician,

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Cayley, in 1857 and since then it has become powerful tool not only in
mathematics but also widely used in solving varieties engineering problems.
A set of numbers, pq, arranged in an array form containing p rows and
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q columns is known as matrix. Any element in the rectangular array is

identified by using two subscripts, the first one indicating row number and
the second represents column number. Consider an array A as shown here:
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a11 a12 a13 · · · a1q

 
 
 
 a21 a22 a23 · · · a2q 
 
[A]p×q =  
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 
 · · · ··· ··· 
 
 
ap1 ap2 ap3 · · · apq

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 The following points bring out the difference between determinant and ma-

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trix.

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• The matrix represents arrangement of numbers in a rectangular form

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or row form, (containing only one row) or in column form (having one
column only). The determinant is always in square form.

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• The determinant is a symbolic representation of a homogeneous poly-
nomial defined from its elements or a single number. On the other hand

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matrix represents a set of numbers in rectangular or square form.

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2.1 Different Forms of Matrix

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1. Row Matrix. It is the arrangement of numbers in one row and num-
ber of columns is equal to the number of values.

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{A}1×q = a11 a12 a13 · · · a1q
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2. Column Matrix. It is the arrangement of numbers in one column
and number of rows is equal to the number of values.
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 

 a11 

 a21 

 

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{A}p×1 = ·
 · 

 
 

ap1
 
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Column matrix and row matrix are normally referred as vector.

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3. Square Matrix. If the number of rows and columns are equal then
it is referred as square matrix. A square matrix whose elements, other
than the main/principal/leading diagonal (row index and column in-
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dex are same), are zero values is known as Diagonal Matrix. In the
diagonal matrix, if the values of the main diagonal are same then it
is known as Scalar Matrix. If the values of elements in the main
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daigonal are equal to 1 then it is known as Identity or Unit Matrix

and is denoted by I.

4. Triangular Matrix. The square matrix, in which the values of the

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elements above the main diagonal are zero, is known as Lower Tri-
angular Matrix. In case the elements below the main diagonal are
zero, then it is referred as Upper Triangular Matrix.

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 5. Symmetric Matrix. A square matrix is said to be symmetry if

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aij = aji

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6. Skew-Symmetric Matrix. A square matrix is said to be skew-

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symmetry if aij = − aji . Therefore main diagonal elements will
be zero.

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7. Singular Matrix. If the determinant value of a square matrix is
zero, then it is known as singular matrix.Otherwise it is referred as

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Non-singular Matrix.

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2.2 Operation of Matrices

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The requirements for carrying out algebraic operations on matrices are de-
scribed in the following.

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1. Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if the number of rows and
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columns of the two matrices and every element one matrix is same as
the corresponding element in the other matrix.
2. Addition/Subtraction of Matrices. The matrix addition/subtraction
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can be performed only when the size of the two given matrices are
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same. The resulting matrix is defined by the sum/difference of the

corresponding elements in the two matrices.
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3. Multiplication of a Matrix with a Scalar. Consider a matrix P

of size p × q and m as a scalar, a number. Then cP is defined by
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multiplying every element in the matrix by the specified scalar m.

4. Laws of Matrix Operations. Consider the addition of two matrices
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P and Q.
P +Q = Q+P Commutative Law. This is not valid for subtraction
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Consider addition of three matrices P, Q and R.

(P + Q) + R = P + (Q + R) Associative Law. This is not valid for subtraction
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Consider two matrices P and Q and a scalar m.

m (P + Q) = m P + m Q Distributive Law.
Also it is to be noted from the above laws that, the following algebraic
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relations are also valid.

4P = P +P +P +P or 4P = 2P +2P 4P = 6P −2P

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 5. Positive Power of a Matrix. If P is a square matrix, P n is defined

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by multiplying P by itself n-1 times. The resulting matrix is a square

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matrix order of which is same as that of P.
6. A square matrix P is known as idempotent if P = P 2 .

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 
1 −2 1

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 
 
 −1 2 −1  is an idempotent matrix

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 
 
−2 4 −2

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7. A square matrix P is known as nilpotent if P n = 0 and order is n.

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 
2 −1
is a nilpotent matrix of order 2

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 
4 −2

(P + Q)2 =
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8. Consider two square matrices P and Q. Then
P 2 + P Q + Q P + Q2
(P − Q)2 = P 2 − P Q − Q P + Q2
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P 2 − P Q + Q P − Q2
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(P + Q) (P − Q) =
If P Q = Q P then
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(P + Q)2 = P 2 + 2 P Q + Q2
(P − Q)2 = P 2 − 2 P Q + Q2
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(P + Q) (P − Q) = P 2 − Q2

9. Transpose of a Matrix. The operation of interchanging the rows

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and columns of a given matrix Pp×q is known as transpose of P and

t . If P is a square symmetric matrix then P t = P .
is denoted by Pq×p
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If P is a square skew-symmetric matrix then P t = − P . Any

square matrix can be defined as sum of a symmetric matrix and skew
symmetric matrix.
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P + Pt P − Pt P + Pt P − Pt
P = + = Q+R Q = R =
2 2 2 2
It can be seen that
Q = Qt Rt = − R
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Hence a square matrix can expressed as sum a symmetric ans skew-

symmetric matrices.

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 10. Transpose of Product Form. The transpose of the product of two

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matrices is the product of transposed matrices taken in the reverse

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order. Consider matrices Pp×q and Qq×p . Then

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(Pp×q Qq×p )t = Qt p×q P t q×p

11. Inverse of Matrix. For a square matrix P, another square matrix

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Q can be found such that P Q = Q P = I. Then Q is the inverse of

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P.

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• Inverse exists only for non-singular matrix.
• If inverse of a matrix can be defined, it is unique.

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• The inverse of the inverse of a non-singular matrix is the matrix
itself.

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• Transpose of the inverse of a
matrix is the inverse of the trans-

t −1
posed matrix. P −1 = P t Ci
• The inverse of product of two matrices is the product of inverse
of individual matrices taken in the reverse order.
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12. Orthogonal Matrix. Consider a square matrix P.
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If P P t = P tP = I
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then P is an orthogonal matrix. Also P −1 = P t .

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13. Rank of Matrix. Consider a matrix P of order p×q. From the given
matrix select r number of any rows and same number of columns. The
rank is defined as r for which the determinant value is not zero. Of all
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the possible combinations of r number of rows and columns, the rank

is r, if for at least one combination the determinant is not zero. Also
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for all combinations of r + 1 rows and columns the determination

value will be zero.
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Another Definition. The highest order of the nonzero determinant

that may be formed from the given matrix by selecting arbitrarily r
number of rows and columns.
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14. Determining the rank through the evaluation of all possible square
sub-matrices will be difficult one in case the given matrix order is

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 high. This can be reduced by transforming the given matrix using

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elementary transformation to a form in which the number of non-zero

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rows is the rank of matrix.

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15. Transform the given matrix into a triangular form and the product of

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the main diagonal elements gives the determinant value.

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16. The rank of a rectangular matrix of size m × n can be at the most
least of m and n.

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17. Interchanging two its rows or columns will not change the rank of the

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matrix.

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18. Multiplying the elements of a row or column will not change the rank
of the matrix.
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19. The rank remains same when elements of one row (or column) are
added to the corresponding elements of another row ( or column).
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3 System of Linear Non-Homogeneous Equations
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Consider the following system of equations and its matrix form:

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a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + a14 x4 = b1

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a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + a24 x4 = b2

a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + a34 x4 = b3
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a41 x1 + a42 x2 + a43 x3 + a44 x4 = b4

[A]4×4 {X}4×1 = {B}4×1
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The coefficient matrix [A] is augmented by including the right side constants
vector {B} as an additional column and the augmented matrix [AB] is
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 
a11 a12 a13 a14 b1
 
 
 a21 a22 a23 a24 b2 
 
[A]4×5 =  


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 a31 a32 a33 a34 b3 

 
 
a41 a42 a43 a44 b4 4×5

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 1. If the rank of [A] and that of [AB] are same and the rank is equal

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to number of unknowns then the system of equations is said to be

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Consistent and its Solution is Unique

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2. The system of equations will have infinite number of solutions when
the ranks of [A] and [AB] are same and the rank is less than the
number of unknowns.

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3. There is no solution defined when the ranks of [A] and [AB] are not

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same. The system of equations is said to be Inconsistent.

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4 System of Linear Homogeneous Equations

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Consider the following system of equations and its matrix form:

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a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + a14 x4 = 0
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a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + a24 x4 = 0
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + a34 x4 = 0
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a41 x1 + a42 x2 + a43 x3 + a44 x4 = 0
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[A]4×4 {X}4×1 = {0}4×1

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1. If the coefficient matrix is non-singular, the equations are said to be

consistent and the solution is unique, as the ranks of [A] and the
augmented matrix are same. The unique solution is x1 = x2 =
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x3 = x4 = 0 and this is known as Trivial Solution

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2. In case the coefficient matrix is singular it has Non-Trivial Solution

and infinite number of solutions are defined.
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5 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors

A set of linear, non-homogeneous equations can be considered as transfor-
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mation of one vector to another vector. This can be understood with respect
to the following set of equations.

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + a14 x4 = y1

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a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + a24 x4 = y2

a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + a34 x4 = y3

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 a41 x1 + a42 x2 + a43 x3 + a44 x4 = y4

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[A]4×4 {X}4×1 = {Y }4×1

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The above set of equation represents the transformation of vector variables

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{x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 } into another vector containing variables{y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 } Hence
the matrix[A] defines the linear transformation. In practical applications
some vectors will be transformed into a scalar multiple of same vector. That

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is the vector {X} becomes λ {X} and hence the transformation expression

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can be written as

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[A]4×4 {X}4×1 = {Y }4×1 = λ {X}

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The above equation can be simplified further as given here:

[A] {X} − λ [I] {X} = ([A] − λ [I]) {X} = 0

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where [I] is the identity matrix order of which is same as that of [A].
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(a11 − λ) x1 + a12 x2 + · · · · · · + a1n xn = 0
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a21 x1 + (a22 − λ) x2 + · · · · · · + a2n xn = 0
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··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···
··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···
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an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · · · · + (ann − λ) xn = 0

The above equations will be satisfied if x1 = x2 = · · · · · · = xn = 0
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and it is referred as trivial solution. For non-trivial solution

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|[A] − λ [I]| = 0

For the case of four variables

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a11 − λ a12 a13 a14 

 a21 a22 − λ a23 a24 
 = 0
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 a31
 a32 a33 − λ a34 
 a41 a42 a43 a44 − λ

The above equation is known as characteristic equation. It will be poly-

nomial equation in λ and its order will be n for the case of n variables. The
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roots of the characteristic equation are known as characteristic roots,

latent roots or eigen values of the [A]. Corresponding to these eigen
values, the vector of unknowns {X} can be determined and they are known

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 as eigen vector or latent vector. Since the set of equation is homoge-

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neous form

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([A] − λ [I]) {X} = 0

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If {X} is the eigen vector corresponding to one eigen value, then c {X},
where c is a constant, will also satisfy the equations. Thus the eigen vector
corresponding to one eigen value is not unique.

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1. If λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn are distinct eigen values of matrix [A] of order n,

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then the corresponding eigen vectors X1 , X2 , · · · , Xn will be linearly
independent.

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2. If two or more eigen values are same, then the eigen vectors may

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beeither linearly independent or linearly dependent.

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3. The eigen values of a square matrix and its transpose will be same.

4. The sum of the eigen values of the matrix will be equal to sum of the
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main diagonal elements (trace of the matrix).

5. The product of the eigen values will be equal to the determinant of

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the matrix.
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6. If the given square matrix is singular, then at least one eigen value
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will be zero.

7. If λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn are the eigen values of matrix [A] of order n, then the

1 1 1
eigen values of its inverse [A]−1 are
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, ,······ , .
λ1 λ2 λn
8. If λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn are the eigen values of matrix [A] of order n, then the
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eigen values of c [A] are cλ1 , cλ2 , · · · , cλn

9. If λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn are the eigen values of matrix [A] of order n, then

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eigen values of [A]m are λm m m

1 , λ2 , · · · , λn .

10. The eigen values of square matrix, in diagonal or upper/lower trian-

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gular form, are the main diagonal values.

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11. If λ is an eigen value of an orthogonal matrix [A] of order n, then
λ
is also an eigen value.
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12. For given two vectors {X} and {Y }, if {X}t {Y } = {Y }t {X} = 0,

then the two vectors are known as orthogonal vectors.

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 13. Every square matrix will satisfy its characteristic equation and this is

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known as Cayley-Hamilton’s theorem. Consider a square matrix

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[A]3×3 and its characteristic equation is|[A] − λ [I] = 0.

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a11 − λ a12 a13 

 a21
 a22 − λ a23  = 0
 a31 a32 a33 − λ

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The characteristic equation is

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λ3 − p λ2 + q λ − r = 0

where p = a11 + a22 + a33

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q = a11 a22 + a22 a33 + a11 a33 − a12 a21 − a23 a32 − a13 a31

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r = a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a21 a32 a13 − a11 a23 a32 − a22 a31 a13 − a33 a12 a21
Ci
Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem, the above characteristic equation be-
comes
[A]3 − p [A]2 + q [A] − r [I] = 0
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This equation can be used to determine the inverse of the matrix [A].
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Pre-multiply the above equation by [A]−1

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[A]2 − p [A] + q [I] − r [A]−1 = 0

The above expression can be simplified to obtain the inverse of the

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matrix [A].
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5.1 Diagonal
Consider a square matrix [A]of order n and assume it has n linearly indepen-
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dent eigen vector. For the assumed matrix diagonal matrix can be defined
whose diagonal elements are the eigen values of matrix [A]. The diagonal
matrix [D] can be defined as
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[D] = [P ]−1 [A] [P ]

where [P ] is square matrix, modal matrix, of order n and its columns

are the eigen vectors of the matrix[A]. Using the diagonal matrix power of
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matrix can be defined as:

[A]m = [P ] [D]m [P ]−1

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 5.2 Orthogonal and Quadratic form

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A square matrix of order n can be symmetric or skew-symmetric or orthog-
onal. The determinant of an orthogonal matrix is ± 1.

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Orthogonal Transformation is defined as

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{Y } = [A] {X} where [A] is an orthogonal matrix

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Norm of a Vector is defined as
√

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||X|| = Xt X

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This represents the length of the vector.

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A set of vectors X1 , X2 , · · · , Xn can form an orthonormal system if

Xit Xj = δij =
=
Ci 1
0
if i = j
if i 6= j
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The vectors are mutually orthogonal and normalized.
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A set of n variables x1 , x2 , · · · , xn and its coefficient matrix can be writ-

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ten in quadratic form

n
X n
X
t
Q = {X} [A] {X} = aij xi xj
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i=1 j=1

For a set of three variables the quadratic form is

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Q = a11 x21 + (a12 + a21 ) x1 x2 + (a13 + a31 ) x1 x3 + a22 x22 + (a23 + a32 ) x2 x3 + a33 x23
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The quadratic form can be written as

n n
1
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X X
A + At

Q = cij xi xj where cij =
2
i=1 j=1

Consider the quadratic form

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n
X n
X
Q = aij xi xj
i=1 j=1

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 The quadratic form can be reduced to the form

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n
X
λi yi2 = λ1 y12 + λ2 y22 + · · · · · · + λn yn2

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i=1

This expression involves only square terms and is known as canonical form
or normal form of the quadratic form. Basically it involves changing

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quadratic form to diagonal form. The canonical form can be obtained by

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orthogonal transformation. Let the quadratic form be written as

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Q = {X}t [A] {X} where [A] is a symmteric matrix

{X}t =

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and x1 x2 · · · · · · xn
Let the variables {X} be transformed to variables {Y } by a non-singular

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linear transformation defined by
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{X} = [P ] {Y }

where [P ] is an orthogonal matrix whose columns are normalized eigen vec-

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tors of [A]. Substitute for the transformed vector {X} into the expression
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for quadratic form, the canonical form obtained as shown here.

Q = {X}t [A] {X} = {Y }t [P ]t [A] [P ] {Y } = {Y }t [D] {Y }

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where [D] = [P ]t [A] [P ] is a diagonal matrix, the elements of which are the
eigen values of [A]. Hence the canonical form is defined as
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{Y }t [D] {Y } = λ1 y12 + λ2 y22 + · · · · · · + λn yn2

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1. If the rank of [A] is r, then the canonical form of Q will contain only
r terms. The canonical form may contain positive and negative terms
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and some terms may be zero.

2. The number of positive terms is known as index of the quadratic

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form.

3. The difference between number of positive terms and number of neg-

ative terms is known as signature of quadratic form and is expressed
in terms of p, the index,and the rank,r.
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s = p − (r − p) = 2 p − r

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 5.2.1 Nature of Quadratic Form

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Consider the quadratic for Q = {X}t [A] {X} and let r be its rank and

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p be its index. The nature of quadratic form can be determined from the

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eigen values also.

1. Q is said to be positive definite if it is positive for every set of real

n
values of x1 , x2 , · · · · · · , xn and equal to zero, only for the set of values
x1 , x2 , · · · · · · , xn = 0. Hence r = n, p = n.

io
Q is positive definite if and only if all the eigen values of [A] are

at
positive.

ul
2. Q is said to be negative definite if it is negative for every set of real
values of x1 , x2 , · · · · · · , xn and equal to zero, only for the set of values

rc
x1 , x2 , · · · · · · , xn = 0. Hence r = n, p = 0.
Ci
Q is negative definite if and only if all the eigen values of [A] are
negative.
e
3. Q is said to be positive semi-definite if it is positive for all real
at

values of x1 , x2 , · · · · · · , xn and equal to zero, only for some values of

x1 , x2 , · · · · · · , xn = 0, not all zero. Hence r < n, p = r.
riv

Q is positive semi-definite if and only if all the eigen values of [A]

are ≥ 0 and at least one eigen value is zero.
-P

4. Q is said to be negative semi-definite if it is negative for all real

values of x1 , x2 , · · · · · · , xn and equal to zero, only for some values of
IT

x1 , x2 , · · · · · · , xn = 0, not all zero. Hence r < n, p = 0.

Q is negative semi-definite if and only if all the eigen values of [A]

-M

are ≤ 0 and at least one eigen value is zero.

5. Q is said to indefinite if it takes positive as well as negative values

RD

for real values of x1 , x2 , · · · · · · , xn .

Q is indefinite if and only if [A] has positive as well negative eigen

values.
By

15
 5.3 Problems

y
nl
P1-G2007-Q22

O
Let P and Q be two square matrices of same size. Consider the follow-
ing statements.

n
1. P Q = 0 implies P = 0 or Q = 0 or both

io
2. P Q = I 2 implies P = Q−1

at
3. (P + Q)2 = P 2 + 2 P Q + Q2

ul
4. (P − Q)2 = P 2 − 2 P Q + Q2

rc
where I is the identity matrix. Which of the following statements is true?

(a) 1,2 and 3 are false, but 4 is true

Ci
e
(b) 1,2 and 4 are false, but 3 is true
at

(c) 2,3 and 4 are false, but 1 is true

riv

(d) 1,3 and 4 are false, but 2 is true

-P

Answer: (d)

P2-G2007-Q30
IT

The eigenvalues of the matrix

-M

 
2 1
[A] =   are
RD

0 3

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 and 4

(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4

By

The eigenvalues are defined through the characteristic equation as shown

16
 mere:

y
(2 − λ) (3 − λ) = 0 λ1 = 2 λ2 = 3

nl
Answer: (c)

O
P3-G2007-Q31

n
The eigen values of the matrix A−1 ,

io
 
2 1

at
where, [A] =   are
0 3

ul
1 1
(a) 1 and (b) 1 and
2 3

rc
1 1
(c) 2 and 3 (d) and
2 3Ci
Let λ1 , λ2 , · · · · · · λn be the eigen values of matrix A
e
then the eigenvalues of its inverse are
at

1 1 1
, ,······
riv

λ1 λ2 λn
Therefore the eigenvalues are
-P

1 1
and
2 3
IT

Answer: (d)
-M

P4-G2007-Q40

Let a system of linear equations be as follows:

RD

x − y + 2z = 0

2x + 3y − z = 0
2x − 2y + 4z = 0
By

The system of equations has

17
 (a) no non-trivial solution (b) infinite number of non-trivial

y
solutions

nl
(c) an unique non-trivial solution (d) two non-trivial solutions

O
As the rank of coefficient matrix and augmented matrix are same and equal
to 2. Since the rank is less than the number of unknowns the system will

n
have infinite number of solutions. Consider first two equations and solve for

io
x and y in terms of z. The solution is x = − z and y = z. The same
solution is obtained by considering second and third equations.

at
Answer: (b)

ul
P5-G2008-Q2

rc
The product of the eigenvalues of the matrix
Ci
 
1 0 1
 
e
 
 0 2 1  is
at

 
 
1 1 −3
riv

(a) 4 (b) 0 (c) -6 (d) -9

-P

The product of the eigenvalues is determined using any one of the following:

1. The product of the eigenvalue is defined by the determinant value of

IT

the given matrix and the same is − 9

2. The given matrix is transformed into either diagonal matrix or tri-

-M

angular form, upper/lower. The main diagonal values represent the

eigenvalues. Hence the product of the main diagonal values will define
the product of the eigenvalues. The transformed matrices, diagonal,
RD

upper triangular and lower triangular, are given here. Along the with
the matrix the sequences of transformation are also indicated. R indi-
By

18
 cates row and C indicates column.

y
nl
1 0 0
 
 
R2 2 2

O
 
[A]D =  0 2 0   1. R3 −R1 2. R3 − 3. R1 + R3 4. R2 + R3

  2 9 9
9
 
0 0 −

n
2

io
1 0 1
 

at
 

 0 2 1 
 R2
[A]U T =   1. R3 − R1 2. R3 −
2

ul
 
9
 
0 0 −
2

rc
1 0 0
 

[A]LT = 


 0 2 0 

 Ci
 1. C3 − C1 2. C3 −
C2
  2
9
 
e
1 1 −
2
at

In all the cases the product of the main diagonal values is − 9.

riv

3. The product of the eigenvalue can also determined from the charac-
teristic equation. The characteristic equation of the given matrix is
-P

λ3 − 9 λ + 9 = 0

Using the relation between the roots of the equation and the coeffi-
IT

cients in the equation the product of the eigen value can be determined.
Refer section 11.1. The product of the roots is, for an equation of order
-M

n,
a0 9
λ1 λ2 λ3 = (−1)n = − = −9 n = 3
an 1
RD

Answer: (d)

P6-G2008-Q28
By

19
 The following set of equations

y
nl
     
1 1 2 
 x 1 
 
 1 

  
 
 
 

    

O

 1
 0 1  x
  2  = −1 has
    
 


 
 
 

0 1 1 x3 0
   

n
io
(a) no solution (b) a unique solution

at
(c) two solutions (d) infinite solutions

ul
Rank of coefficient matrix is 2 and that of the augmented matrix is 3. Since
the ranks are not equal there is no solution.

rc
Answer: (a)

P7-G2009-Q6
Ci
A non-trivial solution to (n × n) system of equations [A] {x} = {0} (where
e
{0}) is the null vector,
at

(a) can never be found

riv

(b) may be found only if [A] is not singular

-P

(c) may be found only if [A] is an orthogonal matrix

IT

(d) may be found only if [A] has at least one eigen value equal to zero
-M

Answer: (d)

P8-G2009-Q46
RD

The product of the eigenvalues of the matrix

 
2 1 1
 
By

 
 1 3 1  is
 
 
1 1 4

20
 (a) 20 (b) 24 (c) 9 (d) 17

y
nl
Answer: (d)

O
P9-G2009-Q49

The linear system of equation A x = b, where

n
io
   
1 2  3 
[A] =   and {b} = has

at
2 4 3
 

ul
(a) no solution (b) infinite number of solutions

rc
(c) a unique solution  
 1 
{x} =

Ci
1


(d) a unique solution

e
at

 
 0.5 
{x} =
riv

0.5
 

Rank of coefficient matrix is 1 and that of the augmented matrix is 2. Since

-P

the ranks are not equal there is no solution.

Answer: (a)
IT

P10-G2011-Q32
-M

Consider the matrix  

2 a
RD

 
b 2
where a and b are real numbers. The two eigenvalues of this matrix λ1 and
λ2 are real and distinct (λ1 6= λ2 ) when
By

(a) a < 0 and b > 0 (b) a > 0 and b < 0

21
 (c) a < 0 and b < 0 (d) a = 0 and b = 0

y
nl
The characteristic equation for the given matrix is

O
(2 − λ)2 − a b = 0
2
(2 − λ) = ab
√

n
2 − λ = ± ab
√

io
λ = 2 ∓ ab

at
The eigenvalue will be real and distinct only when the product of a and b
is positive. Hence the answer is

ul
Answer: (c)

rc
P11-G2012-Q1
Ci
The constraint A2 = A on any square matrix A is satisfied for

(a) the identity matrix only (b) the null matrix only
e
at

(c) both identity matrix and null matrix (d) no square matrix A
riv

Answer: (c)
-P

P12-G2012-Q11

The value of k for which the system of equations

IT

x + 2y + kz = 1 2x + ky + 8z =3
-M

has no solution, is

(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 8

RD

The system of equation will not have solution if the ratios of the coeffi-
cients of the corresponding unknowns in the given equations are not equal
to the ratio of the right side constants of the equations.
By

1 2 k 1
= = 6=
2 k 8 3

22
 Considering any two of the first three ratios value of k is found to be 4.

y
This can be found by considering rank of coefficient matrix and augmented

nl
matrix. The coefficient matrix is

O
 
1 2 k
 
2 k 8

n
The maximum rank is 2. For the system to have no solution its rank must

io
be 1 and this is possible only when k = 4. The augmented matrix, with

at
the value k = 4 is  
1 2 4 1

ul
 
2 4 8 3

rc
The rank of augmented matrix is 2. Therefore the sytem has no solution for
k = 4.

Answer: (c)
Ci
e
P13-G2012-Q33
at

One eigenvalue of the matrix

riv

 
2 7 10
 
 
-P

[A] =  5 2 25 

 is -9.33
 
1 6 5
IT

One of the other eigenvalues is

-M

(a) 18.33 (b) -18.33

(c) 18.33 - 9.33 i (d) 18.33 + 9.33 i

RD

The required eigenvalue can be identified by considering any one of the

following:
By

1. The characteristic equation is

λ3 − 9 λ2 − 171 λ = 0 λ λ2 − 9 λ − 171 = 0

23
 The roots of the equation are

y
nl
λ1 = 0 λ2 = 18.33 λ3 = − 9.33

O
2. The determinant of the given matrix is zero ( as third column can be
obtained by multiplying the elements in the first column by 5) and
hence one eigenvalue is zero. Also the sum of the eigenvalues is equal

n
to trace of the matrix, that is 9. Hence the required eigenvalue is 18.33

io
Answer: (a)

at
P14-G2013-Q4

ul
One of the eigenvectors of the matrix

rc
   
1 −1 0 
 1 



[A] =  0
 1 −1 



Ci is {V } =


 

1



  
 


 
−1 0 1 1

e
at

The corresponding eigenvalue is

riv

(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 0 (d) 3

The determinant of the given matrix is zero and hence one eigenvalue is
-P

zero. For λ1 = 0 the eigenvector can be determined from the following:

IT

     
1 − λ −1 0 
 x1 
 
 0 
  










 
 0 1 − λ − 1 x
  2 
 = 0
-M

  
   
 
 

  
 
−1 0 1 − λ x3 0
  
RD

For λ = 0

x1 − x2 = 0
x2 − x3 = 0
By

x1 − x3 = 0

24
 Normalizing with respect to x3 , the eigenvector is

y
nl
 

 1 
 
 
  

O
1

 


  
1
 

n
io
Answer: (c)

at
P15-G2013-Q28

ul
Values of a, b and c, which render the matrix
 1 1 

rc
√ √ a
 3 2 
 

[Q] = 

 1
 √
 3
0 b





Ci
orthogonal are, respectively
 
e
 
 1 1 
√ −√ c
at

3 2
1 1 1 2 1
riv

(a) √ , √ ,0 (b) √ , −√ ,
2 2 6 6 6
1 1 1 1 2 1
(c) − √ ,− √ , √ , (d) − √ , √ ,− √ ,
-P

3 3 3 6 6 6
For Q to be orthogonal Q Qt = I. For the given matrix
IT

5 1 1
 
a2 + ab + ac −  
 6 3 6  1 0 0
-M

 
   
t
 1 1 1   
[Q] [Q] =   ab + b2 + bc +  =  0 1 0 
 3 3 3  



RD

 
 1 1 5  0 0 1
ac − bc + c2 +
6 3 6
Values of a, b and c can be determined by using the condition for off diagonal
elements to be zero.
By

1 1 1
ab + = 0 ac − = 0 bc + = 0
3 6 3

25
 Solving the above equations, the values of a, b and c are respectively

y
1 2

nl
a = c = ∓√ b = ±√
6 6

O
Hence the values of a, b and c are respectively
1 2 1
a = −√ b = √ c = −√ (OR)

n
6 6 6

io
1 2 1
a = √ b = −√ c = √
6 6 6

at
Answer: (d)

ul
P16-G2014-Q1

rc
For a real symmetric matrix [A] which of the following statements is true.

(a)
Ci
The matrix is always diagonalisable and invertible.

(b) The matrix is always invertible but not necessarily diagonalisable

e
at

(c) The matrix is always diagonalisable but not necessarily invertible.

riv

(d) The matrix is always neither diagonalisable nor invertible.

Answer: (c)
-P

P17-G2014-Q26
IT

 
3 −3
-M

If [A] =  
−3 4
 
then det − [A]2 + 7 [A] − 3 [I] is
RD

(a) 0 (b) -324 (c) 324 (d) 6

By

   
18 − 21 21 − 21
[A]2 = [A] [A] =   7A =  
− 21 25 − 21 28

26
  
3 0

y
3I =  

nl
0 3
Hence the given expression is simplified as

O
 
0 0
− [A]2 + 7 [A] − 3 [I] =  Hence determinant value is zero.

n

0 0

io
Answer: (a)

at
P18-G2015-Q12

ul
The system of equations for x and y

rc
ax + by = e cx + dy = f

has unique solution only if

Ci
a d − b c 6= 0 a c − b d 6= 0
e
(A) (B)
at

(C) a + c 6= b + d (D) a − c 6= b − d
riv

The coefficient matrix is  

a b
-P

 
c d
For the system of equations to have solution the determinant should not be
IT

zero. Hence a d − b c 6= =.
-M

Answer: (A)

P19-G2016-Q9
RD

Consider an eigenvalue problem given by A x = λi x. If λi represents

the egienvalues of the non-singular square matrix A, then what will be the
eigenvalues of matrix A2 ?
By

1 1
(A) λ4i (B) λ2i (C) λi2 (D) λi4

27
 Answer: (B)

y
nl
P20-G2016-Q10

O
If A and B are both non-singular n × n matrices, which of the follow-
ing is NOT TRUE. Note: det represents the determinant of a matrix.

n
(A) det(AB) = det(A) det(B) (B) det(A + B) =

io
det(A) + det(B)

at
(C) det(A A−1 ) = I (D) det(AT ) = det(A)

ul
Answer: (B)

rc
P21-G2016-Q36
Ci
Consider the following system of linear equations:

2x − y + z = 1
e
3x − 3y + 4z = 6
at

x − 2y + 3z = 4
riv

The system of linear equations has

(A) no solution (B) one solution

-P

(C) two solutions (D) three solutions

IT

The coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix AB are:

-M

   
2 −1 1 2 −1 1 1
   
   
[A] =  3 −3 4  [AB] =  3 −3 4 6

RD

 
   
1 −2 3 1 −2 3 4
Since third row of coefficient matrix A is difference between elements in
second row and first row, its determinant value is zero. Hence rank of coef-
By

ficient matrix is 2. Rank of matrix AB is 3. Since the rank of A is not equal

to that of AB there is no solution.

28
 Answer: (A)

y
nl
P22-G2017-Q26

O
   
2 0 2 4 

n

 
  
 

 

io
 
Matrix [A] = 
 3 2 7 
 and vector {b} = 4
  
 


 

at

3 1 5 5
 

ul
If vector {x} is the solution of system of equations [A] {x} = {b} ,
which of the following is true for {x}

rc
(A) Solution does not exist Ci(B) Infinite Solutions exist

(C) Unique Solution exists (D) Five Solutions exist

e
at

Let RA be the rank of [A] and RAB be the rank of [AB]

riv

   
2 0 2 2 0 2 4
   
-P

   
 3 2 7
[A] =   [AB] =  3 2 7 4 
  
   
3 1 5 3 1 5 5
IT

RA is 2 as the determinant of [A] is zero. This can be seen by directly eval-

-M

uating its determinant or by identifying the dependency between elements in

column 3 and combination of those in columns 1 and 2. C3 = C1 + 2 C2 .
Rank of [AB] is also 2. Determinant of three third order matrices defined
RD

by replacing elements in column 1 by that in column 4, replacing elements

in column 2 by that in column 4 and replacing elements in column 3 by
that in column 4. The rank also can be identified by using transformation
By

29
 expressions as shown in the following.

y
nl
 
2 0 2 4
 
3 3

O
 
[AB] =   3 2 7 4 
 R2 = R2 − R1 R3 = R3 − R1
  2 2
3 1 5 5

n
 
2 0 2 4

io
 
  1

at
[AB] =   0 2 4 −2  R3 = R3 − R2

  2
0 1 2 −1

ul
 
2 0 2 4

rc
 
 
[AB] =   0 2 4 − 2  RAB = Number of rows with non-zero elements = 2


0 0 0 0

Ci
e
RA = RAB = 2 < 3 (Number of unknowns) Hence infinite solutions exist
at
riv

Answer: (B)

P23-G2017-Q27
-P
IT

   
2 −6  x1 
Let matrix [A] =   . Then for any non-trivial vector {x} =
-M

0 2 x2
 

which one of the following is true for the value of K = {x}T [A] {x}
RD

(A) K is always less than zero (B) K is always greater than zero

(C) K is non-nregative (D) K can be anything

By

30
 P24-G2018-Q20

y
nl
 
1 1 −1
 

O
 
 2 1
The determinant of the matrix  0 
 is – – – (accurate to one decimal place).
 
3 1 1

n
io
Determinant of given matrix is zero. This can be seen by directly evaluat-
ing its determinant or by identifying the dependency between elements in

at
column 3 and combination of those in columns 1 and 2. C3 = C1 − 2 C2 .

ul
Answer: 0.0 to 0.0

rc
P25-G2019-Q26

The following system of equations:

Ci
2x − y − z = 0 − x + 2y − z = 0 − x − y + 2z = 0
e
at

(A) has no solution. (B) has unique solution.

riv

(C) has three solutions. (D) has an infinite number of solutions.

-P

Let RA be the rank of [A] and RAB be the rank of [AB]

IT

   
2 −1 −1 2 −1 −1 0
   
   
-M

 −1 2
[A] =  −1  [AB] =   −1 2 −1 0

 
   
−1 −1 2 −1 −1 2 0
RD

RA is 2 as the determinant of [A] is zero. This can be seen by

directly evaluating its determinant or by identifying the dependency be-
tween elements in column 1 and combination of those in columns 2 and 3.
C1 = − (C2 + C3 ) . Rank of [AB] is also 2, since right side of system of
By

equation is zero, (fourth column elements). Hence RA = RAB = 2 and

this less than the number of unknowns. Therefore system of equations has
infinite number of solutions.

31
 y
Answer: (D)

nl
P26-G2019-Q32

O
One of the eigen values of the following matrix is 1.

n
 
x 2

io
 
−1 3

at
The other eigen value is – – – .

ul
Let λ1 and λ2 be the eigen values and λ1 = 1 . Two equations in-
volving assumed eigen values can be formed using relation between eigen

rc
values, Section 5, S.Nos. 4 and 5.
Ci
Sum of the eigen values = Sum of main diagonal valuers λ1 + λ2 = x + 3

λ1 = 1 λ2 = x + 2
e
at

Product of the eigen values = Determinant value λ1 × λ2 = 3 x + 2

riv

λ1 = 1 λ2 = 3 x + 2 Comparing expressions for λ2

-P

x = 0 λ2 = 2
IT

Answer: 2 to 2

P27-G2020-Q19
-M

 
sin θ tan θ
Given [A] =   , the sum of squares of eigen values of A is
0 cos θ
RD

(A) tan2 θ (B) 1 (C) sin2 θ (D) cos2 θ

By

The characteristic equation is:

 
sin θ − λ tan θ 
 = 0
 0 cos θ − λ

32
 (sin θ − λ) (cos θ − λ) = 0 λ1 = sin θ λ2 = cos θ λ21 + λ22 = 1

y
nl
Answer: (B)

O
P28-G2020-Q35
 1 1 
√ 0 √

n
 2 2 
 

io
 
In the equation [A] {X} = {B} , [A] =  0 1 0
 

 

at
 
 1 1 
√ 0 −√
2 2

ul
   
 x   0 

rc

 
 
 


   
 

{X} = y {B} = 1 , where [A] is an orthogonal matrix,




 
z








 √ 
− 2




Ci
the sum of the unknowns, x + y + z = – – – (round of to one decimal place.)
e
at

[A] {X} = {B} {X} = [A]−1 {B} = [A]T {B} Since [A] is an orthogonal matrix
riv

 1 1   1 1 
√ 0 √ √ 0 √
-P

   
 2 2  
 x 
  2 2 0 
  
    

       

[A]T =  0 1 0  = [A] {X} = y =  0 1 0 1
   
IT


  
 
   
  
    √


 1 1     1 
1  − 2

z
 
√ 0 −√ √ 0 −√
-M

2 2 2 2
   

 x 
 
 −1 


   
   
RD

  
y = 1 x + y + z = 1

 
 
 


   
   
z 1
  

Answer: 0.9 to 1.1

By

AP1

33
 y
nl
 3 4 
 5 5 
For a matrix [M ] =  ,

O
3
 
x
5

n
the transpose of the matrix is equal to the inverse of the matrix [M ]T = [M ]−1 .

io
The value of x is given by

at
4 3 3 4
(A) − (B) − (C) (D)
5 5 5 5

ul
For the given condition on [M ], [M ] [M ]T = [M ]T [M ] = [I]. There-
fore

rc
 3 12 
1 x +
5 25 
[M ] [M ]T =  Ci


3 12 9
 
2
x + + x
5 25 25
Value of x is determined using the condition that the value of off diagonal
e
4
at

element must be zero. Hence the value of x is −

5
riv

Answer: (A)

AP2
-P

Match the items in Column I with those in Column II.

IT

Column I Column II
-M

P. Singular Matrix 1. Determinant is not found

Q. Non-square matrix 2. Determinant is always one

RD

R. Real symmetric matrix 3. Determinant is zero

S. Orthogonal matrix 4. Eigenvalues are always real

By

5. Eigenvalues are not defined

(A) P→3, Q→1, R →4, S→2 (B) P→2, Q→3, R →4, S→1

34
 y
(C) P→3, Q→2, R →5, S→4 (D) P→3, Q→4, R →2, S→1

nl
Answer: (A)

O
AP3

n
Multiplications of matrices E and F is G. Matrices E and G are

io
   
cos θ − sin θ 0 1 0 0

at
   
   
 sin θ cos θ 0 
[E] =  [G] =  0 1 0 

ul
  
   
0 0 1 0 0 1

rc
What is matrix F?


cos θ − sin θ 0

Ci 
sin θ cos θ 0

   
e
   
(A)  sin θ cos θ 0  (B)  − cos θ sin θ 0 
at

   
   
0 0 1 0 0 1
riv

   
cos θ sin θ 0 sin θ − cos θ 0
   
-P

   
(C)  − sin θ cos θ 0  (D)  cos θ sin θ 0 
   
   
0 0 1 0 0 1
IT

Answer: (C)
-M

AP4
RD

 
8 x 0
 
 
For which value of x will the matrix  4 0 2  become singular?
 
 
By

12 6 0
(A) 4 (B) 6 (C) 8 (D) 12

35
 Answer: (A)

y
nl
AP5

O
A is a 3 x 4 real matrix and A x = b is an inconsistent system of equations.
The highest possible rank of A is

n
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

io
Answer: (B)

at
AP6

ul
Consider the following system of simultaneous equations:

rc
x + 2y + z = 6
2x + y + 2z = 6
Ci
x + y + z = 5
e
This system has
at

(A) unique solution (B) infinite number of solutions

riv

(C) no solution (D) exactly two solutions

-P

The coefficient matrix is  

1 2 1
IT

 
 
 2 1 2 
 
 
-M

1 1 1
The rank is 2. The augmented matrix is
RD

 
1 2 1 6
 
 
 2 1 2 6 
 
 
1 1 1 5
By

The rank is 3. Since the ranks are not same the system of equations will
have no solution.

36
 y
Answer: (C)

nl
AP7

O
 
2 2

n
One of the eigenvectors of the matrix [A] =   is

io
1 3
     

at
 2   2     1 
4
(A) (B) (C) (D)
1
−1 −1

ul
1
     

The eigen values can be determined from the characteristic equation as 1

rc
and 4.
λ2 − 5 λ + 4 = 0
For these eigen values the eigen vectors are
Ci
   
1 −2
e
λ = 4 λ = 1
1 1
at

Answer: (A)
riv

AP8
-P

 
1 2 4
IT

 
 
The matrix  3 0 6 
 
 
-M

1 1 p
has one eigen value equal to 3. The sum of the other two eigen values is
RD

(A) p (B) p − 1 (C) p − 2 (D) p − 3

Answer: (C)
By

AP9

37
 y
     
1 2  1   1 

nl
The eigenvectors of the matrix   are written in the form and
0 2 a b
   

O
What is a + b?
1

n
(A) 0 (B) (C) 1 (D) 2
2

io
The eigen values can be determined from the characteristic equation as 1

at
and 2.
(1 − λ) (2 − λ) = 0

ul
For these eigen values the eigen vectors are
( )
0

rc
 
1
λ = 2 1 λ = 1
0
2 Ci
1
Hence a = 0 and b = .
2
e
Answer: (B)
at

AP10
riv

If a square matrix A is real and symmetric, then the eigenvalues

-P

(A) are always real (B) are always real and positive
IT

(C) are always real and non-negative (D) occur in complex

conjugate pairs.
-M

Consider a symmetric matrix of order 2.

 
a b
RD

 
b c
The eigen values can be determined by considering the characteristic equa-
tion.
By

(a − λ) (c − λ) − b2 = 0
λ2 − (a + c) λ + a c − b2


= 0

38
 The eigen values are

y
nl
q
(a + c) ± (a − c)2 + 4 b2
λ1,2 =
2

O
For any values of a, b and c the expression under square root will be positive
and hence the eigen values will be always real.

n
io
Answer: (A)

at
AP11

ul
 
2 1

rc
The number of linearly independent eigenvectors of   is
0 2
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C)
Ci
2 (D) infinite

The eigen values are equal and the same is 2. hence only one indepen-
e
dent eigen value.
at

Answer: (B)
riv

AP12
-P

 
3 2
IT

Eigenvalues of a matrix [S] =   are 5 and 1.

2 3
What are the eigenvalues of the matrix S 2 = SS?
-M

(A) 1 and 25 (B) 6 and 4 (C) 5 and 1 (D) 2

RD

and 10

Let λ1 , λ2 , · · · · · · λn be the eigen values of matrix A

By

then the eigen values of Ap are

λp1 , λp2 , · · · · · · λpn

39
 Therefore the eigen values are

y
nl
1 and 25

O
Answer: (A)

AP13

n
io
 
5 0 0 0

at
 
 
 0 5 0 0 
 

ul
Which of the following is an eigenvector of the matrix 


 ?
 0 0 2 1 
 

rc
 
0 0 3 1






1 





 





0 




Ci 






1 




 





0 




       
−2 0 0 0

 
 
     
    
 
e
     
(A) (B) (C) (D)
at

0  1  0 1 

  
  
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 


 
 
 
 
 
 
 

riv


 
 
     
    
 
−2
     
0 0 0
Answer: (A)
-P

AP14
IT

 
1 1 3
-M

 
 
What is the sum of the eigenvalues of the following matrix  1 5 1  ?
 
 
3 1 1
RD

(A) 5 (B) 7 (C) 9 (D) 18

Answer: (B)
By

AP15

40
 y
nl
 
4 1
For the matrix  , the eigenvalues are

O
1 4
(A) 3 and -3 (B) -3 and -5 (C) 3 and 5 (D) 5

n
and 0

io
Answer: (C)

at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at
riv
-P
IT
-M
RD
By

41