CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

As said by Ana Pedro (2012), violence is a term we often use with many different

meanings and in different contexts with different amplitudes, intensities or subjectivities.

Therefore, the polysomic, subjective, complex and ambiguous nature of the concept of violence

should be taken into account each time violence is referred to since not every definition of the

concept that is known to us will include the same degree of complexity.

According to World Health Organization “violence can be divided into three categories:

self-directed violence, collective violence and interpersonal violence”. Self-directed violence is

further divided into suicidal notions and self-abuse which involves self-harming thoughts,

attempted suicides - also known as par suicide or intentional self. Collective violence is divided

into social, political and economic violence. This violence contains certain actions which from a

power relationship, including threats and intimidation. Violence has a wide variety of negative

consequences, which includes psychological harm. It is possible for violence to not lead to injury

or death; however it poses considerable burden on individuals, families, societies and the health

care system worldwide.

According to the World Health Organization, violence and other types of abusive acts are

often behaviors meant to create and exert control over families, friends, and other people around

you. Whereas violent abusers are usually known by their victims (family members intimate

partners, or friends), acts of violence and abuse may also be committed by strangers.
 However, Department of Education explained that there are nature of violence such as:

Physical violence occurs when someone uses physical actions or an object to control a person’s

actions, Sexual violence occurs when someone is forced to take part in sexual activity, Emotional

violence is committed when someone says or does something to make a person feel stupid or

worthless, Psychological violence occurs when someone intimidates and causes fear in an

individual to gain control, Spiritual (or religious) violence occurs when someone uses an

individual’s spiritual views to manipulate, dominate or control that person, Cultural violence

occurs when someone is harmed as a result of practices that are part of her or his culture, religion

or tradition.

In agreement with Council of Europe (2018), Violence in schools is one of the most

visible forms of violence against children. Violence in schools can take many forms, ranging

from physical violence to psychological violence. It is often expressed through acts of bullying,

intimidation and repression. Violence in schools creates insecurity and fear which harm the

general school climate and infringe pupils’ right to learn in a safe, unthreatening environment.

Every child has the right to live free from physical and psychological violence. Schools cannot

fulfill their role as places of learning and socialization if children are not in an environment free

of violence.

According to Johnny S. Kim and Samantha M. Brown (2015), school violence is a social

problem that has gained much attention in abroad. Addressing violence in school settings is

highly important, and much research has been done to examine its causes and ways to intervene.

The Center for Prevention of School Violence defines school violence as any behavior that

violates a school’s educational mission the intent of the school to be free of aggression against

persons or property, drugs, weapons, disruptions, and disorder.

 As explained by Thomas W. Miller and Robert F. Kraus (2018), school violence includes

but is not limited to such behaviors as child and teacher victimization, child and/or teacher

perpetration, physical and psychological exploitation, cyber victimization, cyber threats and

bullying, fights, bullying, classroom disorder, physical and psychological injury to teacher and

student, cult-related behavior and activities, sexual and other boundary violations, and use of

weapons in the school environment.

As stated by Ezinne Enyinnaya (2015), school violence could be described to be physical

attacks between students or by students on school staff, which could occur on the way to or from

school/school-sponsored events, on the school premises or at a school-sponsored event. School

violence is a public health problem and may take the form of bullying, shooting, brawls and a

host of other physical abuses. The consequences of school violence are grave, as extreme cases

have led to the loss of human lives. Violence in schools is a social problem with an enormous

ripple effect- one act of violence can trigger numerous negative outcomes- hence, the community

is expected to work. Other effects of school violence include vandalism and loss of property –

especially school facilities, moral decadence, poor human capital development, increase in crime

rate, erosion of cultural values and a bad reputation for schools as well as societies.

Furthermore, school violence may arise due to the psychological deficiencies created by

dysfunctional homes. Worry, hatred, inferiority complex, anger and other negative emotions

which fuel violent behavior, could develop in people when they are exposed to poor parenting or

disaccord amongst family members. Also, in homes where parents/guardians display violent

behavior, children/wards usually adopt violence as a way of asserting authority.

According to Brenda Priddy, school violence is a serious problem. Most schools have

some level of violence problems, whether it is bullying, school fights or even students taking
guns or knives to school. The presence of violence in a school leads to multiple serious

consequences. It is important to recognize the consequences of the violence so that the school

can address the problem before it spirals out of control.

The children who are bullied or injured at school often show signs of depression, violent

thoughts, suicide, anxiety, low self-esteem and other psychological issues, They may avoid

communicating with other students to avoid violent confrontations, which can be detrimental to

social skills and human interaction. When children are in fear of violent attacks, they do not pay

as much attention to teachers or lessons. Violently abused children may try to stay away from

school as much as possible, which lowers the students’ grades and performance.

As stated by Carla Benette, school violence is mainly affecting those who are victimized

by bullying classmates. The depression that breeds anger and hostility leading to violent

tendencies in school bullies can, in turn, lead to victimized students becoming depressed and

disinterested in school activities and academia altogether. Witnessing violence also leads to

students becoming less inclined to study for tests, and they may fail classes as a result. As

students begin to feel uncomfortable at school due to violence, they may avoid class or drop out

of school completely just to escape the negativity.

When victimized students are consistently targeted by bullies, the resulting depression

and low self-esteem can lead to tragedy. The students may turn to thoughts of suicide if they do

not feel they can discuss their feelings with family members or counselors due to shame or fear.

They may also decide to take their anger out on the bullying classmates in further displays of

school violence.
 Moreover, Carla Benette stated that the risk of a youth engaging in violence at school is

increasing. Some students do not go to school one or more days during the month because they

fell unsafe. They go home early to avoid bullies. But many schools have set up ways to report

bullying or the possibility of violence. It’s important for teachers, administrators, parents and

students alike to be aware of the different forms violence can take, as well as the signs of

unacceptable behavior.

Corresponding to the article of Garnett (2013) exposure to violent home and community

environments, as well as injury due to violence, contribute to both reduced academic progress

and increased disruptive or unfocused classroom behavior for children, adolescents, and

teenagers. Moreover, children exposed to violence are more likely to report stressful life events

than non-exposed children (Martinez-Torteya, Bogat, Eye, &Levendosky, 2009).

Stated by UNESCO Qian Tang (2017), school violence and bullying is perpetrated by

other students, teachers and other school staff; violence that occurs on the way to and from

school may also be perpetrated by members of the wider community. It is important to

differentiate between violence perpetrated by peers and violence perpetrated by educational

institutions or their representatives as this distinction influences both the impact of and the

response to violence.

The most vulnerable children and adolescents, including those who are poor or from

ethnic, linguistic or cultural minorities or migrant or refugee communities or have disabilities,

are at higher risk of school violence and bullying; children and adolescents whose sexual

orientation, gender identity or expression does not conform to traditional social or gender norms

are also disproportionately affected.

 As stated by Gordon Capp, Hadass Moore, Ronald Pitner, Aidyn Iachini, Ruth

Berkowitz,Ron Avi Astor, and Rami Benbenishty (2017), school violence such as bullying,

cyber bullying, physical fighting and gang violence is a psychological or physical cruelty of a

less powerful person by a more powerful person. Bullying has significant negative long-term and

short-term effects on students, teachers, and schools. (Ttofi& Farrington,2011)

The immediate pain and suffering that accompany incidences of bullying may cause the

victims experience psychological, behavioral, and somatic outcomes. These can include

difficulty sleeping, abdominal pain, headaches, substance use, depression, loneliness, anxiety,

low self-esteem, suicidal ideation, decreased academic performance, and school attendance.

Furthermore, the probability of being depressed long after leaving school (up to 36 years

later) was much higher for students who were bullied at school compared to those who were not

(Ttofi, Farrington, Losel, &Loeber, 2011); this effect likely occurs before students leave school

as well as students who were bullied were more likely to be depressed even after controlling for

other risk factors. Cyber bullying presents equally negative results and victims of these

interactions also experience multiple negative outcomes.

According to Child AdolescPsychiatrClin N Am. (2012), students that witness school

violence are likely to suffer Traumatic Stress symptoms, become anxious or depressed and have

general concerns about their safety. Also, it can be symptomatic for a much longer period of time

and even develop Chronic Psychiatric Disorders. Perhaps the most disturbing effects of school

violence are the feeling of on-going danger that infiltrates school where they have occurred.

These fears can lead Post- Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) a mental health condition that

triggered by terrifying events.

 As stated by Nozuko Ngqela and Andrew Lewis (2012), violent actions and problem-

solving skills are very often transferred from the family to the school system thereby reflecting

the interaction and transference of violence from one system to another. The effects of school

violence on students learning are when the environment becomes unconducive to learning, Lack

of effective learning and teaching which leads to poor school attendance and eventually leads to

a high failure rate, High rate of absenteeism and dropout, Lack of discipline at school in general,

and Non-compliance which leads to non-submission of school tasks or not doing homework.

Also, school violence leads to poor academic performance which is not on par with the goals and

aspirations of the school. Students who are victims of bullying at school, bunk classes and end up

dropping out of school.

As stated by Dieter Wolke and Suzet Tanya Lereya (2015), school violence problem has

become the most pervasive issues of education in schools. Violence is found to be the result of

bullying, which involves the exposure of a student or a group of students less powerful

physically or psychologically to the intentional, systematic and unjustified aggressive behavior

of another student or group students that are more powerful.

A study by Dr. Kamini Tanwar (2016), all children misbehave at times, and it is perfectly

normal for a child to have an occasional outburst. However, repeated disruptive behaviors may

signal a behavioral problem. Disruptive behaviors may include repeated tantrums, arguments,

hostility toward parents or authority figures, and bullying behavior such as picking on small or

younger children. It also includes causing or threatening harm to pets, other people or them-

selves.
 In older children and teens, early sexual activity, smoking, alcohol and drug use can be

signs of a problem. Skipping school and lying may also indicate a behavioral problem.

According to Angel Dlungwane (2017) every student has an innate desire to be good, to

do well and to be perceived as good. Misbehavior is treated as a reflection of underlying feelings

of frustration and unhappiness. Although, students witness school violence there’s a way to

reduce and help them to cope up. Schools provide small group meetings to help students to

explore their feelings and to undergo on counseling. Counseling is often based on approaches

that encourage students to express their innermost feelings and provide for exercises and

experiences that teach students to trust each other. Once the basic needs for trust and safety are

satisfied, the school can provide for the other needs in the hierarchy that leads towards self-

actualization. This will result in cultivation of the student’s innate desire to develop empathy and

caring for others and cessation of violent, antisocial behavior.

Furthermore, there’s a way to demonstrate that may change to student’s behavior. First is

not to intervene in interpersonal disputes between students, unless they become physical. The

object is to convey trust in the students’ ability to appropriately express feelings and to solve

problems on their own. This should enhance the students’ self-esteem. This method is called

cognitive-behavioral methods which are techniques that openly instruct ethics for self-control

and recognizing problematic behavior.

It also assists students in recalling and using the techniques modeled in possible scenes,

including setting of goals, chances for preparation and exercise of the behavior in conditions that

are social (acting), providing response of student’s performance, and promoting self-

management and self-control.

 The study of Courtney Coelho (2013) also reveals that students’ perceptions of safety go

relatively unchanged, even in years when violent crime rates are low. One explanation may be

that the research only looks at reported crimes that involved police intervention. There could be

many more incidents, such as shoving in the hallway and verbal altercations, which go

unreported but still influence students’ sense of well-being.

While annual violent crime rates generally fluctuated significantly at individual schools

during the eight-year study period, the average violent crime rate for all high schools in the

district combined changed very little over the study period. The paper also notes that a few high

schools each year accounted for the large majority of violent crimes in the whole district.

Sometimes, people who turn violent are victims of teasing and bullying who've hit a limit

and feel like they would do anything to make it stop. They may feel isolated and rejected by their

peers. These are only a couple of the reasons why a person may become violent.

As specified by National Association of School Psychologists (2017), students, staff, and

parents all have an important role in promoting school safety. Adults can provide leadership by

reassuring students that schools are generally very safe places for children and youth and

reiterating what safety measures and student supports are already in place in their schools. The

following are tips to prevent school violence: Create a safe, supportive school climate, encourage

students to take responsibility for their part in maintaining safe school environments, remind

students of the importance of resisting peer pressure to act irresponsibly, use security systems,

and highlight violence prevention programs and curricula currently being taught in school.

As said by Bourne PA, Clarke-Christian J, Sharpe-Pryce C, Hudson-Davis A, Francis C

(2015), although it is proving difficult to control the violence in some schools, there is still the

expectation that some form of order must be maintained.

 Being a threat to the personal safety of students and teachers, violence in schools is a

challenge to the authority of school officials. When violence occurs on a school compound, it is

viewed as an evident loss of authority.

According to Galtung and Buber (2015), school violence has been growing steadily and

has shown alarming and increasing levels of violence. It became a serious problem that must be

addressed by the education system. Students become fully aware of all expressions of violence

and peacemaking to offer an education. To find a positive way to respond to school violence the

multi-facetted nature of ‘violence' should not be understood as something merely direct and

physical in nature, but as having structural, cultural and psychological manifestations.The three

types of peacemaking, namely peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peacebuilding could be used as

responses to the issue of 'violence', and its various expressions. This may take place in schools in

wider society. In contemporary cultures of schooling, there is a propensity for direct physical

violence to be identified at the expense of more indirect but no less harmful forms of violence.

(HJ Lawrence Cremin, 2015)

According to Christopher Donoghuea, Angela Almeidab, David Brandweinb, Gabriela

Rochac, and Ian Callahana (2014), school violence victim may became aggressive as they

experienced bullying. Students who are victim can have a negative impact on school functioning,

physical self- perception, and academic achievement. Physical effects such as headaches,

abdominal pains and stomach aches are also common for a victim. A victim can be vulnerable to

psychological distress, depression, irritability, anxiety, loneliness, and a sense of helplessness.

These incidents of aggression will draw the students’ self-appraisals, situational influences, and

decision about how to cope with school violence. Students coping strategies can have beneficial

effects such as asking a friend for advice, seeking help from an adult, or reporting the incident to

a teacher.
 Definition of Terms

Addiction – It is an inability to stop doing or using something, especially something

harmful (dictionary.cambridge.org). As used in the study, it is the inability to stop using

electronic devices.

Adolescence – It is the period of life when a child develops into an adult (www.merriam-

webster.com). As used in the study, it is the stage where an individual spend most his time using

electronic device.

Aggression – It is a forceful action or procedure (such as an unprovoked attack)

especially when intended to dominate or master (www.merriam-webster.com). As used in the

study, it is an action that is expected to cause harm to another who is motivated to avoid being

harmed.

Device – It is a thing made or adapted for a particular purpose (www.merriam-

webster.com). As used in the study, it is the equipment which the adolescents tend to get

addicted to.

Electronic – Relating to utilizing devices constructed or working by the methods or

principles of electronics (www.merriam-webster.com). As used in the study, it is the kind of

equipment used by an individual.

Gadgets – It is often a small mechanical or electronic device with a practical use but

often thought of as a novelty (www.merriam-webster.com). As used in the study, it is the

equipment which the adolescents tend to get addicted to.

Individual – It is one member or part of a large group (www.merriam-webster.com). As

used in the study, it is the person who uses electronic devices.

 Internet - an electronic communications network that connects computer networks and

organizational computer facilities around the world (www.merriam-webster.com). As used in the

study, it is where an individual often play video games.

Media – It is a medium of cultivation, conveyance, or expression (www.merriam-

webster.com). The same interpretation is used in the study.

Media Violence – It is a visual portrayal of acts of physical aggression by one human or

human-like character against another. (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles). The same

interpretation is used in the study.

Modernization – It is the process of starting to use the most recent methods, ideas,

equipment, etc. so that something becomes or seems more modern (dictionary.cambridge.org).

The same interpretation is used in the study.

Screen Violence – The depictions of characters (or players) trying to physically harm

other characters (pediatrics.aappublications.org). The same interpretation is used in the study.

Technology – It is the practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area

(www.merriam-webster.com).The same interpretation is used in the study.

Video Game – It is an electronic game in which players control images on a video screen

(www.merriam-webster.com). As used in the study, it is where an individual tend to get addicted

to.

Violence – The use of physical force so as to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy

(www.merriam-webster.com). As used in the study, is a very serious form of aggression that has

the potential to produce severe physical harm.