Ipedex Instrumentation Training Modules PDF

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
July 1999- Rev.0

TABLE OF CONTENT
INSTRUMENT MODULES
VOLUME 1
MODULE No. 1 - INSTRUMENTATION 1
Unit 1 Introduction
Unit 2 Pressure Measurement
Unit 3 The Pressure Transmitter
Unit 4 Flow Measurement
Unit 5 Measurement of Level
Unit 6 Practical Tasks
VOLUME 2
Unit 1 Measurement of Temperature

Unit 2 Temperature Transmitter
Unit 3 The Controller
Unit 4 Valves and Actuators
Unit 1 Converters and Positioners

Unit 2 Recorders
Unit 3 Indicators and Combined Units
Unit 4 Hazardous Areas and Intrinsic Safety
MODULE No. 4 - INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS 1
Unit 1 The Electrical Circuit

Unit 2 Series and Parallel Circuits
Unit 3 Electromagnetic Principles
Unit 4 Basic Electrostatics and the Capacitor
Unit 5 The Inductor, Capacitor and DC
Unit 6 AC Principles
Unit 7 Common Electrical Symbols
Page 1
Unit 1 Basic Semiconductor Theory

Unit 2 Diode Application
Unit 3 The Controlled Diode
Unit 4 Transistor
VOLUME 3
Unit 1 Digital Mathematics

Unit 2 Introduction to Digital System
Unit 3 Logic Gates, Flip-Flops, Counters and Registers
Unit 4 Memories and Clocks
Unit 5 Multiplexers, Decoders and Displays
Unit 6 Digital / Analog & Analog / Digital Converters
Unit 7 The Computer
Unit 8 Introduction to Data Transmission
MODULE No. 7 - INSTRUMENT WORKSHOP
MODULE No. 8 - P&ID’s
Unit 1 General Symbols

Unit 2 Reading P&ID
MODULE No. 9 - CONTROL SYSTEMS 1
Unit 1 Introduction
MODULE No. 10 - PROCESS CONTROL FUNDAMENTAL
Unit 1 Basic Control Theory

Unit 2 Tuning a Controller
Unit 3 Introduction to DCS and PLC
Unit 4 Honeywell TDC 3000 DCS
Unit 5 Foxboro IA DCS
MODULE No. 11 - INSTRUMENT CRAFT PRACTICE
Page 2
Unit 1 Workshop Safety and Tools Care
Unit 2 Basic Hand Tools
Unit 3 Tubing Systems
Unit 4 Crimping
MODULE No. 12 - INTRODUCTION TO PLC
Unit 1 PLC Fundamentals
Page 3
TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
MODULE No. 1
INSTRUMENTATION 1
July 1999- Rev.0

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
MODULE No. 1
INSTRUMENTATION 1
UNIT No. 1
INTRODUCTION
July 1999- Rev.0

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 1 - Introduction INSTRUMENTATION
UNITS IN THIS COURSE
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 2 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
UNIT 3 THE PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
UNIT 4 FLOW MEASUREMENT
UNIT 5 MEASUREMENT OF LEVEL
UNIT 6 PRACTICAL TASKS

Module No. 1: Instrumentation 1
July 1999- Rev.0 Page 1/9

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 1 - Introduction
Para Page
1.0 COURSE OBJECTIVE 3
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 INSTRUMENT WORK 4
1.3 BASIC DEFINITIONS 5
1.4 PROCESS CONTROL 7
1.4.1 Open Loop (Manual Control) 7
1.4.2 Closed Loop (Automatic Control) 8
1.5 CONCLUSION 9

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 1 - Introduction INSTRUMENTATION
1.0 COURSE OBJECTIVE
The student will be able to
• Explain in general terms the duties of an instrument technician.
• Define the following terms used in instrumentation.
⇒ Instrument
⇒ Instrumentation
⇒ Process and process variable.
⇒ Controller
⇒ Correcting unit.
⇒ Transmitter and transmission signal
⇒ Process loop and plant
⇒ Indicate and record.
• Explain in general terms the purpose of instrumentation to obtain automatic

control.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to introduce the subject of instrumentation, the duties of the
instrument technician and what is meant by instrumentation and control.
1.2 INSTRUMENT WORK
The duties of an instrument technician fall into five main areas.
• Repair and calibration of instruments which measure physical quantities, for

example pressure, level, gas concentration, acidity, etc.
• Repair and calibration of instruments that indicate and record the value of a
physical property. For example, temperature (thermometer), pressure
(gauges), chart recorders, etc.
• Repair and calibration of the final control element, for example a control
valve, electric heater, thermostat, etc.
• Repair and calibration of a complete control system, for example the control
of a gas turbine, steam plant, etc.
• Carry out preventive maintenance programs.
The instruments in use are very varied, depending on how old the installation is.
They may be air (pneumatic), liquid (hydraulic) or electric / electronic in operation.
The way the information is shown or recorded may be simple, like a clock or
thermometer. It may use the latest information technology to display information on
a personal computer screen (video display unit).
The aim of this course is to introduce all the above topics. Real working instrument
systems will have to be learnt in the plant after this course is over.

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INSTRUMENTATION
1.3 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Instrumentation uses a lot of words which need to be explained. Before we can talk
about instrumentation and process control you need to understand the following
words.
• Instrument - Any device for measuring, indicating,

controlling, recording and adjusting a
physical or chemical property e.g. flow,
pressure, acidity, weight, gas
concentration, etc.
• Instrumentation - A complete set of instruments used to

control a process, e.g. refining, oil/gas
production, LNG, LPG, etc.
• Indicator - A device which shows a measured value to

the operator.
• Recorder - A device which continuously records

measurements, either electronically or on
an ink chart. It is used to show production
figures, etc.
• Process Loop - A group of instruments used to control a

single process variable e.g. pressure, flow,
level, etc.
• Process - The operator's word for a manufacturing

unit e.g., refining, liquefying gas, etc.
• Measured Variable - The value of the property being controlled

or Process Variable by a single process loop e.g. pressure
(MV) flow, or Process Variable level, etc.
• Desired Value - The value required by the operator.

or Set Point (S P)
• Error Signal - The difference between the measured

(ES) variable and the set point should be zero

for good control.
• Controller - A device, either pneumatic or electrical /

electronic, which adjusts the error signal to
zero.

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• Correcting Unit - A device which works on the command of

(Final Control the controller. It is used to adjust the

Element) measured value to obtain a zero error
signal, e.g. control valve, etc.
• Transmission - A method of standardising signals sent

from various parts of the plant.
• Transmitter - A device which takes a measurement and

changes it into a standard signal.
• Transducer - A device which changes one form of

energy to another; particularly from
electrical to pneumatic.

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INSTRUMENTATION
1.4 PROCESS CONTROL

1.4.1 Open Loop (Manual Control)
Figure 1-1 The Open Loop
Figure 1-1 shows what is called OPEN LOOP or MANUAL control. The process is
temperature control. The indicator is a thermometer. The correcting unit is the gas
control valve. The controller is the operator who uses his own judgement to keep
the water temperature constant.
Manual control has its uses as it is cheap to install and maintain, and simple to
operate. However, it is very seldom used in industry because:
• The operator must remain in position at all times.
• It cannot be used if the operator is placed in a dangerous area.
• The process changes faster than the operator can react.
• A mistake by the operator can have dangerous results.

These problems are avoided by using automatic control (closed loop). The job of
the instrument technician is to make sure that this type of control operates correctly.
Modern household appliances now use automatic control to make work easier. For
example:
• Refrigerators and water heaters use automatic temperature control.
• Washing machines use automatic heating and water control.

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1.4.2 Closed Loop (Automatic Control)

Figure 1-2 Simple Automatic Control.
Figure 1-2 shows a simple automatic controller. The boiler now has the loop closed
and no operator is required. The following items are added.
The temperature transmitter (T.T) which measures (senses) the temperature of the
hot water and changes it to a standard signal.
A signal line from the transmitter to the controller, the signal may be either
pneumatic or electrical.
A controller which keeps the temperature of the hot water at a position set by the
operator (set point)
The controller adjusts the correcting unit (automatic control valve) using an output
signal line similar to the input line from the transmitter.
The controller may provide alarm signals to alert the operator if the system fails. It
may also shut off the gas if the water starts to boil.

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1.5 CONCLUSION
This unit has introduced instrumentation and control. The following units will explain
in detail how control loops are made and operated. We will start with the
measurement (sensing) and transmitting unit.
There are many process variables in the petroleum industry but most of these
variables fall into four main groups: pressure, flow, level, and temperature. We will
look at these groups.
Most of the other process variables (e.g., density, gas concentration, acidity, etc.)
will be explained when needed during a specialist analyser course.

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 2 - Pressure measurement INSTRUMENTATION


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 2 - Pressure measurement
Para Page
2.1 INTRODUCTION 4
2.2 PRESSURE 4
2.2.1 Pressure and Liquids 4
2.2.2 Pressure and Gases 5
2.2.3 Pressure Units 5
2.2.4 Absolute, Gauge and Atmospheric Pressure 9
2.2.5 Example 1 10
2.3 PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES 11
2.3.1 The Manometer 11
2.3.2 The Well Manometer 12
2.3.3 The Inclined Limb Manometer 12
2.3.4 The Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge 13
2.3.5 Special Adaptation of the Bourdon Tube. 14
2.4 BELLOWS 16
2.5 DIAPHRAGMS AND CAPSULES 17
2.5.1 Diaphragms 17
2.5.2 Capsules 18
2.6 ELECTRICAL METHODS 19
2.6.1 The Piezo Electric Effect. 19
2.6.2 The Capacitive Cell 20
2.6.3 The Strain Gauge 21
2.6.4 Vibrating (Resonant) Wire 22

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

• Define pressure
• Explain the action of pressure on liquids and gases.
• Explain the terms
⇒ Absolute pressure
⇒ Gauge pressure
⇒ Vacuum pressure
⇒ Differential pressure
• State the standard pressure units used in the petrochemical industry.
• Carry out simple pressure unit conversions using standard tables.
• Draw and explain the operation of the following pressure sensors
⇒ Manometer
⇒ Bourdon tube
⇒ Bellows
⇒ Diaphragm and capsules.
⇒ Strain gauge
⇒ Capacitance element
⇒ Vibrating (resonant) wire


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to define pressure and describe the common devices used to
measure it.
2.2 PRESSURE
2.2.1 Pressure and Liquids
PRESSURE (P) is defined as the FORCE (F) applied divided by AREA
Figure 2-1 Pressure on a Liquid

Figure 2-1 shows a force (F) applied to a piston pressing on a liquid in a cylinder.
The liquid is considered INCOMPRESSIBLE and the pressure of the liquid on
the-walls of the cylinder is the same in all directions. This gives the formula:

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INSTRUMENTATION
2.2.2 Pressure and Gases

Figure 2-2 Pressure on a Gas.
Figure 2-2 shows a force (F) applied to a piston pressing on gas in a cylinder. The
gas is COMPRESSIBLE. The volume of the gas will decrease until the pressure of
the gas on the walls of the cylinder equals the pressure applied by the piston.
2.2.3 Pressure Units
There is no agreed standard for pressure measurement in the petrochemical

industry. Some companies use IMPERIAL UNITS (USA), some use
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD METRIC UNITS (ISO) and some use both. The
instrument technician must understand both systems and be able to change from
one to another.

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INSTRUMENTATION
CONVERSION
1 psi = 6895 Pa
The Pascal is a very small unit so the KILOPASCAL (kPa) is often used. A bigger
unit is the bar. This is the most common ISO unit.
CONVERSION
100 kPa = 1 bar
Note : On very old installations the kilogram per centimetre square is still used.
For all general purposes.
1 kg/cm2 = 1 bar.
Very small pressures are measured using the height of a column of liquid. The
liquids used most are water (H2O) and mercury (Hg). The ISO unit for this type of
measurement is 1 mm height of mercury. This is called the torr.
CONVERSION VALUES:
1 inch H20 0.03613 psi 249.1 Pa = 0.002491 bar
1 mm H20 0.004122 psi 9.8907 Pa = 0.000098907 bar
1 inch Hg 0.4912 psi 3386 Pa = 0.03386 bar
1 mm Hg 0.01934 psi 133.3 Pa = 0.001333 bar
An instrument workshop usually has a conversion table for easy reference. You can
photocopy the conversion table on the next page and use it for easy reference.

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INSTRUMENTATION
PRESSURE CONVERSION TABLE

C0LUMN

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Using the conversion table

The rows (across) and columns (up and down) are complementary, so that you can
convert bar to psi or psi to bar.
The bar row gives 14.50 in the psi column
The psi row gives 0.0689 in the bar column
The following examples are given to show how the table is used.
Examples
(a) Convert 50 psi to bar
1 psi = 0.0689 bar
50 psi = 50 x 0.0689 = 3.445
50 psi = 3.445 bar
(b) Convert 120 kPa to psi
1 Pa = 1.450 x 10-4
120 kPa = 1.450 x 10-4 X 120 x 103 17.5
120 kPa 17.5 psi
(c) Convert 150 mmHg to bar
1 mmHg = 1.333 x 10-:3
150 mmHg = 150 x 1.333 x 10*3 = 0. 2000
150 mmHg = 0.2 bar

(d) Convert 50 in H20 to psi -
1 in H20 = 0.03613
50 in H20 = 50 x 0.03613 = 1.8065
50 inH20 = 1.8065 psi

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
2.2.4 Absolute, Gauge and Atmospheric Pressure

The price of oil or gas depends on the quantity (mass) of the product. The quantity
of oil or gas in a given volume depends on the pressure. For this measurement,
absolute pressure must be used.
Absolute Pressure
This is the pressure above a total vacuum (there are no particles of matter in a total
vacuum)
Gauge Pressure
This is the pressure measured by a gauge. The pressure above the pressure of the
surrounding atmosphere.
Atmospheric Pressure
The pressure of the air all around you. This is not constant it depends on things like
the weather and the altitude of the plant.
The equation linking the above pressures together is:
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
(A. P) (G. P) (Atmos)
Because atmospheric pressure can vary a STANDARD ATMOSPHERIC pressure

has to be used. This is normally 1.013 Bar or 14.70 psi.
Gauge pressure is written as psig. Absolute pressure is written as psia.


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INSTRUMENTATION
2.2.5 Example 1
Question :
A pressure gauge indicates 11.4 psi. Find the absolute pressure if the atmospheric
pressure is 14.65 psi.
Solution:
AP = GP + ATMOS
AP = 11.4 + 14.65 = 26.05
Absolute pressure = 26.05 psi
Example 2
Question
A pressure gauge reads 3.5 psi vacuum. Find the absolute pressure if the
atmospheric pressure is 14.73 psi.
Solution:
Vacuum pressures are normally given as gauge pressures below atmospheric

pressure (zero gauge). That is a negative gauge pressure.
AP = - GP + ATMOS
AP = - 3.5 + 14.73 = 11 .23
3.5 psi vacuum pressure = 11.23 psi absolute pressure
A simple diagram is shown below as an example.


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INSTRUMENTATION
2.3 PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

2.3.1 The Manometer
The manometer is a simple device to measure small amounts of pressure. It

consists of a glass tube of a fixed diameter. It is bent into a U shape with (vertical)
sides. The sides are next to a scale. The manometer is filled with a liquid e g water
or mercury
Figure 2-3 The Manometer
Figure 2-3 shows the construction -of the manometer and its uses.
• Absolute Pressure
One side is sealed with a vacuum above the liquid in the manometer. An
unknown pressure is applied to the other side (limb) which forces the liquid
down. The difference in height (H) of the liquid column will give the unknown
absolute pressure. For example, a 9 inch difference, with water as the liquid,
will give an absolute pressure of 9 x 249.1 = 2242 Pa.
• Gauge Pressure
One side is left open to the atmosphere. An unknown pressure is applied to

the other side. This pressure will force the liquid in the tube down. The
height of the liquid gives the gauge pressure of the unknown pressure.
• Differential Pressure
If unknown pressures are applied to both sides the difference in level (H) will
give the difference (differential) between the two in absolute pressure.

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2.3.2 The Well Manometer

Figure 2-4 Well Manometer
The well manometer (see Figure 2-4) is like the U tube manometer. It is used to
measure very low pressures. The pressure is measured in inches of water (H20).
This measurement is divided by the ratio of the areas A and B. This gives the
unknown pressure. A single limb manometer in a workshop usually has its scale
already calibrated to allow for the ratio of the areas A and B. So, no calculations are
required.
2.3.3 The Inclined Limb Manometer

Figure 2-5 The Inclined Limb Manometer
The inclined limb manometer (see Figure 2-5) is another device for measuring very
low pressures. The unknown pressure is applied to the well and the single limb is
tilted. This makes the scale longer so the pressure can be measured more
accurately. The actual pressure is the height, H. No calculations are required as the
scale is set by the manufacturer to give accurate readings.

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2.3.4 The Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

The Bourdon tube gauge is the most common pressure indicator in the
petrochemical industry. It shows the pressure in a clear, simple way.
Figure 2-6 above shows a typical Bourdon gauge. It consists of the following parts:
• The Bourdon tube itself. This is a metal tube shaped like a "C". It has an
oval cross sectional area. It is sealed at one end. The sealed end is free to
move.
• A linkage and pinion to turn the pointer.
• A scale to indicate the pressure.
Operation
When a pressure is applied to the inside of the tube it will try to straighten. The
closed end (the tip) will move and the linkage moves the pinion which moves the
pointer. The movement of the pointer shows how much pressure is applied to the
Bourdon tube.
Bourdon gauges come in all shapes and sizes and can measure from about 0-15
psig (0-1 bar) to 0-10,000 psig (0-700 bar) depending on the stiffness of the
material used.

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Materials
In the low ranges the Bourdon tube is made from copper alloys In the medium
ranges it is made from mild steel or stainless steel. In the high ranges it is made
from high tension steel. Calibration adjustments
The calibration adjustments on a Bourdon gauge depend on the manufacturer.

However, some basic rules are:
• Zero adjustment is done either by moving the pointer to zero on the scale or
by moving the scale so that zero is under the pointer.
• Span adjustment (the maximum reading of the scale) is set by adjusting the
linkage in the geared sector and pinion.
• Linearity is adjusted by changing the length of the linkage (not often added
on modern gauges) Remember to follow the manufacturer's instructions
when you calibrate a gauge.
2.3.5 Special Adaptation of the Bourdon Tube.
The Spiral Bourdon Tube.

Figure 2-7 Spiral Bourdon Tube
Figure 2-7 shows a spiral Bourdon tube (Foxboro). It is used to indicate low
pressures. When pressure is applied the spiral unwinds and the free end moves to
indicate the pressure. The construction and calibration of this type of gauge
depends on the manufacturer. The handbook must be used.

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INSTRUMENTATION
The Helical Bourdon Tube

Figure 2-8 Helical Bourdon Tube.
Figure 2-8 shows a helical Bourdon tube (Foxboro). This is usually used to indicate
high pressures. When pressure is applied the helix unwinds and the free end moves
to indicate the pressure applied. The actual construction and calibration depend on
the manufacturer and the manual must be used.

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INSTRUMENTATION
2.4 BELLOWS
Bellows are tubes with thin walls, made of brass, stainless steel, etc. The thin walls
are corrugated. This improves their ability to expand and contract. When pressure is
applied (either to the outside or the inside), the corrugated walls expand or contract.
This movement is used to indicate pressure. Bellows units are used- in various
ways. The three most common methods are shown below:

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An example of a differential bellows unit (Foxboro) is shown in Figure 2-9. The air is
pumped out of one bellows (evacuated). This makes a vacuum so that when a
pressure is applied to the other bellows unit absolute pressure is measured.
Figure 2-9 Differential Bellows Unit (Foxboro)
2.5 DIAPHRAGMS AND CAPSULES
2.5.1 Diaphragms
A diaphragm is a stiff corrugated disc which is flexible under pressure. A single

diaphragm is often used as a seal to protect a gauge from corrosive liquids. A
typical example is given in Figure 2- The Schaffer gauge.

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Diaphragms are also used to make high pressure bellows (a diaphragm stack). An
example is shown in Figure 2-11.
Figure 2-11 A Diaphragm Stack
2.5.2 Capsules
Capsules are made of two diaphragms welded onto a metal ring and filled with a
fluid. Different mechanical and electrical methods are used to show the differential
pressure across the capsule. Figure 2- shows a Foxboro capsule used in a
pneumatic differential pressure transmitter.
Figure 2-12 The Capsule (Foxboro)

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INSTRUMENTATION
2.6 ELECTRICAL METHODS

The old mechanical methods of detecting pressure are slowly being replaced by
electrical methods. Electrical methods are more accurate and cheaper. The
following notes give a simple explanation of the principle involved.
2.6.1 The Piezo Electric Effect.


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2.6.2 The Capacitive Cell

This method is used by Rosemount in their sensing capsules. A cut away section of
this capsule is shown in Figure 2-13.
Figure 2-13 The Capacitive Cell
When a differential pressure is applied across the capsule the silicone oil will be
pressurised more on one side than the other. The sensing diaphragm will move
away from one fixed capacitor plate and nearer to the other. The difference in
capacitance between A and B, and B and C, is measured by an electronic amplifier.
This measurement shows the differential pressure.

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2.6.3 The Strain Gauge

The strain gauge is a resistor which has been deposited onto a flexible bar. As the
bar is bent the resistor will change in length and thus its resistance. The changes in
resistance are detected by a Wheatstone bridge and electronically changed to a
pressure signal. A strain gauge is shown in Figure 2-14. This method is used by
Honeywell in their electrical transmitters.
Figure 2-14 Simplified Strain Gauge Capsule


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2.6.4 Vibrating (Resonant) Wire

The vibrating wire is the operating method used by Foxboro in their pressure
transmitters. Figure 2-15 shows the basic construction.
Operation:
Figure 2-15 The Vibrating Wire
The frequency of vibration of a wire depends on its tension. The tension of the
vibrating wire is changed by the pressure applied to the diaphragm. The electronics
unit has a driving coil (D.C) to make the wire resonate and a sensing coil (S.C) to
measure the resonant frequency. This changes the pressure applied to the
diaphragm into an electrical signal output.

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 3 - The pressure transmitter INSTRUMENTATION


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 3 - The pressure transmitter
Para Page
3.1 INTRODUCTION 4
3.2 THE FLAPPER-NOZZLE 4
3.3 THE PNEUMATIC RELAY 6
3.4 THE PNEUMATIC TRANSMITTER 7
3.5 THE PNEUMATIC SIGNAL LOOP 11
3.6 THE AIR PRESSURE REGULATOR 12
3.7 THE ELECTRICAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER 14


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The student will be able to:
• Explain the operation of a simple flapper nozzle.
• Explain the function of a pneumatic relay.
• Using a diagram, name the parts of a typical pneumatic transmitter.
• Explain the need for the feedback (positioning) bellows.
• State the standard signals produced by a pneumatic transmitter.
• Draw the layout of a typical electrical transmission loop.
• State the standard signals produced by an electrical transmitter


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INSTRUMENTATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The previous unit (Unit 2) explained the basic devices used to measure and indicate
pressure. This unit will describe the methods used to convert the pressure
measurement to an instrument signal for the controller.
3.2 THE FLAPPER-NOZZLE
The flapper-nozzle is the primary device for all pneumatic instruments which convert
a measurement to a pneumatic signal. Figure 3-1 shows the layout of the device.
Figure 3-1 The Flapper-Nozzle
Operation:
The air supply input (20 psi (1 .4 bad) passes through a restrictor (small hole). It
then goes out of the nozzle or down the air signal output line. If the flapper is placed
against the nozzle, no air can escape through it. So, the air signal output shows full
pressure. If the flapper is pulled away from the nozzle, most of the air flows out of
the nozzle, so the air signal output pressure is very small. The back pressure output
signal depends on how near the flapper is to the nozzle. A simple graph of the
output pressure (P) against flapper distance (X) is shown below.

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The graph is linear (straight) over the distance A B. This reflects only a few
millimetres of travel of the flapper. This part of the curve is used to convert a
change in a measured value connected to the flapper into an output signal. The
restrictor increases the speed of operation. The small volume (V) can change
pressure quickly before the air supply can pass through the small hole in the
restrictor.
The change in output pressure due to flapper movement is very small. It must be
enlarged (amplified) using a device called a PNEUMATIC RELAY.

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3.3 THE PNEUMATIC RELAY

Different manufacturers make pneumatic relays in different ways. However, they all
work on the same principle. A simplified explanation of this device is given in Figure
3-2.
Figure 3-2 The Pneumatic Relay
Operation
The output pressure from the flapper-nozzle goes to the top of the diaphragm. The
diaphragm Moves down against the controlling spring and opens the ball valve. The
air supply now enters the area under the diaphragm and goes into the output.
At some point, the pressure from the air supply under the diaphragm will equal the
pressure above. The diaphragm moves up and the ball valve closes and they hold
momentarily at that pressure. If the flapper-nozzle pressure increases, the ball valve
will open and hold momentarily at the new higher output pressure. If the pressure
on the diaphragm decreases, the ball valve stays closed and the output signal falls
as air escapes through the vent. When the output pressure has fallen enough the
ball valve opens again to maintain the output at the new lower pressure. This kind of
relay is called a continuous bleed device because it controls the output signal
pressure by slowly venting the air supply all the time.
The standard amplified signal from the relay is:
(a) 3 -15 psi imperial (b) 0.2 -1 bar ISO.
Remember that these standards are not the same. The control system can work on
(a) or (b). It must never work on a mixture of the two standards.

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3.4 THE PNEUMATIC TRANSMITTER

There are many different types of pneumatic pressure transmitters. However, they
are not used much nowadays.
One of the few types still in use is the Foxboro type 11 . This is' shown below as an
example of the pneumatic transmitter.
Figure 3-3 The Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter
Figure 3-3 shows the basic design of a Foxboro pressure transmitter.

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Operation:
• The process pressure to be measured and transmitted as a standard signal

is applied to a diaphragm capsule.
• The pressure moves the capsule. This movement is applied to one end of a
force bar pivoted about the diaphragm seal.
• The force bar moves the flexible connector. The connector pulls the flapper
to and from the nozzle.
• The back pressure from the nozzle is amplified by the relay. This gives the
standard output signal.
The system is not stable. The flapper will go either full on or full off. So a feedback
bellows is added. The output signal goes to the bellows. The bellows applies a force
to the range rod in opposition to the force bar. The system balances to give an
output signal which depends on the position of the range wheel.

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Unit No. 3 - The pressure transmitter INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 3-4 Balancing action
Figure 3-4 shows the balancing action of the transmitter. The movement of the
flapper is the pressure applied times B over A (B:A). The feedback movement is the
output pressure times the ratio D:C.
The ratio B:A is fixed but D:C can be changed by the range wheel. If the D:C ratio is
large the feedback is small. This makes the range larger.
Calibration Adjustments
• When there is no pressure (zero gauge), the zero spring, which sets the
force on the range rod, is adjusted for a 3 psi or 0.2 bar output signal.
• With the maximum pressure (range) applied, the range wheel is adjusted to
give 15 psi or 1 bar output signal.

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Note Figure 3-3 shows a gauge pressure transmitter. This transmitter can
easily be adapted to measure differential pressure. This is done by

adding an extra input to the diaphragm capsule as shown below. The
force bar now moves according to the differential pressure applied.
Remember the device must be connected correctly to the high and
low pressure connections. It will not read correctly if it is connected
the wrong way round.
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE APPLIED TO THE CAPSULE

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3.5 THE PNEUMATIC SIGNAL LOOP

Figure 3-5 The Pneumatic Signal Loop
Figure 3-5 shows a block diagram of the pneumatic signal loop :
• The process line to the pressure transmitter (usually 3/8" or 1/4" stainless
steel tubing) has an isolation valve and a drain valve so it can be
disconnected.
• The pressure transmitter has an air supply set at 20 psi. This comes through
the air pressure regulator from the main air supply (usually about 100 psi).
• There is a signal line (usually 1/4" stainless steel tubing) which transmits the
signal (3-15 psi) to the receiver in the controller.

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3.6 THE AIR PRESSURE REGULATOR

The air pressure regulator is a simple device. It is used to lower the main instrument
air supply of a plant to a pressure suitable for an air operated instrument; eg, a
transmitter, control valve, etc.
Normally, each air operated instrument has its own regulator. So an. air regulator is
one of the most common devices in the plant. There are various manufacturers of
air regulators, eg, Masoneilan and Fisher. However, they all work in much the same
way. The example given is manufactured by Fisher (see Figure 3-6).
Figure 3-6 The Air Pressure Regulator
Operation:
• The main air supply is connected to the IN port. Air passes into the inlet
chamber at the bottom of the regulator.
• Air passes through the filter which removes dirt particles in the incoming air
which may block nozzles etc. It then goes into the valve assembly.
• The valve assembly is moved by the range spring pressing on the

diaphragm.
• The range spring will hold the valve assembly down until the output pressure
is high enough to lift the diaphragm (via the air passage shown). At this point
the small spring in the valve assembly closes the valve.

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• Air is allowed to pass through a hole at the centre of the diaphragm and out
of the vent. This maintains balanced pressure across the diaphragm.
• If the outlet pressure is, above the pressure set by the range spring, the air
will go out through the vent above the diaphragm. When the outlet pressure
is correct, the valve assembly opens to set the correct pressure.
• If the outlet pressure is below the pressure set by the range spring the valve
assembly will stay open until the set pressure is reached.
Note :
• The drain valve should be opened regularly to drain any moisture in the inlet
chamber.
• Range springs come in various sizes. The most common is from 5-35 psi
(0.34-2.4 Bar). This is set to give an output of 20 psi for transmitters, etc.

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3.7 THE ELECTRICAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER

Electrical transmitters have replaced pneumatic transmitters in most petrochemical

plants. This is because they are cheaper to install and maintain. The transmission of
the signal is also cheaper and easier to install. This is because an electrical
transmitter has one pair of wires instead of expensive stainless steel signal tubing
and air supply lines.
There are three main types of transmitters. They use three kinds of capsules:
capacitive (Rosemount), strain gauge (Honeywell) or vibrating wire (Foxboro). The
output from the capsule is electronically converted to a STANDARD 4-20 mA
SIGNAL for transmission to the control room.
An electrical transmitter is calibrated with an instrument screwdriver or push

buttons. There are two adjustments, zero and span (range).
The calibration and servicing depends on the manufacturer. It must be carried out
using the manual. Modern transmitters have become throw away items. If they
cannot be calibrated they are not serviced. They are thrown away and replaced with
a new transmitter.
Figure 3-7 below shows, as; an example, a Rosemount electrical transmitter.

Figure 3-7 The Rosemount Electrical Transmitter

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Any electrical transmitter uses an electrical series loop and it acts as a variable
resistor. The basic diagram of the loop is shown in Figure 3-8.
PLANT CONTROL ROOM
Figure 3-8 The Electrical Series Loop
The power supply provides the EMF around 24V D.C., to drive the series loop. This
loop consists of:
• Two safety barriers(RB) which protect the plant from dangerous voltages in
the case of a fault.
• The transmitter, whose resistance (RT) changes with the measured pressure
changes.
• The controller with a resistance RC. The voltage across the resistance
provides the signal for the controller electronics.
The current around the circuit (1) will be

RB and 'Rc are constant. So, the current changes as the resistance in the
transmitter (RT) changes.
The system is set so that with zero pressure, the current is 4 mA and 20 mA at the
maximum value of the measured pressure.
Note : Both pneumatic and electrical transmitter signals have a live zero. his
means that a broken circuit can easily be detected

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Unit No. 4 - Flow measurement INSTRUMENTATION


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 4 - Flow measurement
Para Page
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4
4.2 UNITS OF FLOW 4
4.3 QUANTITY METERS 7
4.3.1 Positive Displacement 7
4.3.2 Velocity Meters (semi-positive displacement) 9
4.4 RATE OF FLOW MEASUREMENT 10
4.4.1 Flow Basics 10
4.4.2 Flow Measurement by Differential Pressure 11
4.4.3 Differential Pressure Devices 15
4.5 VARIABLE AREA METERS 21
4.6 CALIBRATION OF FLOW MEASURING DEVICES 22
4.6.1 Quantity Meters 22
4.6.2 Calibration of Differential Pressure Devices 23
4.6.3 Flow Straighteners 23


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• Explain the difference between total flow and rate of flow measurements.
• Explain the difference between mass and volume flow units.
• Use volumetric and mass conversion tables.
• Explain with the aid of a sketch how positive displacement flow meters work.
• Explain with the aid of a sketch how velocity flow meters work.
• Explain, with the aid of sketches, the use of a pipe restriction to produce a
differential pressure for rate of flow measurement
• Sketch the following rate of flow measuring devices and list their advantages
and disadvantages.
The orifice plate
The Venturi
The Venturi - nozzle.
The nozzle
• Sketch a variable area meter.
• State the calibration procedures that can be used to calibrate flow meters.

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4.1 INTRODUCTION
The aims of this unit are:
i) to explain the measurement of liquid flow
ii) describe devices used to measure liquid flow.
4.2 UNITS OF FLOW
Figure 4-1 Flow Measurements
Figure 4-1 shows a tanker being loaded from a storage tank. The amount of oil
loaded must be accurately measured to know how much it costs (fiscal purposes).
The total flow (quantity) of oil into the tanker can be measured in two ways:
• by volume, in barrels or cubic meters.
• by mass, in metric or imperial tons (the international standard for oil/gas

transfer).
For control purposes the rate of flow (how fast the ship is loaded) is also measured.
Rate of flow units can also be given in either volumetric or mass units.
For example
• Rate of flow by volume (volumetric)
Barrels / Hour
Cubic Feet / Min.
Cubic Meters / Sec.

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• Rate of flow by mass

Tons/ Hour Kilograms / Sec. Pounds / Min. The petrochemical industry uses many
different units and-there is no common standard. The following list gives some of
the units and their conversion.

Module No. 1: Instrumentation 1 Unit No. 4 - Flow measurement
July 1999- Rev.0

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Page 7/23
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4.3 QUANTITY METERS

There are two basic methods used to measure quantity (total flow)
(a) Positive displacement.
(b) Velocity meters (semi-positive displacement)
4.3.1 Positive Displacement
The simplest form of positive displacement meter is the gasoline (petrol) pump. It
will release an exact amount of gasoline in either imperial gallons or litres. A simple
diagram to show its operation is shown in Figure 4-1
Figure 4-2 Reciprocating Piston Meter
Operation:
When the piston is at the bottom of its stroke (see Figure (A)) the slide valve opens
the inlet vent to the bottom of the cylinder. The liquid (petrol) flows into the cylinder
below the piston and pushes the piston upwards. As the piston rises the liquid in the
top half of the cylinder is pushed through the outlet vent into the outlet pipe. When
the piston is at the top of its-stroke the slide valve closes the outlet at the top of the
cylinder and opens the inlet vent. At the same time the slide valve opens the outlet
vent at the bottom of the cylinder and closes the inlet (see Figure (B)). The pressure
of the liquid coming into the top of the cylinder pushes the liquid at the bottom of the
cylinder into the outlet pipe. The amount of liquid coming out of the cylinder during
each stroke is measured. Each time the piston makes a stroke a meter connected
to the top of the piston indicates how much liquid has been delivered.

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The oil industry's positive displacement meter is the sliding vane meter. It can be
used for measuring large quantities of liquid flow; eg, oil being loaded onto a tanker.
A typical example is shown in Figure 4-3.
Figure 4-3 The Sliding Vane Meter
Operation:
This meter consists of a rotating drum with four sliding vanes (long blades) set
inside it. The vanes move around a cam which is fixed in the centre of the drum.
The liquid flowing through the meter pushes the vanes round with the drum. As the
vanes rotate with the drum the cam pushes them in and out against the measuring
wall. As the vanes are pushed against the measuring wall, they trap a measured
volume of liquid between the drum and the measuring wall. Each revolution of the
drum will measure 4 lots of the measured volume. The number of revolutions of the
drum is counted and displayed. This gives the total flow passing through the meter.
The calibration nut is used to adjust the side of the measurement chamber so that
the volume of liquid passing through the meter can be measured exactly.
Note: A static liquid chamber is added so that there is no differential pressure

across the measurement wall.

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4.3.2 Velocity Meters (semi-positive displacement)

The sliding-vane type meter is not used much nowadays because it is slow. Most
loading meters for shipping are now of the velocity type. The velocity meter
measures the speed of the flow and works out the volume of flow using calibration
figures.
Figure 4-4 The Turbine Meter
Operation:
The velocity (speed) at which the rotor turns depends on the flow rate. The pick-up
coil gets a pulse induced for every rotation. The number of pulses is counted by an
electronics unit. This unit displays the total quantity of flow.
Note : In the oil/gas industry these two quantity meters are only for liquid
measurements.

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4.4 RATE OF FLOW MEASUREMENT

The previous two quantity meters are used to calculate how much oil the customer
pays for, so they must be extremely accurate. A modern turbine meter will measure
to within ± 0.1 % of the true reading. Devices for measuring the rate of flow do not
need to be so accurate. They are used mainly to give a flow signal to a controller.
4.4.1 Flow Basics
Figure 4-5 Flow in a Pipe
Figure 4-5 shows the flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) down a pipe. The flow is
produced by the differential pressure across the ends of the pipe (P1-P2). The walls
of a pipe are not perfectly smooth. The frictional force at the walls will cause the
fluid to go slower at the edge than at the centre.
This leads to two different types of flow.
• LAMINAR FLOW
The fluid flow rate is slow and the velocity of the wavefront down the pipe is
much higher in the centre of the pipe than at the edges.
• TURBULENT FLOW
The fluid flow rate is high and the velocity of the wavefront is the same
across the pipe. However, the flow is a little slower at the edges against the
wall.

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The velocity lines on the diagram are called STREAMLINES. Engineers assume the
streamlines are straight and parallel to each other.
4.4.2 Flow Measurement by Differential Pressure
Figure 4-6 Flow through a Restriction
Figure 4-6 shows the flow of a fluid through a closed pipe full of liquid or gas. It has
a restriction in the pipe.
Because there is a restriction, there is a difference between the pressure at the

centre of the restriction (position Y) and the pressure in the normal pipeline (position
X)
The difference in pressure between the centre of the restriction and the normal
pipeline pressure (P1-P2) is proportional to the square root of the flow rate (Q)
given as an equation.
or
CD is called the "coefficient of discharge". We can get this from tables. It depends
on what is used to make the restriction.
Note :- Pl + P2 is often written as DP (Differential Pressure) or AP (Delta P).

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The above equation means that the measured DIP has to be square rooted before
the flow rate can be calculated. Modern electronic transmitters do this automatically
and a linear 4-20 mA signal for flow rate is produced. The older pneumatic systems
produce a flow rate indication by using a square root scale or chart. A typical square
root scale is shown below.

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Theory
Bernoulli said "The sum of the kinetic energy (velocity energy) and pressure energy
at any point in a closed pipe is a constant", i.e. the sum of these two types of energy
is always the same.
This is true if the pipe is horizontal and the temperature of the fluid does not
change.
As the fluid flows through the restriction, it gets faster (the velocity increases). This
is because FLOW = VELOCITY x AREA. If the area is smaller, the velocity is
bigger. So, the pressure must fall and from the diagram;

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Unit No. 4 - Flow measurement INSTRUMENTATION
CD is called the "coefficient of discharge". We can get this from tables. It depends
on what is used to make the restriction.

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4.4.3 Differential Pressure Devices

There are many devices used to make a restriction in a pipeline so that rate of flow
can be measured. The design of each device is fixed by either ISO or ISA
(instrument Society of America) standards. There are standard tables which are
used to calculate flow. In the petroleum industry engineers assume the flow is
turbulent. However, you can get tables for laminar flow if you need them. A field
technician will only need to calibrate the differential pressure transmitter. An
engineer will give a technician the figures he needs to do this. Some of the more
common devices are given below together with their uses.
• The Orifice Plate
Figure 4-7 The Orifice Plate and Tappings

Figure 4-7 shows an orifice-plate fitted into a pipeline to make a differential

pressure. The orifice plate is a flat disc with a hole in it shaped as shown. The front
edge is sharp and the back edge is chamfered. The fluid is squeezed as it passes
through the hole and has a maximum velocity at a point called the VENA
CONTRACTOR.

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Taps (holes) are drilled into the pipeline and a differential pressure transmitter
connected across the orifice plate. The differential pressure is measured. The
square root of the differential is used to produce a flow signal which is proportional
to the flow.
Standard tables are produced for the tapping places as shown.
The position of the hole in the plate depends on the fluid being measured. The
diagram below shows typical plates and their uses.

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All orifice plates must be made to an exact standard to fit the reference tables. A
typical example is given below for a D and D/2 tap fitting.
Figure 4-8 Dimensions for a D and D/2 orifice plate fitting
The advantages and disadvantages of an orifice plate.
Advantages
1. Simple in operation
2. No moving parts
3. Reliable for a long time
4. Not expensive
Disadvantages
1. Square root relationship

2. 2.Difficult to install
3. 3.Range of measurement small. Operator has to change plate (hole size) to

change the range.
Note : The orifice plate is the only suitable device when measuring high gas flow
rates.

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• THE VENTURI
This is a very expensive device. It is used when the energy of the flow is so low that
the restriction could stop the flow (low pressure loss). The diagram below shows a
typical Venturi with its pressure tappings (see Figure 4-9).
Figure 4-9 The Venturi
The advantages and disadvantages of the venturi.
Advantages
1. Simple in operation
2 . Low pressure loss
3. Can be used with liquids that contain solids
4. Reliable for a long time
5. No moving parts
Disadvantages
1. Expensive
2. Square root relationship
3. Poor range. Designed for one job only
4. Difficult to install

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• NOZZLES
These are a compromise between the orifice plate and the venturi. They are
cheaper than a venturi but have a high pressure loss. They are more
expensive than an orifice plate, but have lower pressure loss. A few
examples are shown below.

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• PRESSURE LOSS GRAPH

The graph below (see Figure 4-10) shows how much pressure is lost when
these devices are used. The Y axis shows the hole size and the X axis
shows the percentage of pressure lost. This shows the advantages of the
venturi over the orifice plate. It also shows how the nozzle is between the
two.
Figure 4-10 Pressure Loss Graph


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4.5 VARIABLE AREA METERS

These are simple devices used to indicate small rates of flow. They are used by an
operator out in the field. Typical uses are:
• In seal oil and lubrication oil flow lines on large rotating machines; eg, diesel
engines and gas compressors.
• In cooling water lines for machines and processes.
Figure 4-11 shows a variable area meter (Rotameter).
Figure 4-11 The Rotameter

Operation
The Rotameter is fitted vertically into the flow line. The flow of the fluid is from
bottom to top through the cylinder. The cylinder increases in area from bottom to
top. With no flow, the float is at the bottom (position A). When the flow increases,
the pressure makes the float rise. It will rise to a position where the flow pressure on
the float equals the weight of the float, (position B). If the flow gets faster there is
more pressure on the float and it will rise higher (position C). The flow rate indicated
depends on the size of the device. It is pre-calibrated by the manufacturer. The
operator reads the flow rate from the transparent scale using the top of the float as
a marker.

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4.6 CALIBRATION OF FLOW MEASURING DEVICES

4.6.1 Quantity Meters
The only way to calibrate a flow quantity meter accurately is to use a standard
volumetric measure. This is easy when the volumes are small. A gasoline pump is
checked by a standard measure; eg, a 10 litre can. When you fill the can the meter
on the pump should read 10 litres. This method is impossible when you need to
measure thousands of gallons per minute. The system used to check large liquid
volumes is called a PROVER LOOP. A simple diagram of the system is shown in
Figure 4-12.
Figure 4-12 The Prover Loop
The prover loop consists of a calibrated section of pipe. A tightly fitting rubber ball
(sphere displacer) is pushed through the pipe by the flow of a liquid which must be
measured. Two detector switches mark the travel of the ball. The computer works
out the volume measured by the travelling ball and compares this measurement
against the volume measured by the meter. The four way valve lets the operator
send the ball in both directions through the calibrated section of pipe. This means
that the ball can be passed a number of times to make sure the meter is checked
accurately.

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4.6.2 Calibration of Differential Pressure Devices

In order to calibrate the differential pressure transmitter, the field technician uses
figures given by the design engineer. For control purposes, the actual flow need not
be exact. However, the movement of large amounts of gas can only be checked
using an orifice plate. The true volume, at standard pressure, is worked out by a
special programme on a computer. This work is done by a specialist called a
metering engineer.
4.6.3 Flow Straighteners
All flow measuring devices which use a restriction need a streamlined flow. Flow
measuring devices must be placed away from things which disturb the flow; eg
elbows, control valves, etc. If this is not possible then the flow is streamlined by flow
straighteners. These are groups of small pipes placed in the pipe line as shown in
Figure 413.
Figure 4-13 Flow Straighteners


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Unit No. 5 - Measurement of level INSTRUMENTATION


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 5 - Measurement of level
Para Page
5.1 INTRODUCTION 4
5.2 THE DIP STICK 4
5.3 THE DIP TAPE 5
5.4 THE SIGHT GLASS 5
5.5 FLOATS 6
5.5.1 The Simple Float 6
5.5.2 Industrial Float Systems 7
5.6 HYDROSTATIC TANK GAUGING (HTG) 9
5.6.1 Introduction 9
5.6.2 Offset Datum Lines 12
5.6.3 Wet Legs 13
5.7 DISPLACERS AND LOCAL LEVEL CONTROL 14
5.8 LEVEL SWITCHES 17
5.9 AIR BUBBLE METHOD 19
5.10 OTHER METHODS OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT 20


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• Explain the use of a dip stick and dip tape.
• Sketch a typical sight glass installation.
• Explain, with the aid of a diagram, typical level measurements using floats.
• Explain, with the aid of diagrams, hydrostatic tank level measurement.
• Explain, with the aid of a sketch, the operation of a typical buoyancy level
transmitter.
• Sketch typical float operated level switches.
• Explain, with the aid of a diagram, the bubbler method of level

measurement.

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5.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to introduce the measurement of level and the devices used
in its indication, measurement and control
5.2 THE DIP STICK
The dip stick shown in Figure 5-1 is the only true measurement of level. It is still
used by operators and ships' captains to check that the instrumentation which
measures the level of a liquid in a tank is correct.
The dip stick is a long calibrated ruler. The depth of the liquid in the tank is
indicated by a WET mark when the stick is removed. It's the same principle as
checking the oil level of a car. Because there may be rubbish at the bottom of the
tank the level may be taken from a bottom level datum line. A datum line is a base
line from which things can be measured. There is also a top datum line which is
used to measure the space above the liquid (the ullage).

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5.3 THE DIP TAPE

Figure 5-2 Dip Tape
The dip tape shown in Figure 5-2 is a development of the dip stick for finding the
level in large tanks. The tape is run out until the weight touches the bottom of the
tank. It's then pulled up. The wet mark on the tape indicates the depth of the liquid.
Note : The dip stick / tape is no good if the liquid does not leave a WET mark. An
example of this type of liquid is mercury.
5.4 THE SIGHT GLASS
This is the level indicator used by operators in the plant. The device is connected to
the side of a vessel and the level is seen by looking through the glass. A high
pressure sight glass is shown in Figure 5
Figure 5-3 High Pressure Sight Glass

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There are many different types of sight glasses. A single glass tube is strong
enough for low pressures. For high pressures you need a reinforced glass tube with
a steel case, as shown in Figure 5-3. Most industrial sight glasses can be cleaned
on site by closing the isolating valves, draining the tube via valve D and rodding
through valve A. Good sight glasses also have an automatic shut-off valve. This
operates if the glass breaks. It stops all the liquid draining out of the vessel.
High pressure sight glasses have very specific instructions about how they are put
together and taken apart. You must use the manufacturer's manual. A high
pressure sight glass should never be used again because re-tensioning will make
the glass break.
5.5 FLOATS
5.5.1 The Simple Float
Figure 5-4 Simple Float Indicator
Figure 5-4 shows a simple float level indicator. It is still used by water departments
and on chemical tanks on older oil platforms. It is cheap to install and easy to
operate.
Operation
The float and counter weight are connected together by a wire on pulleys. The
system is in balance with the float on the surface of the liquid. If the level rises, the
float rises and the counter weight falls to the new balance point. If the level falls the
counter weight rises. The counter weight has a pointer which indicates the level on
a scale on the outside of the tank. The scale shows "full" when the pointer is at the
bottom and "empty" when it is at the top. The scale can be very large so that, for
example, water tower levels can be seen from the ground.

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5.5.2 Industrial Float Systems

The simple float is not very accurate and can be very difficult to read. If the surface
of the liquid has waves then the float starts to swing. This problem is solved by
fitting special devices inside the tank as shown in Figure 5-5.
Figure 5-5 Tank Constructions

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• Guide wire system (Figure a)

This is the cheapest system. The float; C, is held in place by wires; B. These
are fixed to the bottom by a concrete block; A, and tightened by a spring; D.
The float is connected by a wire (to the indicating unit K) via a pulley system
(FGF) and pipe (1) supported on brackets (J). The indicating unit is the
counter-weight and the level is indicated by a mechanical counter.
• Still pipe system (Figure b and c)
This is a more expensive method but it is more accurate. The float is

contained inside a still pipe (a steel pipe with holes in it). The level inside the
pipe doesn't move so it gives very accurate measurements of level. Figure b
shows the older mechanical indication method. Figure c shows the modern
method (Entis-Enraf). The system is electronically controlled and the level
measurement is sent as an electronic signal to the control room.

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5.6 HYDROSTATIC TANK GAUGING (HTG)

5.6.1 Introduction
Many of the modern oil storage tank facilities (tank farms) use hydrostatic tank
gauging to indicate the level in a tank. HTG is good because there is no equipment
inside the tank. It is cheaper to install and maintain than float installations.
BASIC PRINCIPLE
The higher the level of a liquid in a tank, the higher the pressure on the bottom of
the tank. The nearer the outlet is to the bottom of the tank, the greater the pressure
and the further the flow stream will reach. Figure (a) shows this effect.
The pressure on the bottom of a tank only depends on the level of the liquid in the
tank. Figure (b) shows this effect. No matter what the shape of the tank, the
pressure (P) at the bottom of the tank is the same.

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Proof :
The force on the bottom of the tank is the weight of the liquid.
WEIGHT OF LIQUID = VOLUME x DENSITY x GRAVITY
but VOLUME = AREA (A) x HEIGHT (H)
Therefore
WEIGHT OF LIQUID =
AREA (A) x HEIGHT (H) x DENSITY (p) x GRAVITY (g)
but PRESSURE = FORCE(WEIGHT)

AREA
AREA-x HEIGHT x DENSITY x GRAVITY

AREA
PRESSURE (P) = HEIGHT(H) x DENSITY (p) x GRAVITY (g)
or
P = pgH
This equation shows that the pressure at the bottom of a column (level) of liquid
does not depend on the shape of the container.

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Hydrostatic Tank Gauging (HTG) uses the pressure of a column of liquid to

measure the level. The diagram below shows the basic layout of the system (see
Figure 5-6)
Figure 5-6 Hydrostatic Tank Gauging
Theory
P1 = Pressure above the liquid level
P2 = Pressure at inlet to differential pressure transmitter
P2 = P1 + Pressure of liquid above the datum line.
The pressure of the column of liquid above the datum line is given by the formula:
P = Density x Gravity x Height
Gravity is a constant and providing the density of the liquid does not change then
P = KH where K is a constant
and P2 = P1 + KH
The differential pressure (DP) across the transmitter is

P2 - P1 = P1+ KH - P1
DP = KH
This means that the DP transmitter signal gives a direct indication of level.

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5.6.2 Offset Datum Lines

The above system works well if the transmitter can be placed at the same level as
the datum line. This is often not possible and the offset (the difference between the
levels of the datum line and the transmitter) must be allowed for. The diagram
below illustrates the problem, (see Figure 5-7)
(a) Transmitter Below Datum Line (b) Transmitter Above Datum Line
Figure 5-7 Transmitter Off-set
In figure (a) the transmitter is lower than the datum line. 'V' is the difference in
height between the transmitter and the datum line. So, the transmitter will give the
wrong reading, it will be 'V' units too high.
Figure (b) shows the transmitter above the datum line. In this case the transmitter
will give a level which is 'V' units too low, because the pressure of the liquid above
the transmitter is less than the pressure of the liquid above the datum line.
Differential pressure transmitters have special units added to allow for the above
problem. They are called elevation/depression units. These units move the zero to
allow for the height difference between the transmitter and the datum line.
Manufacturers use different methods for elevation/depression. The manual must be
used when setting up a differential pressure transmitter on a tank.

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5.6.3 Wet Legs

Figure 5-8 Wet Legs
Some liquids produce heavy vapours. These vapours may condense to liquid in the
pipe between the differential pressure cell and the top of the tank. This condensate
can cause the transmitter to give the wrong reading. To stop this, the pipe is filled
with a known liquid (eg glycol). This is called the "Wet Leg The differential pressure
transmitter is adjusted using the elevation/depression units to offset the pressure
caused by the height of the liquid in the wet leg (P3).

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5.7 DISPLACERS AND LOCAL LEVEL CONTROL

The displacer is a locally mounted device which controls the level in a vessel. It is
used on remote sites where it is too expensive to return signals to the control room.
The most common types in use are manufactured by Fisher or Masoneilan. Figure
5-9 shows a Fisher device (The Level-Trol).
Figure 5-9 The Displacer

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The displacer unit is connected to both the vessel and the control valve. This makes
a self contained local control loop as shown in Figure 5-10
Figure 5-10 Self-contained Local Control Loop
Operation
• The weight of the displacer changes as the level rises or falls in the
displacer housing.
• The displacer hangs on the torque tube via the connecting rod.
• The changing weight of the displacer makes the torque tube twist or untwist.
• The twisting motion of the torque tube moves a flapper against a nozzle.
This sends a control signal to the pneumatic control valve.
• The pneumatic control valve opens or closes to keep the level constant at
the set point.

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Theory
A displacer works on "Archimedes Principle"
"The weight of a body immersed in a liquid depends on the weight of the volume of
liquid displaced". In other words , if the displacer displaces a volume of liquid which
weighs 1 kg, the displacer will seem to weigh 1 kg less than it weighs when it's not
in the liquid.
Figure 5-11 Simple Example of Archimedes Principle
Figure 5-11 shows a simple example of Archimedes' principle. In 'A, the scale
shows 3 Kg weight. The displacer weighs 3 kg. In 'B' the displacer has displaced a
volume of water which weighs 1 kg. So, the scale shows a weight of 2 kg i.e. 3 kg
minus 1 kg for the liquid displaced.
The diameter of the container and displacer are kept constant. So, the weight loss
on the displacer is directly proportional to the liquid level in the displacer housing. If
the displacer weighs less then the torque tube is twisted less. The amount the
torque tube twists depends on the level of liquid in the displacer housing.
Note :- The weight of the liquid displaced is given by the formula
Weight = Volume x Gravity x Density
So, changing the density of the liquid in the vessel means the Level-Trol must be
recalibrated.

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5.8 LEVEL SWITCHES

A level switch is the last safety device when controlling level.
If the level controller stops working the vessel can overfill. This can be dangerous. A
level switch uses a float to operate a switch to shut down filling pumps in an
emergency. The diagrams below show two typical examples.
Figure 5-12 Flexible-Shaft Float Switch
Figure 5-12 shows a pneumatic level switch. When the level of liquid is low the float
hangs down. The operating screw on the end of the flexible shaft holds the flapper
tight against the nozzle. The output signal is a maximum so the pumps continue to
fill the vessel. If the level rises and lifts the float the screw on the end of the flexible
shaft moves down. The flapper moves away from the nozzle and the output signal
falls to zero. This shuts down the pumps so no more liquid comes into the vessel.

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Unit No. 5 - Measurement of level INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 5-13 Float Operated Mercury Switch
Figure 5-13 shows a typical electrically operated level switch. The mercury bottle
has three connections, the mercury (a good conductor) acts as the switch to change
over the contacts. The switch is operated magnetically, the two different positions
being clearly shown. When the level is high the switch is in one position. When the
level falls, the switch is in the other position.

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5.9 AIR BUBBLE METHOD

The air bubble method is one of the oldest and simplest methods used to indicate
and or transmit a signal. The diagram below shows a simplified layout of the
method (see Figure 5-14).
Figure 5-14 Liquid Level Measurement by Air Bubbler Method
Operation
• An inert gas (air or nitrogen) is passed down the bubbler tube. There is just
enough gas pressure for the bubbles to appear when the liquid is at the
maximum level in the vessel.
• When the vessel is full the pressure gauge or transmitter will read a
maximum back pressure equal to the hydrostatic head (H), (the pressure of
the liquid above the zero level).
• At the zero level the back pressure will be zero and the gauge or transmitter
will read zero.
• The back pressure between zero and maximum levels is proportional to the
liquid level in the vessel. The pressure gauge or transmitter can be

calibrated to indicate the liquid level.
• The gas pressure is adjusted by the regulator to give a steady flow of gas
down the bubbler tube. The gas flow is indicated on the Rotameter.
• This method can be very accurate. A modern differential pressure

transmitter, open at one side, can easily be calibrated to give a span of 0-6"
H20

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5.10 OTHER METHODS OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT

In this unit we have introduced some common methods of measuring level used on
most installations.
There are many other methods using various types of high technology. These will
be special for only one or two installations. You will have to learn them on the job. A
few examples are:
(a) Radar, ultrasonic, gamma and infrared detectors.
(b) Capacitive sensors.
(c) Resistive sensors.


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Unit No. 6 - Practical tasks INSTRUMENTATION


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 6 - Practical tasks
Para Page
PRACTICAL TASK 1 3
PRACTICAL TASK 2 14
2.1 PNEUMATIC TRANSMITTER 14
2.2 ELECTRICAL TRANSMITTER 15
PRACTICAL TASK 3 25
3.1 PNEUMATIC DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER CALIBRATION 25
3.2 ELECTRICAL DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER CALIBRATION 26
PRACTICAL TASK 4 36
PRACTICAL TASK 5 39

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PRACTICAL TASK 1
CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GAUGES
INTRODUCTION
The practical work you will do during this task will show you the common methods
used to calibrate a pressure gauge. The test equipment used to calibrate the gauge
may not be the newest type but it will work in the same way as newer equipment.
New pressure sensors (e.g. piezoelectric, strain gauge etc.) are quickly changing
the way test equipment is made from mechanical to electronic display.
The particular test equipment used by an operating company must be learnt on site.

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THE DEAD WEIGHT TESTER

Figure PT-1 Oil Dead Weight Tester
This is a very simple device. Figure PT-1 shows a typical dead weight tester. Oil is
used as the testing fluid. When the handle is turned the increase in fluid pressure is
applied to both the gauge and the weights. When the weights start to lift the gauge
pressure should be the same as the pressure indicated by the weights.
You can calibrate instruments very accurately if the weights. are correct and there is
minimum friction between the weight piston and the cylinder.
A good quality tester has a motor which keeps the weights spinning all the time.
This reduces the friction. If the tester has no spinning motor, you should spin the
weights by hand.
There are many kinds of dead weight testers. The operating fluid can be either oil,
water or air, depending on the manufacturer. You might not be able to use an oil
type dead weight tester on the job site. The oil left in the gauge can contaminate
process fluids; particularly some gases.
Modern dead weight testers do not use weights. The weights are replaced with a
digital read out. Piezo-electric sensors are used to detect pressures. An example of
a modern pressure calibration unit is given in Figure PT-2.
Note: Liquid operated dead weight testers have a hand valve (HV) and a
reservoir. This is to ensure that no air bubbles are trapped in the liquid
before pressuring up the system.

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Figure PT-2 DRUCK Precision Pressure Calibrator


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THE PRECISION GAUGE AND TEST BENCH.

Most instrument workshops calibrate site gauges using a test bench fitted with
precision gauges. This is a much quicker method than using a dead weight test and
accurate enough for field calibration (± 1 %).
The precision gauges are calibrated regularly by a dead weight tester. This ensures
that the gauges stay accurate. A typical example of gauge calibration using a
precision gauge is shown in Figure PT 3.
Figure PT 3 Gauge Calibration Using a Precision Gauge.

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• GAUGE CALIBRATION
There is no standard way to calibrate a pressure gauge. The way a gauge is

calibrated depends on the way the gauge is used. The following notes show
how to produce a test certificate for a gauge. However, this is not always
needed on site. Producing a certificate will show the things to look for when
doing a job site calibration. The CDC instrument workshop has different
types of calibration equipment. The instructor will show you how to use each
type. Use the manufacturer's instruction manual for each piece of test
equipment when doing the following procedure.

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PRACTICAL TASK 1
CALIBRATION PROCEDURE
1. Do not apply any pressure to the gauge. Set the pointer to read zero on the
scale.
2. Apply the full range pressure to the gauge. Adjust the linkage so that the
pointer is at the maximum reading on the scale, (full scale deflection).
3. Reduce the pressure to zero and check that the pointer reads zero on the
scale. Adjust the pointer if necessary.
4 Repeat steps (2) and (3) until both readings are correct.
5. If the gauge has a linearizing adjustment, set the applied pressure to 50% of
the maximum scale reading. Adjust the linearizing adjustment so that the
pointer reads at 50% of the maximum scale reading.
6. Check the gauge reads correctly at 0, 50% and maximum reading. You may
need to adjust the gauge many times before the gauge is correct. You must
be patient and careful.
7. When step (6) is completed, write down the reading on the gauge for the
applied pressure readings. A calibration table is provided.
8. Draw a graph of the gauge readings and the applied pressures (increasing
and decreasing).

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9. The graph you get will look something like the graph shown above. The
shaded area shows the hysterisis of the gauge (the hysterisis is the
difference between rising and failing pressure readings). The biggest
difference between the true reading and the gauge reading tells you how
accurate the gauge is.
Hysterisis is caused by friction and wear on the operating mechanism. If the

gauge is not accurate enough, the mechanism cannot be replaced. In this
case the gauge is thrown away.
You must decide if a gauge is accurate enough. If it is not accurate enough

you must say so.

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10. Well used gauges can have what is called a 'DEAD BAND'. This is a place
on the scale where the pointer does not move when the pressure changes.
You will see this when you find the calibration curve. An example of a large
dead band is shown below. If the dead band is large you must get a new
gauge.
CONCLUSION
The above procedure shows you how to get a calibration curve for a gauge. This is
very seldom done. It also shows the effects of hysterisis and a dead band.
A gauge is normally selected to operate around its mid range position. On the job,
the gauge is often calibrated to be accurate only over its operational range. Large
errors at each end of the scale (zero and maximum) are not important.

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CALIBRATION TABLE

Module No. 1: Instrumentation 1 Unit No. 6 - Practical tasks
July 1999- Rev.0

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Page 12/41
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Module No. 1: Instrumentation 1 INSTRUMENTATION
APPLIED PRESSURE

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PRACTICAL TASK 2
INTRODUCTION
CALIBRATING A PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
The basic procedure for calibrating a pressure transmitter is the same as for a
pressure gauge. However, it is most important to check the linearity of the
transmitter over its full range as it provides the input signal to the controller.
This task has two parts. You will calibrate both a pneumatic and electrical
transmitter.
2.1 PNEUMATIC TRANSMITTER
CALIBRATION PROCEDURES
I) Connect the inlet pressure connection to the calibrated pressure supply (e.g.
dead weight tester, pressure bench etc.).
2) Connect a 20 psiI (1.4 bar) air supply to the air supply connection.
3) Use a pressure gauge to cover the range 0 - 20 psi (0 - 1.4 bar). Connect it
to the output from the transmitter.
4) Using the manufacturer's manual calibrate the transmitter.
The setting for zero and the span of the operating range will be given by the
instructor.
5) Produce a calibration graph of output pressure against input pressure range.

This will show if the transmitter is still linear. Check it is within the stated
accuracy.

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2.2 ELECTRICAL TRANSMITTER

1. Connect the inlet pressure connection to the calibrated pressure supply (e.g.
dead weight tester, pressure bench etc.).
2) Connect the 24V DC supply to the terminal board connections. Use the
manual of the particular transmitter you have. A series load resistor may be
required.
3) You may need to use an ammeter in series to measure the 4 20 mA signal.

However, most transmitters have a standard resistor (1 Ω) so 4 - 20 mV is
measured instead. This is a more accurate measurement. The manual will
tell you what to do.
The setting zero and the span of the operating range will be given by the
instructor.
4) Produce a calibration graph of output range (4 - 20 mA) against input

pressure range. This will show if the transmitter is still linear. Check it is
within the stated accuracy.

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CALIBRATION TABLE (psi)


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CALIBRATION TABLE (BAR)


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CALIBRATION TABLE (mA)


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CALIBRATION GRAPH
INPUT / OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP OF THE PNEUMATIC PRESSURE

TRANSMITTER
OUTPUT PRESSURE (psi)

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CALIBRATION GRAPH

TRANSMITTER

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CALIBRATION GRAPH

TRANSMITTER
OUTPUT PRESSURE (bar)

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CALIBRATION GRAPH

TRANSMITTER

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CALIBRATION GRAPH
INPUT / OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP OF AN ELECTRICAL PRESSURE

TRANSMITTER
OUTPUT PRESSURE (mA)

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CALIBRATION GRAPH
INPUT / OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP OF AN ELECTRICAL PRESSURE

TRANSMITTER

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PRACTICAL TASK 3
CALIBRATING A DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
INTRODUCTION
Calibrating a differential pressure transmitter is much more difficult than calibrating

a pressure transmitter. This is because the pressures are very small. A modern D.P.
transmitter can have a calibration range of 0-5" H20 gauge. You can calibrate this
with a manometer but normally a very low pressure test gauge is used. The
equipment used in the lab is called a 'wally box'. This is a special pressure test kit
made by Wallace and Tiernan. The 'wally box' is not used much now because of its
size. Modern hand-held electronic devices (e.g. DRUCK) are becoming popular.
3.1 PNEUMATIC DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER CALIBRATION
1. Connect the calibrated pressure supply to the HIGH inlet pressure. Leave
the LOW pressure inlet connection open.
2. Connect the air supply port to the 20 psi (1.4 bar) supply.
3. Use a pressure gauge to cover the range 0 - 20 psi (0 - 1.4bar). Connect it

to the output port.
4. Using the manufacturer's manual set up the differential pressure transmitter

to values given by the instructor.
5. Use the results to draw a calibration curve in the same way as for a pressure
gauge. Ensure the device gives a linear output of 3-15 psi (0.2-1 bar). Check
its accuracy is within specification. Remember: 3-15 psi is not equivalent to
0.2-1 bar. Calibrate using either 3-15 psi or 0.2-1 bar.

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3.2 ELECTRICAL DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER CALIBRATION

1 Connect the "HIGH" inlet pressure connection to the calibrated pressure

supply. Leave the "LOW" pressure connection open.
2. Connect up the 24V D.C. supply to the transmitter output terminals using the
manufacturer's calibration manual.
3. The calibration method depends on the manufacturer. You may or may not
need a series load resistor. The device may be current or voltage calibrated.
The manual must be used.
4. Set up the differential pressure transmitter to values given by the instructor.
5. From results obtained in the same way as for a pressure gauge, draw a
calibration curve. Ensure the device gives a linear output (4 - 20 mA) and
check its accuracy is within specification.

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CALIBRATION TABLE (12sil


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CALIBRATION TABLE (bar)


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CALIBRATION TABLE (MA)


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CALIBRATION GRAPH
INPUT / OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP OF THE PNEUMATIC DIFFERENTIAL

PRESSURE TRANSMITTER

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CALIBRATION GRAPH


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CALIBRATION GRAPH


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CALIBRATION GRAPH


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CALIBRATION GRAPH
INPUT / OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP OF AN ELECTRICAL DIFFERENTIAL


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CALIBRATION GRAPH
INPUT / OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP OF AN ELECTRICAL DIFFERENTIAL


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PRACTICAL TASK 4
CALIBRATION OF A LEVEL TRANSMITTER (LEVEL-TROL)
INTRODUCTION
Figure PT4 Fisher Level Trol
The level transmitter to be calibrated is a Fisher level-trol. This uses a displacer

type level detector. A layout of the device is shown in Figure PT 4.

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The calibration adjustments are inside the transmitter housing. They are shown in
Figure PT 5.
FIGURE PT 5 Transmitter With Cover Removed .
The instruction manual for calibrating this transmitter is difficult to understand.

There is only one instruction manual for controller or transmitter operations for
either level (gas/liquid), interface (liquid/liquid), or density. The following procedure
will only help you calibrate a level transmitter (gas/liquid). The basic procedure used
in this calibration is the same for any type of displacement level transmitter. It is
possible to calibrate this unit using weights instead of the sensor (displacer unit).
However, this is seldom done. You will calibrate the transmitter using water to set
the required level. This is the normal workshop method. Remember the final
calibration must be done on the job. This final calibration depends on where the
transmitter is fitted (e.g. gas/oil, oil/water interface, etc.). You will have to learn this
calibration on site.

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CALIBRATION PROCEDURE (WET TYPE)

Figure PT 6 Calibration Wet Type
Pre-checks
1. Set the air supply pressure to 20 psi on the supply gauge Adjust the air
regulator if required.
2) Set the S.G dial to 1.
3) Put the zero adjustment dial to read zero.
Calibration
1. When the water level is below the bottom of the displacer, set the zero
adjustment. Check that the output gauge reads 3 psi.
2. Fill the displacer housing with water until the level is above the displacer.
Adjust the S.G. dial until the output reads 15 psi.
3) Repeat steps (1 ) and (2) until both are correct.
4) Raise the water level until it reaches the centre line (L) The output pressure
should be 9 psi.

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PRACTICAL TASK 5
CALIBRATING A PRESSURE SWITCH
Figure PT 7 The Pressure Switch
Figure PT-7 shows a typical pressure switch. The inlet pressure is applied to the
bottom of the operating piston. This piston is forced upwards by the inlet pressure
against the range spring. The tension of the range spring can be adjusted so that it
is compressed at a certain pressure. When this pressure is reached the operating
pin will hit the trip button on the micro-switch and change it over. The normally open
contacts (NO to C) will become closed and the normally closed contacts (NC to C)
will open. The pressure at which the micro-switch changes over is set by adjusting
the trip setting nut. This nut adjusts the tension of the range spring (e.g. if the nut is
turned clockwise the trip pressure will be higher).

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1) Connect the pressure switch to the workshop air supply via a hand pressure
regulator and test gauge, as shown in the diagram.
2) Use an Ohmmeter to check that the switch contacts are as indicated; NO

and NC.
3) Connect the Ohmmeter to the normally open contacts. The meter should
read "open circuit". Adjust the hand pressure regulator to increases the
pressure to the switch until the contacts change over. The meter should now
read "short circuit". Note down the pressure reading on the sheet provided.
This pressure is the switch setting for a "rising" pressure.
4) Increase the pressure to the switch to it's maximum rating. Slowly reduce the
pressure to the switch until the switch changes over from closed to normally
open again. Note down this pressure reading on the sheet provided. This
pressure is the switch setting for a "falling" pressure.
5) From the readings you have taken work out the pressure difference between
the rising and falling pressure settings. This is called the "dead band" of the
switch.
6) The maximum dead band is usually stated by the manufacturer. The switch
is unserviceable if the maximum dead band is more than the manufacturer's
recommendation.
7. On job site the pressure switch will be set for either a falling or a rising
pressure. This is stated on the maintenance sheet.
8) After you have completed steps 1 to 7 and the instructor is sure that you
have understood what you have done, try setting the switch to another
position. You do this by adjusting the trip setting nut. The instructor will give
a setting value for either rising or falling pressure inputs.

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CALIBRATION SHEET

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MODULE No. 2
INSTRUMENTATION 2
July 1999- Rev.0

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 1 - Measurement of temperature INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 1 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
UNIT 2 TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER
UNIT 3 THE CONTROLLER
UNIT 4 VALVES AND ACTUATOR


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INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 1 - Measurement of temperature
Para Page
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 TEMPERATURE SCALES 4
1.2.1 The Absolute Scale 4
1.2.2 Examples 5
1.3 EXPANSION TYPE THERMOMETERS 6
1.3.1 Liquid In Glass Thermometers 6
1.3.2 Filled Systems 8
1.3.3 Solid Expansion Types. 10
1.3.4 Thermostats 10
1.3.5 Bi-metal Strip Thermometers 11
1.4 ELECTRICAL METHODS OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 12
1.4.1 The Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) 12
1.4.2 The RTD Detector: The electrical circuit 15
1.4.3 The Thermocouple 16
1.4.4 The Thermistor 20
1.4.5 Radiation Temperature Detectors (Pyrometers) 21
1.5 THERMOWELLS 24

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• State and convert the common temperatures scales in use; Fahrenheit and
Celsius.
• Explain absolute temperature and carry out temperature conversions from

Fahrenheit or Celsius to the absolute temperature scale.
• Draw and explain the action of expansion type thermometers such as:
Liquid, vapour and gas filled thermometers.
Bi-metal strips.
• Draw and explain the action of electrical temperature sensors.
Resistance measuring devices.
Thermocouple
Thermistors
Radiation measuring devices (Pyrometer)
• Explain the purpose of a Thermowell.


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1.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to introduce temperature measurement devices; both

expansion types and modern electrical sensors.
1.2 TEMPERATURE SCALES
There are different scales for measuring temperatures. Figure 1-1 compares the
two common temperature scales; Fahrenheit (Imperial) and Celsius (ISO). The fixed
points for both scales are the temperature at which ice melts and water boils at
standard pressure.
A temperature in Fahrenheit can easily be changed to Celsius and vice versa. The
conversion equations depend on the number of divisions in each scale. Fahrenheit
has 180 divisions between the freezing and boiling points of water but Celsius has
only 100 divisions. Therefore, the ratio is 180/100 or 9:5. This gives:
1.2.1 The Absolute Scale

In instrumentation, many temperature measurements have to be made from

ABSOLUTE ZERO. Absolute zero is the temperature at which no heat energy
(atomic movement) exists. This temperature is impossible to reach. On the Celsius
scale, absolute zero is around - 273.15°C (- 459.67°F). This figure is used as the
standard for absolute zero. So 0 Kelvin (K) is the same as -273.15°C
Absolute temperature in ISO is called degrees KELVIN (°K)
Absolute temperature in Imperial is called degrees RANKINE (°R)
KELVIN (°K) = °C + 273.15
RANKINE (°R) = °F + 459.67

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Module No. 2: Instrumentation 2 Unit No. 1 - Measurement of temperature
1.2.2
July 1999- Rev.0

Examples
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1.3 EXPANSION TYPE THERMOMETERS

Most materials expand as they get hotter. An expansion type thermometer uses the
expansion of a material to indicate temperature. There are several different types.
1.3.1 Liquid In Glass Thermometers
Figure 1-2 The Thermometer
The "liquid in glass" thermometer is the most common of all thermometers. It has
industrial, domestic and medical uses.
The instrument workshop uses these devices as a basic standard for calibration
purposes. A good quality device is accurate to 0.1°C.
The thermometer, (see Figure 1-2) consists of a glass tube (the stem) which has a
very small but uniform bore (hole). At the bottom of this stem there is a thin, walled
glass bulb. The bulb holds much more liquid than the stem. The bore in the stem is
sealed under a vacuum so that there is no air in the system. The system works by
differential expansion. The liquid expands over 20 times more than the glass when
the bulb is heated.

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 1 - Measurement of temperature INSTRUMENTATION
As the liquid expands it rises up the stem. The temperature is shown on a calibrated
scale on the glass. A good workshop thermometer will have an immersion mark.
The thermometer must be -placed in the liquid up to this mark for accurate
temperature readings.
Typical liquids in use are:


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1.3.2 Filled Systems

Liquid in glass thermometers are not strong enough for plant use so in industry the
bulb and stem are made of steel. The bulb and stem are completely filled with the
expansion liquid under pressure. The indicator is a spiral Bourdon tube, or a
pressure cell (strain gauge) which gives an electronic signal. Figure 1-3 show the
three basic systems.
Figure 1-3 Filled Systems
The steel bulb, stem and indicator (Bourdon tube) are completely filled under
pressure with either; a liquid, eg. mercury, a gas, eg. freon or a vaporising liquid,
eg. methyl chloride. Each system works in the same way. The system is totally filled
to provide a constant volume. Expansion of the fluid in the tube is converted to a
pressure. This pressure expands the Bourdon tube which moves the pointer on the
scale.
Note: The capillary (the stem) can be many meters long so that the
indicator can be placed in a control room away from the fluid
temperature being measured.

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Applications:
Filled systems are still used to indicate temperature particularly in places where
there is no electrical supply. They are normally of the liquid filled type, to provide
enough power to drive a "C" type Bourdon tube. The usual operating range is about
300°C. Gas and vapour filled systems are not used much as indicators because
they have a short range and no driving power. However, they are used a lot in
temperature control, eg. In air conditioning and refrigeration. A filled system is used
to drive a pneumatic temperature transmitter. A typical example of this is the
Foxboro type 12. This will be discussed in the next unit.
Ambient Temperature Compensation:
Filled system thermometers can be inaccurate if the capillary tube is long and the
atmospheric (ambient) temperature around the capillary changes a lot from night to
day. Accurate filled system thermometers use a dummy Bourdon tube and capillary
to compensate for ambient temperature changes. This method is shown in Figure 1-
4
Figure 1-4 Ambient Temperature Compensation for a filled System

Thermometer
The dummy Bourdon tube and capillary are exactly the same as the measurement
system. Any ambient temperature changes causes both the dummy and
measurement system to move the pointer the same amount, but in opposite
directions. So, the ambient temperature errors are cancelled.

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1.3.3 Solid Expansion Types.

These devices use a solid instead of a fluid to measure or control temperature. The
simplest form is the thermostat used to automatically control the temperature of a
water heater. This device uses the expansion differential between brass and invar.
1.3.4 Thermostats
Figure 1-5 The Simple Rod Thermostat
Figure 1-5 shows a simple rod thermostat. The brass tube expands a lot as it gets
hotter but invar expands very little . When the liquid is cool the brass does not
expand so the switch is closed and the electric heater heats the water. When the
water reaches the set temperature the brass tube has expanded enough to pull the
invar rod away from the switch. This opens the switch and breaks the circuit. The
electric heater will stay disconnected until the brass tube contracts enough to close
the switch again. Normally the thermostat and heater are together in one unit. The
temperature at which the switch is opened can be adjusted by changing the tension
of the spring which closes the switch. Thermostats are not very accurate(± 3°C) but
they are long lasting and cheap.

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1.3.5 Bi-metal Strip Thermometers

Figure 1-6 Action of a Bi-metal Strip
Another kind of solid expansion thermometer is the bi-metal strip. Figure 1-6 shows
the action of a bi-metal strip. Two strips of metal, brass and invar, are tightly bonded
together and fixed at one end. When the strip is heated the brass expands much
more than the invar and the strip bends as shown. This action is used to make a
dial thermometer as shown in Figure 1-7. The most common type is the Rototherm.
Figure 1-7 Dial Thermometer (Rotometer)
Operation:
The bi-metal strip is shaped into a helix. The helix is fixed at one end. The other end
of the helix is free to rotate the shaft which is fixed to it. The heat applied to the
bi-metal strip at the fixed end causes the helix to unwind and turn the pointer on the
scale. Rototherm supplies these dial thermometers in ranges up to 560°C.

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1.4 ELECTRICAL METHODS OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

1.4.1 The Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
The Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is the international standard

thermometer for measuring temperatures from -258°C to 727°C. It is accurate to
0.00001°C although in industry 0.1°C is usually good enough. Figure 1.8 shows the
RTD together with a typical industrial unit (Kent Instruments) Industrial Unit
Figure 1-8 Basic Construction of the RTD

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Construction:
This device indicates temperature by measuring the change in the electrical

resistance of a metal. The sensing element has a platinum coil of about 100Ω at
0°C (the Pt 100) see Figure 1-9. The sensing element is connected to the terminal
box by three wires. The ceramic spacers stop heat moving through the casing (the
sheath). The terminal pins have glass to metal seals held in place with glass wool
packing. The output cable connects the sensing head to the electronics unit. This
converts the changes in resistance into temperature readings.
Theory of Operation.
When metals get hotter their resistance increases. This increase in resistance is
almost linear. When it's measured it gives an accurate indication of temperature.
The sensor is usually platinum because it is stable over a large temperature range
and does not corrode. The normal platinum RTD is 100Ω at 0°C and rises to 1
38.5Ω at 100°C. The resistance of a Pt 100 at a particular temperature is given in a
standard table. These tables must be used when calibrating this device. There is a
Pt 100 table on the next page.
Note: Cheaper RTD metals (e.g. nickel and copper) are used where the
temperature range is small.
Nickel is used in water heaters and air conditioners.
Copper is used in oil product tank temperature sensing.
Manufacturers provide tables for the calibration of these RTD's.


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TEMPERATURE RESISTANCE VALUES FOR A Pt 100.

Examples of table use.
1) The resistance at 200°C = 175,84Ω
2) The resistance at - 150°C = 39.73Ω
3) The resistance at 560°C = 300.77Ω


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1.4.2 The RTD Detector: The electrical circuit

Figure 1-9 Simple RTD Detector
The basic circuit (see Figure 1-9) for detecting the resistance of a 3 wire RTD is the
unbalanced Wheatstone bridge. When the RTD is at 0°C (100Ω) the bridge is
balanced so that the display unit reads 0°C As the temperature of the RTD changes
the unbalanced current through the display unit is converted to give the
temperature. The system is calibrated with a decade box (variable resistance unit)
and the Pt 100 tables. For example; place a 335.92Ω resistance value across 1 and
2 when 2 and 3 are joined together and the display unit should read 670°C.
The 3 wire system is used to cancel out unwanted changes in resistance. These
can be caused by temperature changes in the air around the connecting leads. This
is called ambient temperature compensation. The leads to 1 and 3 are on opposite
sides- of the bridge so that any changes in resistance because of ambient
temperature changes cancel each other out.
For greater accuracy, a 4 wire system of ambient temperature compensation is

sometimes used. This is shown below (see Figure 1-10). Changes in the resistance
of leads 1 and 2 are cancelled by changes in the resistance of leads 3 and 4.
Figure 1 -10 The 4 Wire System

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1.4.3 The Thermocouple

Figure 1-11 Seebeck Effect
The thermocouple uses thermoelectric EMF produced by the difference in

temperature between two ends of a metal wire. This is an effect discovered by
Seebeck, see Figure 1-11. Two different metals are joined to make two different
junctions which are held at two different temperatures. The difference between the
metals and the difference in temperature between the hot and cold junctions makes
a current flow around the circuit. To use this effect you need standard tables which
give the EMF produced by the temperature difference in various metal
combinations. The EMF is picked up by an electronic amplifier. The indicator is
pre-calibrated to show the temperature. The voltage can be checked against the
tables, to make sure the indicator is correct.'
Figure 1-12 shows a typical thermocouple temperature measuring system, with a

typical EMF/temperature curve
Figure 1-12 The Thermocouple Thermometer

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There are many different thermocouples in use. They are classified by letter. Most
modern thermocouple detecting instruments can use any standard thermocouple
pair. However, they must be connected to the correct letter position.
STANDARD THERMOCOUPLES IN USE
-200 to 850 °C
Low cost, standard
for general use

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The cold junction (inside the amplifier) must be kept at a constant temperature. This
is done electronically using a cold junction sensor (a thermistor)
Compensating Leads
It is important for the thermocouple wires to be made of the same material all the
way through even if there is a large distance between the hot and cold junctions.'
However, this is not always possible for various reasons. Sometimes the high
resistance of the wire reduces current flow. Sometimes the material is too
expensive; (platinum rhodium).
In these cases you can still get on accurate measurement by using compensating
leads of similar thermo-electrical properties. The standard compensating leads are;
Figure 1-13 shows a typical arrangement of a thermocouple with compensating

leads.
Figure 1-13 The Practical Thermocouple.

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An industrial thermocouple sensing unit looks nearly the same as an industrial RTD
sensing unit. Unfortunately some manufacturers (USA standard) mark the negative
connection with a RED DOT or RED WIRE. The manual must be used when
connecting or checking these devices.
All thermocouple systems can be calibrated by checking the EMF generated. This
requires standard tables such as the table for a type T thermocouple given below.
MILLIVOLTS (mV) VERSES TEMPERATURE TYPE 'T' THERMOCOUPLE
Cold junction at 0°C
Example:
1 A hot junction temperature of 350°C will give an output of

17.816 mV
2) A voltage output of 7.718 mV will indicate a temperature of

170°C

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1.4.4 The Thermistor

A thermistor is a semiconductor made of metal oxides. The thermistor's resistance

increases or decreases with temperature. Thermistors are not very accurate but
they are small. They are often used for ambient temperature compensation. Some
of the cheaper hand-held devices use a thermistor as a sensor but indicate the
temperature using the same system as an RTD The symbol for the thermistor is the
same as an RTD.
Figure 1-14 Typical Industrial Thermistors.
Figure 1-14 shows two typical industrial thermistors. Both use negative temperature
coefficient materials (n.t.c). This means that their resistance goes down as the
temperature rises.

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1.4.5 Radiation Temperature Detectors (Pyrometers)

Radiation temperature detectors (Pyrometers) are non contact devices. They are
used to measure the temperature of something which is difficult to reach by other
means, (eg. gas turbine combustion chambers). They are also the only way to
measure very high temperatures (above about 1500°C) as all other devices melt.
Figure 1-15 shows a typical radiation thermometer.
Figure 1-15 Typical Radiation Thermometer
The heat from the object is focused by lenses onto a sensor. The output from the
sensor is electronically processed by the amplifier to give a reading in degrees. This
device can also transmit a signal to the control room if required.

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The sensor is usually a thermopile. A thermopile is a collection of thermocouples

connected in series to produce a larger millivolt output. A typical thermopile is
shown in Figure 1-16. The radiation is focused onto the black painted centre and
the output connected to an electronic amplifier.
Figure 1-16 Thermopile for use in a Radiation Pyrometer


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Using modern electronics these devices are now very common. One of the newest
radiation Pyrometers is shown in Figure 1-17.
Figure 1-17 Pistol Grip Type Radiation Thermometer.
This device (Calex/Rayteil) is a pistol grip non-contact infrared thermometer. It has

a laser sight for pin point accuracy and other advanced features. The Instrument
has a measuring temperature range of -18°C to +540°C (0° to 1000°F). There is no
need to focus or calibrate it and the operator does not need special training. A
microprocessor makes the device accurate for repeated measurements on very
small objects, (less than 25mm diameter). It gives current and maximum readings
and it recalls the last reading. It's very good for measuring temperatures of
hazardous materials or materials which are hard to reach or moving. The laser sight
allows the operator to pinpoint small targets at a distance, even in the dark. It has
an accuracy of ± 1 %

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1.5 THERMOWELLS
Figure 1-18 Thermowell Installation
The heat in a fluid takes longer to transfer through a thermowell, so changes in

temperature take longer to show. Different methods are used to speed up heat
transfer. Sometimes the space between the probe and the thermowell is filled with a
liquid which conducts heat well. Sometimes the probe is placed in a corrugated
aluminium cover to give a direct metal contact between the probe and the
thermoweli. When you change the probe in a thermowell you must replace the new
probe in the same way as the original.
A thermowell is a device fitted in to a flow line so that the temperature of a fluid can
be measured without shutting down the process. A Thermowell is placed in a flow
line when the line is built. The thermometer is fitted into the thermowell. A typical
thermowell installation is shown in Figure 1-18.

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Unit No. 2 - Temperature transmitter INSTRUMENTATION


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Unit No. 2 - Temperature transmitter INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
2.1 INTRODUCTION 4
2.2 T HE PNEUMATIC TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER 4
2.2.1 Foxboro Type 12 Construction 5
2.3 THE ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER 7


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Unit No. 2 - Temperature transmitter
• Sketch and explain the basic construction and operation of a typical

pneumatic temperature transmitter.
• Sketch and explain the basic construction and operation of a typical

electrical/electronic temperature transmitter.

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2.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to show the construction and operation of two types of
temperature transmitters; the pneumatic temperature transmitter (Foxboro type 12)
and the electronic temperature transmitter (Rosemount model 444).
2.2 THE PNEUMATIC TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER
Figure 2-1 The Foxboro Pneumatic Temperature Transmitter
The most common pneumatic temperature transmitter used in the oil/gas industry is
the Foxboro type 12 (see Figure 2-1). This is used as an example of a typical
instrument.

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2.2.1 Foxboro Type 12 Construction

Figure 2-2 Foxboro Type 12 P.T.T Construction
Figure 2-2 shows a section of a Foxboro 12 Pneumatic Temperature Transmitter

(P.T.T).
Operation:
• The gas filled thermal system (the bulb and capillary tube) is joined to a
bellows called an element capsule. This forms a closed system. Heat on the
sensor produces a change in gas pressure in the thermal system. This
change in pressure makes the element capsule expand or contract.
• The force bar is pivoted at the cross flexure. It is joined to the element
capsule at one end and the flapper at the other end. It is moved by the force
of the expanding bellows of the element capsule. As it moves it adjusts the
position of the flapper at the other end.

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• The output pressure of the nozzle varies with the change in pressure in the
bellows caused by the change in temperature of the filled system.
• The relay amplifies the nozzle output pressure to a standard 3-15 psi
(0.2-1bar) signal.
• The compensating bellows allows for ambient temperature and pressure

changes.
• The feedback bellows makes the system more stable in the same way as it
does on a pressure transmitter.
Foxboro supply these instruments in temperature ranges between -75° to + 125°C

and + 150° to 760°C. The range required must be specified when ordering. The
span of any instrument can be changed within the specified range by the elevation
spring. The stated accuracy is ± 0.5 % of span.

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2.3 THE ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER

One of the most common electrical/electronic temperature transmitters (E.T.T) is

made by Rosemount (Model 444). This is used as an example of a typical
instrument (see Figure 2-3).
Figure 2-3 Rosemount E.T.T Model 444
The Rosemount Model 444 consists of :
Sensor
The type of sensor depends on the range and application; eg:
• Thermocouple - Type E , J, K, R, S, T.
• RTID - Copper (10Ω), Nickel (120Ω) and PT 100Ω with 2, 3 or 4 wire

connections.
Electronics Unit
This unit has two boards. A RANGE board, depending on the sensor in use and an
AMPLIFIER / OUTPUT board which produces the standard 4 - 20mA signal for the
control room.

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Local Temperature Indicator

This unit may or not be included. It provides either a moving coil type display or a
digital display. It gives an on site temperature reading to the operator.
Figure 2-4 Typical E.T.T Installation
Figure 2-4 shows a typical installation for this transmitter. The accuracy of this
transmitter is better than any pneumatic instrument. It is ± 0.2% of the calibrated
span.

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Unit No. 3 - The controller


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
3.1 INTRODUCTION 4
3.2 THE CONTROLLER 4
3.3 BASIC CONTROL THEORY 6
3.3.1 Proportional (P) Control 8
3.3.2 Proportional + Integral (PI) Control 10
3.3.3 Proportional + Integral + Derivative (PID) Control. 11
3.4 THE PNEUMATIC CONTROLLER 12
3.4.1 Pneumatic Controller Operation 13
3.5 THE ELECTRICAL / ELECTRONIC CONTROLLER 16
3.5.2 The Standard Electrical Control Loop 16
3.5.3 The Smart Electrical Control Loop 17
3.5.4 The Digital Loop. 18
3.5.5 Electronic Controller 19


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• The student will be able to:
• Explain the following terms:
measured value
desired value (set point)
error signal
output signal
• Describe the operation of a typical pneumatic controller.
• Describe in general terms, the types of electronic controllers in use.


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3.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to introduce the function of the controller and describe typical
pneumatic and electronic control systems.
3.2 THE CONTROLLER
Figure 3-1 The Controller Block Diagram
Figure 3-1 shows the main parts of a process loop controller:
• Receiver
The receiver converts the signal from the process variable (flow, pressure,
etc.) into a signal which is suitable for the controller operating system (e.g.
pneumatic/mechanical, electronic or computer)
• Error Detector
The error detector detects (finds) any difference between the measured process
variable (measured value) and the set point (desired value).
• Control Amplifier
This unit adjusts the output signal to the correcting unit (final control element
e.g. control valve). The correcting unit corrects the error until the error signal
is reduced to zero. When there is no error the control amplifier keeps the
correcting unit at a fixed position. The operators can switch the system to
manual and adjust the output signal by hand. The output signal is indicated
in percentage from closed (0%) to maximum (100%).
• Controller Functions
There are up to three ways to adjust the controller. The older systems can
be adjusted by a screwdriver. The new systems can be adjusted by

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changing the computer programme.

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The adjustments are:

• Proportional Band (gain). This controls how much the error signal is
amplified.
• Integral (reset). This is adjusted to cancel the final error which may be left
after the proportional action has finished.
• Derivative (rate). This is only used on slow moving loops (for example,
temperature). It gives the system a quick start when an error occurs.

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3.3 BASIC CONTROL THEORY

Figure 3-2 Simple Level Control Loop
Figure 3-2 shows a typical level control loop. This loop is for a two stage separator
which separates oil from gas in a flow steam from a well head. This basic control
system is used to explain the principles of control theory.
The object of good control is to automatically hold the level within safety limits. The
safety limits are set by the system designer as shown in Figure 3-3. The indicator
on the controller shows a percentage % of the minimum and maximum level. An
instrument technician will set these levels from figures given by the engineer.
Typical values are shown in the table (see Figure 3-3).

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Figure 3-3 Loop Operating Limits
The system is under control if the measured value stays within the high and low
alarm levels. Normally there are two alarm levels. The first is a high/low alarm. This
allows the operator to take action by going into manual control. In this way he can
keep the process in operation. The second alarm is a high high/low low alarm. If this
alarm is activated it means the system is unsafe and an automatic shutdown
occurs.
The levels which are set for a control system depend on the process. In this
example ± 5% may be fine. However, in some processes where the quality of the
product is more important (eg. gasoline) the alarm levels may be less than ± 0.5%.
Quality is becoming more and more important in modern industry. This means that
control must be more and more accurate. For this reason, most modern instrument
systems are changing from pneumatic to electrical or computer control. Except for
the latest computer control, all systems use the same three control ideas. These are
Proportional, Integral and Derivative (PID). These three ideas are explained below.

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3.3.1 Proportional (P) Control

Figure 3-4 Proportional Control
Figure 3-4 shows proportional control. The output changes by a proportion (K) of
the error signal. The error signal is the difference between the measured value (MV)
and the setpoint (SP). Therefore:
OUTPUT = K x ERROR SIGNAL
The proportion (K) is also called "gain". It varies from 0.1 to 10 depending on:

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Example :
This means the higher the PB the lower the gain. If the gain is low then the
correcting action will be slower. It's important to adjust the PB and the gain to the
right level.
The graph (see Figure 3-4) shows the effect of changing the gain or PB. If the gain
is too high the system will never recover from a set point change. It will go into
oscillation. If the gain is too low the system will never reach the new set point. The
best gain is, as shown, where the measured value settles down after a short time
(T) but with an OFFSET. Proportional control will always produce an offset (a
permanent difference between the MV and SP). This is because the output is a
proportion of the error.

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3.3.2 Proportional + Integral (PI) Control

Figure 3-5 Proportional Integral Control
Figure 3-5 shows the effect of integral action added to proportional control. Integral
action (reset) is added for one reason. It cancels the offset caused by proportional
control in minimum time (T). However, if the integral action is too quick it will have
the same effect as too much gain and the system will start to oscillate.

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3.3.3 Proportional + Integral + Derivative (PID) Control.

Figure 3-6 Proportional + Integral + Derivative Control
Figure 3-6 shows the effect of adding derivative action to a proportional and integral
controller. Derivative action (rate) produces a signal which is a function of the rate of
change of the error signal. This will give a quick start to the output change.
Derivative action makes the system settle down at the new set point in a much
quicker time (t). The problem with derivative action is that it is not stable. The quick
changes in output can cause the control element to swing open and closed too fast.
This can happen easily when the set point is changed. So, derivative action is only
used if the control loop changes very slowly (e.g. temperature control of a boiler).

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3.4 THE PNEUMATIC CONTROLLER

The pneumatic controller still has its uses. It is often used in remote places,
because it needs no electrical supply. It can also be run on separated gas instead of
an air supply. The most common pneumatic controller is the Foxboro 43 AP (air
supply) or 43 APG (gas supply). This is an independent unit which will indicate and
control pressure, vacuum, temperature or flow depending on the sensor fitted and
the scale supplied. Figure 3-7 shows a 43 AP pressure controller.
Figure 3-7 The Foxboro Type 43 AP Pneumatic Controller


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3.4.1 Pneumatic Controller Operation

The basic principles of a pneumatic controller will be shown using the Foxboro type
43 AP. Other manufacturers use similar methods but their manual must be used for
exact operation. The PI and D controls can only be set up and adjusted on site,
using the actual control loop. This will be practised using a loop simulator in the
workshop.
Air Supply
Figure 3-8 Foxboro Type 43 AP Pneumatic Controller
Figure 3-8 shows the layout of the Foxboro 43 AP, with reset and derivative units
fitted.
Operation:
The error signal comes from the differential linkage. The difference between the
measured value (in this case pressure) and the set point moves the differential
linkage.
The error signal linkage moves the proportioning lever which moves the flapper
closer or further from the nozzle.

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• The output pressure from the nozzle is amplified by the control relay. This
amplified pressure produces the output signal through the auto/manual

switch.
• The balancing feedback for the system is fed, through the derivative unit, to
the proportioning (feedback) bellows. The derivative restrictor sets the time
before the feedback bellows can act. So, the output starts at a maximum
before the system starts to balance. This activates the quick start for the
controller.
• The output signal also goes to the reset bellows via the reset (integral) unit.
The reset restrictor slows down the filling of the reset bellows but eventually
the pressure in the reset bellows will cancel the pressure in the feedback
bellows. This will cancel the offset.
• The setting of the proportional band (gain) is done by moving the flapper
closer or further from the nozzle. The Foxboro system has a special fitting
called a striker bar. This allows the operation of the controller to be reversed.
An increasing error signal can produce either an increasing output or a
decreasing output.
• An auto-manual switch is included. The balance indicator should be in the

middle before the system is changed from manual to automatic. If it is not in
the middle the loop will be "bumped" changing from one output to the other.
• This is a brief description of the operation of the Foxboro 43 AP. You will
understand the system better after doing practical work in the workshop.

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The combined signal of the output, for a set point change, will look as shown in
Figure 3-9.
Figure 3-9 Controller Output Signal with P +I+ D Action


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3.5 THE ELECTRICAL / ELECTRONIC CONTROLLER'

3.5.1 Introduction
The standard electrical control loop is a series connected system which uses a
4-20mA current signal for a 0-100% measurement range. It also uses a 4-20mA
current signal to operate the final control element (control valve) which can move
from fully open to fully closed. This method is being replaced by what are called
SMART SYSTEMS and DIGITAL SYSTEMS. The following notes are given as a
brief introduction to the systems in use.
3.5.2 The Standard Electrical Control Loop
Figure 3-10 The 4-20 mA Electrical Control Loop

Figure 3-10 shows a typical electrical single process control loop. The transmitter
acts as a variable resistor. The process variable changes the current over the range
4-20 mA. Normally a 250 Ω resistor changes the signal for the controller to a 1.5 V
signal. This resistor may be placed on a card called a CONDITIONING CARD which
is separate from the controller, or it may be inside the controller itself.

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The controller produces proportional, integral and derivative actions electronically

which have the same effects as a pneumatic controller. Reset, rate and proportional
band (gain) controls are variable resistors, which can be adjusted with a
screwdriver.
The output from the controller is also a 4-20 mA series loop. The loop current is
converted by a current to pneumatic converter (I/P). This provides the pneumatic
signal for the control valve.
3.5.3 The Smart Electrical Control Loop
Figure 3-11 The Rosemount Smart Transmitter
Figure 3-11 shows a typical smart transmission loop. The transmission signal is
4-20 mA, as in a standard loop. However, pulsed signals are placed on top of this.
The communicator (smart family interface 268) uses these pulses to look into the
system. It checks the control loop and resets the 4mA (zero setting) and 20mA
(span setting).
Note : The communicator can be placed anywhere in the loop but the loop
resistance must be more than 250Ω. This resistance is normally
provided by the safety barrier. Remember the safety barrier is included
to prevent dangerous voltages and currents from happening if there is a
fault.
The system shows a Rosemount transmitter but the Foxboro 800 series and the
Honeywell 3000 series work in much the same way. However, each type has its
own communicator.

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It is possible to have a smart output loop with a computer operated control valve.
However, these are very specialised and must be learnt on the job.
3.5.4 The Digital Loop.
he latest transmitters (Foxboro 860 series) use only pulsed (digital) signals to send
the measured -value to the controller. There is no 4- mA loop and the system
operates using a voltage supply from a special unit in the controller. A simplified
diagram of the system is shown in Figure 3-12.
Figure 3-12 Digital Control Loop
The hand held communicator can be placed in any position in the loop to check the
system and perform zero and span checks.

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3.5.5 Electronic Controller

There are basically three types of electronic controller.
• The analog type (eg. Foxboro, Spec 200)
These provide P and ID control of continuously changing (analog) signals.

They uses a standard operational amplifier similar to the ones made in the
electronics workshop.
• Digital type (eg. Foxboro 760 Series)
These provide single loop control using a small computer' (microprocessor).

The settings are changed using a keyboard on the front of the unit.
• Digital type - Workstation Operation
The latest type of controller. Examples of these are listed below.
Honeywell TDC 3000
Foxboro 1 A
Bailey INFI 90
These controllers can operate a number of control loops at a time (around 20). The
display for each loop is shown on a work station screen (similar to the office
computer). The operator/technician changes the loop variables (eg. set point and
PID settings) using a typewriter keyboard.

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UNITS IN COURSE
Unit No. 4 - Valves & Actuators

July 1999- Rev.0

Page 1/29
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4
4.2 VALVE TYPES 4
4.3. THE GATE VALVE 5
4.4 THE GLOBE VALVE 6
4.4.1 The Industrial Globe Valve. 7
4.5 THE BUTTERFLY VALVE 9
4.6 BALL AND PLUG VALVES 10
4.7 THE PINCH VALVE 13
4.8 THE NEEDLE VALVE 15
4.9 THE CHECK VALVE 16
4.10 PRESSURE RELIEF (SAFETY) VALVE 18
4.11 ACTUATORS 19
4.11.2 The Pneumatic Actuator (Diaphragm Type) 19
4.11.3 The Pneumatic Actuator (Piston Type) 21
4.11.4 The Electrical Actuator 22
4.12 VALVE CHARACTERISTICS 24

4.12.2 Flashing and Cavitation 26
4.13 EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN OPERATIONS 28
4.14 CONCLUSION 28
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• Describe, with the aid of a sketch, the following valve body types.
Gate
Globe
Butterfly
Pinch
Needle
Ball and Plug
Check Valve
Pressure Relief (Safety) Valve
• Describe, with the aid of a sketch, the following types of actuator.
Hand
Diaphragm
Piston
Electrical
• Explain, with diagrams, the control characteristics of a complete control

valve assembly.
• Explain, with diagrams, the terms 'FAIL OPEN, 'FAIL CLOSE.
• Explain, with diagrams, the causes and effects of flashing and cavitation.
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4.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to describe and explain the types of valves and actuators
used to control the flow of a fluid in a process.
4.2 VALVE TYPES
The valves used on a plant can be grouped into two main types.
Shut Off Valves: Shut off valves can be operated by hand or operated
automatically using an actuator. Their purpose is either to
allow full flow through the valve or shut off the flow
completely. They must not be used to control the amount of
flow.
Control Valves: Control valves can also be operated by hand. However, they
are normally operated by an actuator automatically. Their
purpose is to control the amount of fluid passing through the
valve and to act as the correcting element for a control loop.
There are many different valve designs. They can be very simple (e.g. a water tap).
They can be very complicated (e.g. low noise valves for the control of high pressure
gas). The following notes are given as an introduction to the valve types available.
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4.3 THE GATE VALVE

The gate valve is the common shut-off valve for a pipeline. It is designed to be
either fully open or fully closed. Any position between the two can cause a lot of
damage to the valve.
Figure 4-1 The Gate Valve
Figure 4-1 shows the two common forms of gate valves. These valves are hand
operated.
Rising Stem: This is a simple device. As. the handle is turned the
screw thread on the stem pulls up or pushes down the
disc gate. The valve is designed for two positions only,
fully open or fully closed.
Non Rising Stem: The handle turns the stem. The stem fits into the
sleeve which has an inside thread, As the stem turns,
the inside thread causes the sleeve and gate to move
up or down. This type of gate valve is used for higher
pressures. The gate is split so that both sides are
forced tight against the two seats. This gives a tight
shut off.
Note: The rising stem valve is normally turned back a 1/4 of a turn after setting
fully open or closed. This stops it from sticking if it is left for long periods
in one position. This must never be done with a non rising stem valve.
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4.4 THE GLOBE VALVE

This is the most common type of valve used to control the flow of fluid. The simplest
type is the water tap. The flow can be controlled by hand. A simple diagram of how
it works is in Figure 4-2.
Figure 4-2 The Simple Water Tap
The tap body is ball-shaped. The circular plug controls the flow of water by adjusting
the gap between the plug and the seat ring. This action is called "throttling";
squeezing fluid through a smaller and smaller gap to reduce the flow.
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4.4.1 The Industrial Globe Valve.

Industrial globe valves come in all shapes and sizes. However, they can be split into
two main groups; the "shaped plug" and the "plug and cage".
THE SHAPED PLUG GLOBE VALVE.
Figure 4-3 Typical Shaped Plug Globe Valves
Figure 4-3 shows the construction of a shaped plug globe valve. The single plug
valve is used for flow control at low pressures. High pressure control is difficult as
the line pressure pushes against the plug. Therefore, extra force must be applied to
the stem to hold the plug in position. The double plug system (see Figure 4-3b)
overcomes the problem of line pressure by providing two controlled flow streams.
The pressure on the top plug forcing the stem up is balanced by the pressure on the
bottom plug forcing the stem down. So, less force is needed to move the stem and
you have good control at high pressures. The diagram also shows the two types of
valve body. Figure (a), is direct. As the stem rises the flow increases. Figure (b) is
reverse. As the stem rises the flow decreases.
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THE PLUG AND CAGE GLOBE VALVE

Figure 4-4 The Plug and Cage Globe Valve
Figure 4-4 shows a plug and cage globe valve. The flow through the valve is via
holes cut in the cage. The amount of open hole, and thus the flow, depends on the
position of the plug. The plug is held in position by a force on the stem. Most of the
globe valves used in the oil/gas industry are of the plug and cage type. They are
cheaper to manufacture and service, and provide a balanced action with a simple
hole through the plug. The pressure at the top of the plug balances the pressure at
the bottom of the plug. The diagram above shows a direct acting body. A reverse
acting body is also available but it is very unusual.
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4.5 THE BUTTERFLY VALVE

The butterfly valve is a thin disc which rotates across a pipe flow stream. A typical
butterfly valve is shown in Figure 4-5.
Figure 4-5 The Butterfly Valve
The valve is rotated by an actuator. This rotates the disc a 1/4 turn (90°) from full
closed to full open as shown in the simple diagram below.
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The discs in butterfly valves can have different shapes. Different shape discs can
improve throttling characteristics and provide a tight shut-off. A popular model is the
Fisher Fishtail. Figure 4-6 shows the shape of a Fishtail butterfly disc. The sectional
drawing shows how a tight shut-off can be obtained.
Figure 4-6 The Fishtail Disc and Sealing Diagram
4.6 BALL AND PLUG VALVES
Ball and plug valves are 1 /4 turn valves which operate in the same way as a
butterfly valve. The only difference between the two is the shape of the part being
rotated in or out of the flow steam. Figure 4-7 shows a typical ball and plug valve.
Figure 4-7 The Ball and Plug Valve
The ball valve is a sphere with a hole drilled in it. The plug valve is a tapered
cylinder with a hole drilled in it. All these valves are designed so that the actuator
(handle) puts the hole in line for full flow as shown in the diagram below.
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Unit No. 4 - Valves & Actuators INSTRUMENTATION
These valves are popular as shut-off valves, particularly in air lines and process
lines to instruments. They are also used as control valves. There are many different
designs.. Two of the common ones used in the oil/gas industry are the Fisher "V"
ball and the Masoneilan eccentric plug (eccentric means off-centre). The
Masoneilan eccentric plug valve is shown in Figure 4-8.
ECCENTRIC PLUG
ACTUATOR ROD
Figure 4-8 The Masoneilan Eccentric Plug
The actuator turns the plug a 1/4 turn, from fully closed to fully open. The plug is
shaped to provide flow control similar to a globe valve.
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Ball/plug valves are often used to provide three/four way connections. This is done
by drilling the hole in the ball in different ways. Some examples are given in Figure
4-9.
Figure 4-9 Multiway Valves

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4.7 THE PINCH VALVE

The pinch valve is used to control the flow of very corrosive liquids, eg. acids. The
flow passes through a flexible pipe or diaphragm. The pipe must be made of
material which does not corrode easily. The pipe is squeezed or pinched to throttle
the flow. There are two basic types which work in much the same way.
Figure 4-10 Saunders Half Pinch Valve
The SAUNDERS VALVE is a patented device. From the simplified diagram (see
Figure 4-10) it can be seen that the actuator throttles the flow by pressing the
diaphragm closer to the weir. The body itself is insulated from the corrosive liquid by
a glass or plastic coating. The stem is connected to an actuator (either hand or
automatic control)
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Figure 4-11 The Pinch Valve
The PINCH VALVE shown in Figure 4-11 uses a mechanical linkage to squeeze top
and bottom together. The flexible sleeve is made of a synthetic rubber. When you
turn the hand wheel it throttles the flow to the rate you want. An automatic actuator
can be fitted to this device if required.
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4.8 THE NEEDLE VALVE

The needle valve is used to control very low flows (e.g. chemical dosing of pipelines
to stop corrosion). A typical example of a needle valve is shown in Figure 4-12.
The flow is controlled by a needle plug which fits into a small hole in the seat. These
valves can have manual or automatic actuators. When it's made from a solid block
of stainless steel it can give very low flow control at very high pressures (e.g.
100,000 psi).
Figure 4-12 The Needle Valve
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4.9 THE CHECK VALVE

The check valve is a non-return valve. It allows fluid to flow in one direction only in
the same way as a diode allows an electrical current to flow in one direction only.
There are two types of check valve; swing check and lift check.
SWING CHECK
This is the method used for large flow rates through big pipe lines. Figure 4-13
shows a typical swing check valve.
Figure 4-13 Swing Check Valve.
The swing check valve consists of a disc assembly which is free to rotate on the
pivot pin. In the open position the fluid pressure on the disc swings it into the
position shown. This allows full flow through the valve. In the reverse direction the
pressure on the disc forces it hard against the valve seat and no flow is possible.
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LIFT CHECK.
This is the method use for smaller flow rates and pipelines. Figure 4- shows a
typical lift check valve.
Figure 4-14 Lift Check Valve
The lift check valve is similar to a globe valve. However, the plug is free to move. If
there is no flow the weight of the plug closes the valve. Normal flow lifts the plug
and allows the fluid to pass through the valve. If the pressure across the valve is
reversed the plug is forced down against the seat and no reverse flow is possible.
Note: A lift check valve does not open to the full pipe diameter like a check
valve so it is not suitable for high flow rates.
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4.10 PRESSURE RELIEF (SAFETY) VALVE
Pressure Relief (Safety) Valves are mechanically set valves which open to relieve
pressure when automatic control is lost. There are many different designs for this
type of valve, divided into two basic groups.
a) Liquid pressure relief, normally called "Pressure Relief Valves (PRV)
b) Gas pressure relief, normally called "Pressure Safety Valves" (PSV)
The basic difference is in the speed of operation. PSV's must relieve the pressure
much faster than PRV's.
Figure 4-15 Pressure Relief Valve.
Figure 4-15 shows a typical pressure relief (safety) valve.
Operation:
1. Under normal conditions the valve is closed because of the force applied by
the spring.
2. The inlet pressure is applied to the under side of the disc.
3. If the inlet pressure reaches the relief pressure the disc lifts against the
spring. The valve opens and the excess pressure is released; in this
example, to the flare.
4. The device is calibrated using a dead weight tester. The relief pressure is
set by using the adjusting bolt to control the force applied by the spring.
Note: The relief valve shown is only an example. Only certified technicians can
calibrate safety relief valves. Each manufacturer holds special certification
courses for its safety valves. You will do these special courses during
training on the job.
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4.11 ACTUATORS
4.11.1 Introduction
Actuators are the devices which drive the valve stems. There are many different
actuators. They range from the simple handwheel to the latest microprocessor
controlled electrical/hydraulic actuators. The following notes introduce the common
types of actuator in general use by operating companies. You will learn about
specialised actuators used on a particular site during advanced training.
4.11.2 The Pneumatic Actuator (Diaphragm Type)

Figure 4-16 Air to Close Pneumatic Actuator
Figure 4-16 shows a typical sectional view of an air to close, pneumatic actuator.
With a minimum air signal (3 psi or 0.2 bar) applied to the loading pressure
connection, the spring forces the stem to its maximum upwards position. With a
maximum air signal (15 psi or 1 bar) the force on the diaphragm compresses the
spring and the stem moves down to the closed position. Any signal between the two
will hold the stem at an intermediate position to control the flow.
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The actuator can be designed to work in the opposite direction, i.e. air to open.
Figure 4-17 shows a typical air to open actuator. The air signal input is applied to
the underside of the diaphragm (loading pressure connection).
Figure 4-17 Air to Open Pneumatic Actuator

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4.11.3 The Pneumatic Actuator (Piston Type)

Figure 4-18 A piston Pneumatic Actuator
Figure 4-18 shows a typical pneumatic piston actuator. It is used to operate a ball or
butterfly valve. In the position shown the valve is about half way. An increase in the
pressure (P1), forces the piston further down and rotates the ball or butterfly. This
closes the valve more. The system is balanced by the feed back signal (P2). P2 is
provided by the Actuator Control Unit (positioner). The operation of pneumatic
positioners will be explained later in the course. If P1 fails the opposite occurs, P2
increases and the valve opens more.
The actuator rotates the V ball through 90°. When the valve is closed the ball stops
the fluid flow in the same way as an ordinary ball valve. As the valve opens the "V"
cut in the ball allows fluid to pass at an increasing rate to the fully open position. So,
the "V" ball is an efficient control valve similar to the globe type.
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4.11.4 The Electrical Actuator

There are two common types of electrical actuator; the solenoid type used in
emergency shut down systems and the motor operated type used when loading
tankers from a marine terminal.
THE SOLENOID OPERATED VALVE (SOV)
Figure 4-19 The Solenoid Valve
This on/off valve is used to remotely open or shut a flow line. These valves normally
come in small sizes. (e.g. 2" diameter). It is often used for the control of air supply
lines etc. in Emergency Shut-Down (ESD) systems.
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THE MOTOR OPERATED VALVE (MOV)

Figure 4-20 shows one of the latest types of motor operated valve. The valve is
either open or closed. An electrical signal goes to an electric pump. This drives the
hydraulic fluid to open the valve. If the signal stops, the hydraulic pressure falls and
a spring returns the valve to the closed position.
Figure 4-20 The Electro Hydraulic Actuator
These valves are used in large diameter pipelines (e.g. 20" diameter). They control
the flow of petroleum products being loaded onto a tanker, etc.
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4.12 VALVE CHARACTERISTICS

4.12.1 Introduction
The plug or cage of a valve can have different shapes. The different shapes can
control- the flow in different ways. There are three main types of control
characteristics; linear, equal percentage, and quick opening.
The graph below shows how these control characteristics change the flow as the
valve is opened.
A quick opening characteristic gives nearly maximum flow for a small % opening
distance of the plug, (plug travel).
A linear characteristic provides the same change of flow for the same change in
plug travel (e.g. 50% open, 50% flow; 20% open, 20% flow; etc.)
An equal percentage characteristic means the plug travel provides a constant

percentage change in the flow rate. This is shown on the graph as a flow which gets
faster as the valve opens. At a 20% flow rate a 10% increase means the valve
opens to allow the flow rate to increase to 22%. However, a 10% increase in the
flow rate at 80% means the valve opens to allow the flow rate to increase to 88%.
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Which characteristic is used depends on the property being controlled. A few

examples are given below.
Linear - Liquid level and flow control
Equal Percentage - Pressure control
Quick Opening - Pressure relief valves.
The cages and plugs for the different characteristics are easy to tell apart as the
following examples show:
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4.12.2 Flashing and Cavitation

Figure 4-21 Pressure Curve through a Valve
Figure 4-21 shows the effect of a valve throttling a flow steam to control the flow.
The valve acts like an orifice plate. The pressure will fall across the valve as the
velocity increases through the restriction.
If the pressure of the liquid falls below the bubble point the gases in the liquid under
pressure will be released as bubbles. This is called the flashing point. As these
bubbles keep hitting the valve plug and seat they can wear away the metal.
As the fluid leaves the valve the pressure increases again. This makes the bubbles
implode. This is called the cavitation point. The sudden implosion of the bubbles
can wear away the metal on the plug, seat and valve body. The two pictures below
(see Figure 4-22) are examples of flashing and cavitation damage.
Flashing and cavitation are two problems with valves which control liquid flow.
When you service a control valve you must check the plug and cage for signs of
damage caused by these problems. Report any damage as the valve may need to
be redesigned to stop more damage which could cause a shutdown.
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Figure 4-22 Flashing and Cavitation Damage
Most manufacturers make special cages to stop flashing and cavitation. These
cages split the flow into small flow streams. This reduces the possibility of damage
and noise as the flow rushes through the valve. Typical examples are shown in
Figure 4-23.
Figure 4-23 Anti Cavitation/Noise Cages
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4.13 EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN OPERATIONS

Various valve/ actuator assemblies on a plant are made to "fail open" or "fail closed"
in an emergency shutdown. The valve and actuator can be made in the following
ways to produce the "fail open" or "fail closed" conditions.
FAIL OPEN:
1. Air to close actuator with direct operating valve body
2. Air to close actuator with reverse operating valve body.
FAIL CLOSED:
1 Air to open actuator with direct operating valve body
2. Air to close actuator with reverse operating valve body.
Most plants use direct operating valve bodies. They get "fail open" or "fail closed" by
using air to close or air to open actuators. However, the other combinations are
sometimes used.
A piston type actuator can be made either "fail open" or "fail closed" by the
positioner. It is also possible for the positioner to hold the valve at it's last control
position. That is usually called "fail intermediate".
4.14 CONCLUSION
The previous pages have provide a general introduction to valves and actuators.
However, the subject can be very detailed and an engineer/technician can spend all
his working life on valve operations only. A table is added at the end to summarise
the facts you have learned. It gives a summary of the uses of valves.
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Module No. 2: Instrumentation 2 Unit No. 4 - Valves & Actuators
July 1999- Rev.0

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
PRACTICAL TASK 1 3

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PRACTICAL TASK 1
CALIBRATING AN INDUSTRIAL THERMOMETER
INTRODUCTION
Most industrial thermometers cannot be calibrated. All you can do is check that they
are reasonably correct. This is true for mercury in glass and bi-metal strip
thermometers.
However, some of the "filled system" types can be calibrated for zero and span. You
can calibrate for zero by adjusting the pointer. You can calibrate for span by
adjusting the Bourdon tube linkage, in the same way as with a pressure gauge.
TEMPERATURE STANDARDS.
The basic standards for all temperature calibration are:
1) The ice point; ice melting in distilled water at a standard pressure of 101 325
Pa. This is 0° C or 32° F.
2.) The boiling point of distilled water at a standard pressure of 101 325 Pa.
This is 100°C or 212°F.
Other fixed points for temperatures outside this range are internationally agreed.
This is called the International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS). A few examples
of these points are given below:
Boiling point of oxygen - 182.962 ° C
The freezing point of mercury - 38.862 ° C
The freezing point of zinc - 419.58°C
The freezing point of silver - 961.93 °C
The freezing point of gold - 1064.43°C

You will probably never see any calibrations carried out using these standards. The
calibration equipment in the instrument workshop is calibrated when it is
manufactured. It is calibrated against the above standards and given a calibration
certificate which shows its accuracy. When you get it from the manufacturer your
equipment should be correct. A good instrument workshop sends its calibration
equipment for re-calibration every year. Then a new calibration certificate is given.

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The most common industrial standard thermometer is the platinum PT 100 Ω. This
should be accurate to 0.1° C over the range 15 to 1000° C. This thermometer is
fitted into a temperature bath (usually sand filled or solid block). The electrical
heater for the temperature bath is controlled by the PT 100 Ω. The temperature of
the bath is given on a digital read out. An example of a workshop temperature
calibration bath is shown in Figure PT-1. The AMETEK dry block calibrator has a
range of -40 to 1 23°C and an accuracy of ± 0.5°C.
Figure PT-1 Arnetek Dry Block Calibrator

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The CDC does not have a modern temperature calibration bath. The following
calibration is done using a "sand filled" temperature bath which does not keep such
a steady temperature. The standard temperature is set using a semi-standard
mercury in glass thermometer. Remember to use the immersion line for correct
calibration. An ice/water mixture is used as the standard 0°C A layout of the
calibration procedure is shown in Figure PT-2.
Figure PT-2 Basic.Thermometer Calibration
CALIBRATION STEPS
1) Place the thermometer which you are testing in the ice/water mixture. It
should read zero on the scale. If the thermometer is the filled
system/Bourdon tube type, adjust the pointer to read zero.
2) Place the thermometer which you are testing in the temperature bath and
adjust the set temperature so that you get the maximum indication on the
thermometer dial. If the thermometer is of the filled system/Bourdon tube
type, adjust the linkage to the maximum indication point.
3) Non adjustable thermometers are OK if they are within ± 4°F or ± 2°C

4) The filled system types can, with care, be set to an accuracy of about ± 1° C.
Note: The above calibration procedure is the same using a modern

temperature bath, but the ice is not needed. Also the quick response of
the modern bath allows you to plot a graph to show linearity. The CDC
bath needs an air supply. The air flows through the sand so that the
temperature is the same in all parts of the sand bath.

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CALIBRATING A FILLED SYSTEM PNEUMATIC TRANSMITTER

Figure PT-4 Calibrating a Filled System Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter
Figure PT-4 shows the layout required to calibrate a filled system, pneumatic,
pressure transmitter.
1) The calibrated range of the transmitter will be given by the instructor.
2) Adjust the temperature bath to the minimum value of the transmitter range.
3) When the temperature of the bath is steady adjust the reference adjustment
on the elevation spring so that you get 3 psi or 0.2 bar on the output test
gauge.
4) Adjust the temperature bath to the maximum value of the transmitter range.
5) When the temperature of the bath is steady, adjust the feedback bellows so
that you get 15 psi or 1 bar on the output test gauge.
6) Repeat steps 2 through 5 until the outputs are correct at both temperatures.
7) The output should be linear between 3 and 15 psi (0.2-1 bar) and no more
calibration is needed.
The above procedure is a simple summary of the manufacturer's instruction

manual. You will need this manual to find the components and to adjust the
feedback bellows.
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INSTRUMENTATION
CALIBRATING AN ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC TEMPERATURE

TRANSMITTER
INTRODUCTION
Manufacturers of ectricaI/eIectronic temperature transmitters produce these

transmitters for most types of T/C's and RTD's. The electronic board inside the
housing is changed to suit a particular T/C (e.g. type J,K etc.) or RTD (e.g. PT
100Ω or copper 10Ω etc.). The transmitter has a special number to indicate what it
does. This must be checked in the manual before calibration can be done. The CDC
instrument workshop has different examples of the Rosemount model 444 Alphaline
temperature transmitter. This transmitter is used a lot by the operating companies.
The basic calibration procedures done on the model 444 are the same for any type
of temperature transmitter. However, because of small differences in design the
manufacturer's manual must be used in all cases.
The calibration procedure must be done using the manufacturer's manual. The
instructor will show you how to find out what type of transmitter is to be calibrated.
This is complicated and will only apply to the Rosemount model 444. Other types,
used on job site, will have similar complicated manuals.
However, the basic calibration of a temperature transmitter is much the same and
the same test equipment is used. There are two basic layouts.
• When the transmitter is of the T/C type.

Figure PT-5 Calibration of a T/C Transmitter

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Figure PT-5 shows a block layout for the calibration of a T/C transmitter. The T/C
calibrator simulates the T/C temperature by sending a mV signal which corresponds
to the T/C type J, K, N etc.). The DVM is usually connected across the test position.
The zero and span are adjusted to give a 4-20mA output signal corresponding to
the T/C sensor range (eg. 100-400°C).
Note : Sometimes it is better to add your own standard resistor in series with
the output. The DVM is then placed across this to measure the 4-20mA.
A typical standard resistor is of the wire wound type (eg. 10Ω ± 0.1 %).
This produces a 40mV to 200mV signal.
• When the transmitter is of the RTD type
Figure PT-6 Calibration of RTID Temperature Transmitter
Figure PT-6 shows the block layout for the calibration of an RTD temperature
transmitter. The input RTD resistance value for the temperature comes from a
decade box (standard variable resistor). The output 4-20mA is measured by using
either the test position or a standard resistor.
The zero is adjusted to give 4mA for the minimum temperature set by the decade
box. The span is -adjusted to give 20mA for the maximum temperature set by the
decade box.
Note : Modern calibrators produce a resistance output so a decade box is

not required. The calibrator is connected to the transmitter. In this
case a three wire system is used. The calibrator is then programmed
to give the required RTD resistance values.

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MODULE No. 3
INSTRUMENTATION 3
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Unit No. 1 - Converters & Positioners
UNIT 1 CONVERTERS AND POSITIONERS
UNIT 2 RECORDERS
UNIT 3 INDICATORS AND COMBINED UNITS
UNIT 4 HAZARDOUS AREAS AND INTRINSIC SAFETY


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 THE ELECTRICAL TO PNEUMATIC SIGNAL CONVERTER (I/P) 4
1.2.2 The Foxboro I/P Converter (E69F) 4
1.3 THE VALVE POSITIONER (DIAPHRAGM ACTUATORS) 6
1.4 THE VALVE POSITIONER (PISTON ACTUATORS) 8
1.5 THE COMBINED I/P AND POSITIONER 10
1.5.1 The Fisher Electro-Pneumatic Positioner 10
1.5.2. Foxboro I/P Valve Positioner (E69P) 12
1.6 PRESSURE TO CURRENT CONVERTERS (P/1) 13
1.6.2 Rosemount Type 1135F P/I Converter 13
1.6.3 The Foxboro 7010A P/I Converter 15


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INSTRUMENTATION

• Explain the need for I/P and P/l converters.
• Explain the operation of a typical I/P converter e.g. Foxboro.
• Explain the purpose of a positioner.
• Explain the operation of a typical valve positioner e.g. Fisher.
• Explain the operation of a modern combined electrical/pneumatic

converter/positioner, e.g. Fisher, Rosemount.
• Explain the operation of typical pneumatic signal to electrical signal

converters, e.g. Rosemount, Foxboro.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to explain:
• The operation and use of equipment which converts electrical signals to

pneumatic signals (I/P)
• The valve positioner and its uses
• The combined valve positioner and I/P.
• The pneumatic signal to electrical signal converter (P
1.2 THE ELECTRICAL TO PNEUMATIC SIGNAL CONVERTER (11/P)
1.2.1 Introduction
The electrical to pneumatic signal converter (I/P) is an important piece of pneumatic

equipment. This is because, even with modern digital transmission systems, most
control is done with pneumatically operated valves. The 1/P is therefore an essential
item in any electrical / lelectronic control system.
The basic mode of operation is the "electric motor principle". A current passed
through a conductor in a magnetic field will make the conductor move. The most
common type of I/P which is used a lot in the field is the Foxboro (E69F).
1.2.2 The Foxboro I/P Converter (E69F)

Figure 1-1 The Foxboro I/P Converter

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INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 1-1 shows a schematic diagram of the Foxboro I/P converter. The coil,
permanent magnet and coil flexure are mounted inside a can made of magnetic
material, e.g. soft iron. The can is not shown in the diagram to make it easier to
see. The can makes the magnetic field produced by the permanent magnet run at
right angles to the coil. This makes a system similar to a moving coil meter, as
shown in the sketch below.
Basic Operation:
An increase in the input current through the coil makes the coil rotate. This moves
the flapper towards the nozzle. The back pressure is increased. The change is
amplified by the relay and applied to the feedback bellows. This makes the nozzle
move away from the flapper until it reaches a new balance position.
The system is arranged so that when the coil current reaches the upper range value
(e.g. 20mA), the pneumatic output signal reaches its own upper range value (e.g. 1
bar). The signal can be adjusted a little by moving the nozzle radially at an angle to
the axis of the coil.
Note:- The coil flexure acts as the restoring spring. With minimum current through
the coil (e.g. 4mA), the flexure returns the coil to its - starting position and
sets a minimum output pressure (e.g. 0.2 bar).

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1.3 THE VALVE POSITIONER (DIAPHRAGM ACTUATORS)

A valve positioner is a device fitted onto a control valve to make the valve respond
better. It's very good when long pneumatic control signal lines are used.
It will position a valve accurately even if there are unbalanced forces in the valve
body. It will also overcome stem friction. However, the positioner provides positive
feedback to make the valve respond more quickly. Therefore, it can not be used on
modern electronic controls systems as it will cause instability.
Figure 1-2 The Fisher Valve Positioner

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INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 1-2 shows a typical valve positioner (Fisher) fitted to a control valve. It has an
"air to push down" actuator. The schematic diagram shows the main parts of the
positioner. This schematic diagram is used to show the operation as follows.
When the instrument pressure increases, the bellows expands and moves the
beam. The flapper pivots on the beam and restricts the nozzle. The nozzle pressure
increases and moves the relay diaphragm assembly. This opens the relay supply
valve which moves the actuator stem downward. The stem movement is fed back to
the beam by means of a cam. This causes the flapper to pivot slightly away from
the nozzle. Nozzle pressure decreases and the relay supply valve closes to stop the
output pressure from increasing more. The positioner is now in balance again but at
a higher instrument pressure. It also has a slightly different flapper position and a
new actuator stem position.
When the instrument pressure decreases, the bellows contracts (helped by an

internal range spring). This moves the beam to pivot the flapper slightly further from
the nozzle. The nozzle pressure decreases and through relay operation, the
exhaust valve in the relay opens. This releases the diaphragm actuator pressure to
atmosphere, which allows the actuator stem to move upward. This stem movement
is fed back to the beam by the cam to reposition the beam and flapper. When
everything is in balance again, the exhaust valve closes to stop the pressure in the
-diaphragm case from failing any more.
The speed of operation depends on how much feedback is applied by the feedback
bellows. This can be adjusted by moving the position of the flapper on the quadrant.
If the action of the actuator is "air to push up", the positioner must work in the
reverse direction. This is done by placing the flapper in the reverse action quadrant
of the beam.

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1.4 THE VALVE POSITIONER (PISTON ACTUATORS)

Figure 1-3 The Fisher Positioner for Piston Actuators

Figure 1-3 The Fisher positioner for Piston Actuators

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 1-3 shows a Fisher valve positioner for piston actuators. Figure 1-3(a) shows
a diagram of the layout of the positioner. Figure 1-3(b) shows the positioner fitted to
the piston actuator.
OPERATION
1) The input signal is applied to a bellows. This bellows applies a force to a

double flapper assembly which moves using the flexure as a pivot.
2) If the input signal increases, flapper "B", moves away from relay "B" and
flapper 'W' moves nearer to relay "A". The signal pressure from relay 'W'
increases and the signal pressure from relay W' decreases.
3) The higher pressure on the top of the piston (relay A) moves the piston
down. Therefore the stem moves down to close the valve.
4) The range spring provides the feedback to the system so that the valve is
repositioned at the new input controlled position.
5) If t-he input signal decreases the opposite action occurs. The piston moves
up to open she valve at the new input controlled position.
6) The bias spring is adjusted to give the fully open position. This is the "Zero"
adjustment where a 3 psi (0.2 bar) input sets the valve fully open.
7) The "span" is set by the range spring. This is selected to give a fully closed
valve with a 5 psi (1.0 Bar) input signal.
8) The positioner is easily changed to provide reverse action (input signal 3 psi
fully closed) by changing the position of the input signal bellows (as shown).
Note:
The above operation assumes the valve body is direct acting (stem moving down
closes the valve).
If the valve requires a reverse action, place the input bellows on the opposite side of
the lever as shown.
There are many different types of this positioner/actuator. The type used depends
on the length of stroke of the valve and the operating pressures required. The
manual must be consulted if the actuator/positioner is not of the standard type
described.

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1.5 THE COMBINED UP AND POSITIONER

1.5.1 The Fisher Electro-Pneumatic Positioner
Schematic diagram of positioner
Figure 1-4 The "Fisher" Electro-Pneumatic Valve Positioner

Figure 1-4 The “Fisher” Electro-Pneumatic Valve Positioner

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INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 1-4 shows the Fisher combination UP and positioner.

OPERATION
• The electric current is changed to pneumatic pressure using a 4 coil system

and a magnetic armature.
• The current passing through the coils produces a magnetic field as shown.
The armature is pulled up by the positive connection coils and pushed down
by the negative connection coils.
• The armature acts as a flapper against the nozzle. A high signal current
pushes the flapper nearer to the nozzle and produces a high output signal.
• The relay amplifies the nozzle output and applies it to the diaphragm to
move the valve stem.
• Feedback is provided by the lever system.
The solid arrows show the movement as the diaphragm pressure increases. The
feedback spring pulls the armature down. The supply current pulls it up. These two
opposing forces stabilise the system as the signal current gets higher. If the signal
current fails the action is reversed. This is shown by the dotted arrows.
Note:
1) The current to pneumatic conversion unit (torque motor) must never be

taken to pieces. If you do this, you cannot set it up again, as the magnetic
circuit is ruined.
2) The setting up of this unit is complicated and will be done in the workshop
using the manuals.
3) The torsion rod acts like the controlling spring in a moving coil meter. When
the signal current is removed the torsion rod puts the armature back to its
horizontal position.

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1.5.2. Foxboro UP Valve Positioner (E69P)

The Foxboro I/P valve positioner (type E69P) is an adaptation of the standard I/P
described in section 1. Figure 1-5 shows the layout of the system.
Figure 1-5 Foxboro UP Valve Positioner
OPERATION
• An increase in current through the coil rotates the flapper closer to the
nozzle. The output pressure from the relay goes up.
• The increase in output pressure moves the valve stem up.
• The radius arm connected to the valve stem moves the lever which is
pivoted about the feedback flexure. This makes the nozzle move away from
the flapper. This provides the feedback required to reposition the valve at its
new setting. The span adjustment sets the amount of feedback and thus the
size of the stroke.

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1.6 PRESSURE TO CURRENT CONVERTERS (P/I

1.6.1 Introduction
The pressure to current converter (P/1) is the opposite of the current to pressure
converter (I/P). It changes an input pressure signal (e.g. 3-15 psi) to a standard
electrical signal (e.g. 4-2OmA). The two examples given in the notes are the
Rosemount type 11 35F and the Foxboro type 892.
1.6.2 Rosemount Type 1135F P/I Converter

Figure 1-6 Rosemount 1135F P/I
Figure 1-6 shows a Rosemount 1135F P/I fitted to a pipe for use in the field.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
OPERATION
The 1135F P/I uses a capacitive cell (the same type as the Rosemount electrical
pressure transmitter). The3-15 psi or 0.2-1 bar pneumatic signal is applied to one
side of the cell. Atmospheric pressure is applied to the other side of the cell. The
movement of the sensing diaphragm (maximum 0.10 mm) depends on the
differential pressure across it. The difference in capacitance (C1-C2), as the sensing
diaphragm moves, is measured by the electronics to provide the 4-20mA signal.
There is only one adjustment in the electronics. The zero adjustment. This sets the
device to give 4mA output for a 3 psi or 0.2 bar input. The span of the device is set
in the factory to meet customer requirements.

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1.6.3 The Foxboro 7010A P/1 Converter

Figure 1-7 shows the basic principle of the device.
DUAL UNIT P/1 CARD 7010A

Figure 1-7 Foxboro P/1 Converter 7010A
Foxboro produce a dual pneumatic to current converter for mounting in a rack

instead of field mounting. The pneumatic signals are transmitted to the control room
where they can be converted to an electrical signal in a safe area. The diagram
above shows the Foxboro 7010A converter together with a rack mounted 7020A
nest of these converters.

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INSTRUMENTATION
This is an analog system which uses operational amplifiers. A simplified diagram of

the electronics is shown below.
T1
OPERATION
Component “A” is a strain gauge bridge. R1 and D2 provide a constant reference

Voltage for the bridge. The supply to the unit is from an external 24V D.C supply.
operational amplifier O1 detects the changes in resistance (voltage) across the
bridge and the pressure changes. Operational amplifier O2 produces an output
depending on the difference between O1 output and the reference voltage. O2
output controls the base voltage and thus the conduction of T1. T1 is a series
transistor which varies the 4-20mA signal around the loop. D1 is added to stop any
reverse current flow if the power supply is wrongly connected. The span adjustment
adjusts the gain of O1 and the zero adjustment adjusts the reference level for O2.

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CALIBRATION
The calibration of the equipment is simple. The following section is a copy of the
procedure taken from the Foxboro manual. The power supply voltage required
depends on the resistance of the output load, (e.g. controller input). This is the
receiver on the diagram. This is 24V dc with a 500Ω resistor put in place of the
receiver.
Equipment Setup
Procedure
1) Set up the equipment as shown.
2) Adjust the air supply so that the test gauge reads 3 psi or 0.2 bar.
3) Adjust the zero screw (Channel 1) so that the digital voltmeter (DVM) output
is 100 mV.
4) Adjust the air supply so that the test gauge reads 1 5 psi or 1.0 bar
5) Adjust the zero screw (Channel 1) so that the digital voltmeter (DVM) output
is 500mV.
6) Repeat steps 2 through 5 until you get the desired output.
7) Repeat steps 1 through 6 for Channel 2.

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Output Load Resistance

To determine the converter's output load resistance, add the input resistance of
each component in the series loop which is connected to the converter output. The
total loop resistance must not exceed 1000 Ω. As an example, if the resistance is
500 Ω, as shown in the following graph, the supply voltage must be 24 V minimum.

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INSTRUMENTATION

Unit No. 2 - Recorders
UNIT 2 RECORDERS


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INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
2.1 INTRODUCTION 4
2.2 THE PNEUMATIC RECORDER 4
2.2.2 The Foxboro Series 120 Consotrol Recorder 5
2.2.3 Circular Chart Recorder 8
2.3 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ANALOG RECORDERS 9
2.4 MODERN MICRO-PROCESSOR BASED RECORDER 11
2.4.2 The Foxboro 740 Recorder 11
2.4.3 Conclusion 14

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

• Identify the parts of a pneumatic recorder.
• Identify the parts of an electrical/electronic recorder.
• Identify the parts of a microprocessor based recorder.
• State the three common types of charts used in recorders: roll, flip and
circular.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to explain the principles of pneumatic, electrical/electronic and
microprocessor based recorders. These are devices which produce a record of a
process variable using an ink pen which draws a line on a chart. The chart is rotated
by a motor to give a continuous record over a period of, for example, 24 hours.
2.2 THE PNEUMATIC RECORDER
2.2.1 Introduction
The pneumatically operated recorder is still used today, particularly in remote

locations. It does not use electricity so it does not need any special intrinsic safety
measures when it is used in hazardous areas. Examples of typical pneumatic
recorders are shown below manufactured by Foxboro. They are the series 120
Consotrol recorder and the series 40 circular chart recorder; both made by Foxboro.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
2.2.2 The Foxboro Series 120 Consotrol Recorder

Foxboro produces a range of pneumatic instruments called "Consotrol". The

Foxboro series 120 Consotrol recorder is one of the most common pneumatic
recorders. It is still manufactured and you can get spares for it. You may see other
types of pneumatic recorders on older sites but they will work in much the same way
as the Foxboro. If you come across a different recorder you should consult the
manual before working on it. Figure 2-1 shows the front and top views of the
Foxboro 120 pneumatic recorder.
TOP VIEW 4 PEN RECORDER (COVER REMOVED)
Figure 2-1 Foxboro 120 Pneumatic Consotrol Recorder


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The pens are operated by a bellows and pivot assembly. A sketch of the assembly
is shown in Figure 2-2.
Figure 2-2 Pen Driving Mechanism (Foxboro)

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INSTRUMENTATION
Operation
1. The incoming pneumatic signal is applied to a bellows unit which works by

compression against the range spring.
2. As the input signal increases the pen is rotated across the scale. The scale
indicates from 0 to 100% for an input signal of 0.2 to 1 bar (3 to 15 psi).
3. The rotating mechanism has span and zero adjustment screws (as shown)
4. The driving rod from the bellows to the rotating mechanism has a linearity
adjustment. This can adjust the linearity of the pen travel from 0-100%.
5. The recorder can drive a maximum of 4 pens.
6. The ink of the pens is supplied from bottles which are refillable. The colours
available are red, green, blue and violet.
The chart is driven round by a motor (either electric or pneumatic) at a standard rate
of 19 mm per hour. There is enough paper on a roll or flip chart to record around 30
days of continuous operation. The calibration and servicing of this recorder will be
done in the workshop during practical tasks. The manual must be used.

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2.2.3 Circular Chart Recorder
Foxboro also produces a circular chart recorder for field use. The pen drive system
is the same as in the 120 Consotrol recorder. The chart is normally driven by
clockwork. The instrument technician must wind it up from time to time. The circular
chart completes one revolution every 24 hrs. The chart can be linear or square root.
The square root chart can be calibrated to give a direct reading of flow rate.
Figure 2-3 shows the instrument from the outside and a diagram of the pen
operating mechanism behind the chart.
Foxboro Type 40 Circular Chart Recorder (outside view)

Figure 2-3 Circular Chart Recorder
The measurement unit can be selected from various measuring elements, e.g.
gauge pressure, absolute pressure, temperature, etc. The recorder can have a
maximum of 4 elements to drive 4 pens. The newer recorders use disposable fibre
tip pens but the older ones use a capillary tube with a refillable ink bottle

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INSTRUMENTATION
2.3 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ANALOG RECORDERS
One of the few electrical/electronic analog recorders still available is the Foxboro E
20S recorder. This recorder is a modification of the Spec 200 recorder which you
can practice on in the workshop. This recorder can operate with roll or flip type
charts. The inking system is the same as the pneumatic 120 series but you can get
fibre tip disposable pens if required. Figure 2-4 shows the front view of a single pen
recorder with a flip chart fitted.
Figure 2-4 Foxboro Type E 20S with Flip Chart


TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 2 - Recorders INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 2-5 Foxboro E 20S Pen Assembly (top cover removed).
Figure 2-5 shows ,the pen drive mechanism for a Foxboro E 20S recorder.
Operation:
1 The incoming 4-20mA signal is applied to the pen drive unit. This unit is fully
sealed. You can not repair faulty units; you must change the whole unit.
2. The pens are driven from the arbor assembly which is connected to the drive
assembly by a link as shown.
3. The arbor assembly contains the zero and span adjustments for setting the
pen travel, as shown.
4. The diagram shows a three pen unit. The pen drive units are underneath the
plate holding the arbor and pen stop assembly. A screw type connection
holds the lever assembly on to the shaft of the drive unit.
5. A pen stop mechanism is added to prevent the pen from running off the
chart at either end. (0%, 100%). These stops should not be used to set up
zero and span.

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2.4 MODERN MICRO-PROCESSOR BASED RECORDER

2.4.1 Introduction
The latest recorders (either roll, flip or circular chart types) use a microprocessor to
give multipurpose recording. The µP is programmed (configured) to set the alarm
levels, engineering units, chart speeds etc. Normally the operator can use a
keyboard to get exact indicated readings, totals etc. These are shown on a digital
readout at the top of the chart. The Foxboro type 740R series is given as an
example of this type of recorder. The following notes give an overview of how it
works. Remember that you must use the manual when servicing this type of
recorder. The manual will tell you exactly how the device should be configured and
operated. The operator cannot change the programme. The instrument technician
has a secret password, so that only a technician can change the configuration of
the recorder (usually under instructions from an engineer).
2.4.2 The Foxboro 740 Recorder
Figure 2-6 shows the outside of the Foxboro 740 recorder. Note that the operator
can use the keyboard to take process readings from the digital readout. He does
not need to open the instrument or disturb the recordings on the charts.
Figure 2-6 Foxboro Type 740R µP Recorder

TRAINING MANUAL
Figure 2-7 (a) Foxboro 740 Recorder (front door removed)
Figure 2-7 (a) shows the recorder with the door removed. Note the addition of a pen
letter. This ensures that the pens make no mess on the chart when it Is changed. '
Also, if the pen is not in use it can be lifted out of the way so there are no useless
lines on the charts.

TRAINING MANUAL
Figure 2-7 (b) Foxboro 740 Electronics (platen open)
Figure 2-7 (b) shows the electronics of the recorder., These are under the platen
(the name of the plate which holds the pens, chart and chart drive). Note that all
connections and changes to the electronics can be done from the front of the
recorder. There is no need to remove the instrument from its field position or control
room panel mounting.
The electronics cards for the recorder can be selected to record and/or display the
following.
Temperature T/C Types B, C, E, J, K, L, N, R, S, and T
RTD 100Ω Platinum, 10Ω Copper, 120Ω Nickel

Signals for pressure, flow rate, level etc. in the following forms:
mA dc 4 to 20mA
mV dc -80 to + 400 mV dc
V dc 0- 100V dc

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INSTRUMENTATION
The electronics provides
a) Cold junction compensation

b) RTD operating currents
c) Mathematical operations on the signals:
Square root, X 3/2, X 5/2 and Logx 10.
Instructions about how to fit these cards are given in the manual. The manual also
tells you how to program the µP to provide the correct display and chart recording
values (e.g. °C, bar, litres per minute etc.)
The ink systems today do not use bottles and capillaries as seen in the workshop.
They use disposable felt-tip pens which are easy to change. A Foxboro type, which
is much the same as other manufacturers, is shown in Figure 2-8.
Figure 2-8 Modern Ink Pen Fitting
2.4.3 Conclusion
The Foxboro 720 recorder is typical of any µP based recorder. Most manufacturers
supply these devices in either roll, flip or circular chart form. Each has
interchangeable electronic cards to measure, display, and record most of the
process variables. A keyboard is provided to configure the system. The Foxboro
manual is typical. It is large and contains all the information required to set up the
recorder and programme it.

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Unit No. 3 - Indicators & Combined Units INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 2 RECORDERS


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 3 - Indicators & Combined Units
Para Page
3.1 INTRODUCTION 4
3.2 THE PNEUMATIC SIGNAL INDICATOR 4
3.2.2 The Foxboro 110 Indicator 4
3.3 THE ELECTRONIC INDICATOR 7
3.3.2 The Foxboro 7601 Micro Indicator 7
3.3.3 The Bailey 531T5100 Indicator 9
3.3.4 Rosemount 580D Digital Process Indicator 10
3.4 COMBINATION UNITS 11
3.4.2 The Foxboro 130 Pneumatic Controller 11
3.4.3 The Foxboro 760 Series Indicator/Controller 13


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

• Use a given diagram to describe the operation of a pneumatic indicator.
• Use a given diagram to describe the operation- of an electrical/electronic

indicator.
• Use a given diagram to describe the operation of a typical combined unit,

(electrical/electronic and pneumatic) e.g. :
recorder/indicator
indicator/controller
indicator/controller/recorder.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of the unit is to explain the use and operation of a control room indicator.
The indicator is not often used as a separate unit on its own. Therefore, some
examples of recorder/indicators, indicator/controllers and indicator
/controller/recorders are explained to show the more common combined control
room unit.
3.2 THE PNEUMATIC SIGNAL INDICATOR
3.2.1 Introduction
The pneumatic indicator is now obsolete. It is only seen on old installations or on

production facilities at remote locations with no electrical supply.
About the only manufacturer still supplying this device is Foxboro. They supply the
type 110 Consotrol pneumatic indicator.
3.2.2 The Foxboro 110 Indicator

Figure 3-1 Foxboro 110 Consotrol Pneumatic Indicator
Figure 3-1 shows the front view of a Foxboro 110 pneumatic indicator which
displays two process variables. (There are indicators which display a maximum of
three process variables). The scales are made to fit customers' requirements.

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Figure 3-2 below shows an enlarged view of the receiver and pointer drive assembly
for a 3 variable indicator.

Figure 3-2 Indicator Assembly

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INSTRUMENTATION
OPERATION:
The pneumatic signal from the transmitter (3-15 psi or 0.2-1 bar) is applied to the
bellows unit (expansion type). The expanding bellows moves the moving plate. This
moves the pointer across the scale by way of a link adjustment and the pointer drive
unit. The amount of pointer movement depends on the input signal.
The customer decides what variable must be measured, e.g. temperature,

pressure, flow, etc. The receiver is calibrated using the span and zero adjustments
as shown. A damping adjustment is added. This stops a pulsating signal from
making the pointer difficult to read. The calibration of this type of indicator will be
done in the workshop using the manual.

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3.3 THE ELECTRONIC INDICATOR

3.3.1 Introduction
The following notes are given to show three examples of the many kinds of
electronic indicators available in the market.
3.3.2 The Foxboro 7601 Micro Indicator
Figure 3-3 Foxboro 7601 Micro Indicator

Figure 3-3 shows the front of a Foxboro 7601 micro indicator. This is typical of the
modern µP based indicators. The keypad is used to programme (configure) the
indicator to the measurements and alarm settings required. The two measurement
bar graphs are calibrated from 0-100%. The actual value is indicated by the number
of LEDs which light up on the bar graph.
The alphanumeric display at the top shows the actual value of input measurement
in words and numbers. The operator can use the keyboard to select which value is
displayed.

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INSTRUMENTATION
The operator can only use the keyboard if he is allowed to change the settings. If
you work on this type of indicator you must use the manual both for operating and
reconfiguring. The alarm indicator will flash if the alarm limits are reached. You can
find the alarm readings and settings using the keyboard. However, you must use
the manual to do this. The following input signals can be applied to the indicator.
1) 4-20mA
2) 1-5V
3) RTD in various ranges
The actual units of measurement for the input signal (e.g. level, pressure,
temperature) are configured using the input keyboard and the manual.
The manual tells you how to calibrate the indicator. Remember this instrument is
accurate to ± 0.2%. Therefore, the calibration equipment must be accurate to ± 0.1
%.

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3.3.3 The Bailey 531T5100 Indicator

Figure 3-4 Bailey 531T5100 Indicator
The Bailey 531T5100 will indicate 4 process variables at one time using what is
called a "dot matrix" display. On this display the LEDs are points, not bars. Although
points are more difficult to produce, they are clearer and easier to read. Like the
Foxboro, the indicator will show a % indication on a bar and the actual value in the
units required on the alphanumeric display (gallons in the diagram). The operator
presses the buttons on the side to show the different process variables on the
alphanumeric display.
The indicator is configured using a special Bailey communicator. This can be

plugged into the slot at the front. The inputs can be either 420mA or 1-5V. They can
be transferred directly to an output connection so that they can be used by other
units (e.g. recorder).
Alarms can be set into the indicator. The outputs can be changed into serial data
form using a RS 232C data port. Another advantage is that the indicator can provide
a 24-26V dc output so it can drive a transmitter if required.

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3.3.4 Rosemount 580D Digital Process Indicator

Figure 3-5 Rosemount 580D Digital Process Indicator
Figure 3-5 shows a Rosemount 580D digital process indicator. This is a typical
example of this type of indicator.
The input is the standard 4-20mA. The µLP inside the unit converts this signal to a 4
digit display. The range and units are programmed by the push buttons on the front.
The example shows gallons per minute but most units can be displayed (e.g.
pressure (psi, bar), level (meters, feet)). It has an accuracy of 0.02% of reading ± 1
count. Like the Bailey indicator, this unit can be provided with an internal 24dc
power supply to drive a transmitter if required. Another model of this indicator, the
580T, can measure temperature. The 580T will indicate both 100Ω RTDs and most
types of thermocouple.

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3.4 COMBINATION UNITS

3.4.1 Introduction
Most manufacturers provide both pneumatic and electronic panel mounted

instruments. These instruments have a combination of functions; for example
indicator/controller, indicator/recorder and indicator/controller/recorder. The two
examples below are given to show the basics of these instruments. Both will be
demonstrated in the workshop.
3.4.2 The Foxboro 130 Pneumatic Controller
This unit is part of the consotrol pneumatic range. It combines a PID controller with
an indicator. A circular chart recorder can also be added as an optional extra.
Figure 3-6 Foxboro 130 Pneumatic Indicator/Controller/Recorder

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Figure 3-6 shows the Foxboro combined pneumatic indicator/controller/recorder. It

consists of the following parts.
1) A process variable indicator which is operated by a receiver bellows and

linkage in the same way as the 110 indicator.
2) A set point indicator and manual adjustment knob.
3) A set of derivative, proportional and reset units. These are adjusted with a
screw driver, positioned as shown.
4) A circular chart recorder (optional extra). The pen unit is driven from the
indicator linkage.
5) A manual control unit. This contains a transfer switch (automatic/manual).

There is a wheel to adjust the output signal on manual. An output pointer
and scale show the output signal as a percentage of the set range.

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3.4.3 The Foxboro 760 Series Indicator/Controller

Figure 3-7 Foxboro 760 Series Indicator/Controller
Figure 3-7 shows the overall view of a Foxboro 760 series indicator/controller.

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The front uses the same type of display as the indicator 760. It is configured as shown in
Figure 3-8.
Figure 3-8 Face Plate 760 Indicator/Controller
The following points should be noted.
1) The set point is indicated by a single LED bar on the left hand side.
2) The center scale indicates the measure value.

3) The right hand scale indicates the output signal.
4) The keypad is used to programme (configure) the controller and indicator. It

can be programmed to give a measured value (scale and unit), PID settings,
etc.
5) The status light shows which column value is displayed on the alphanumeric
display.

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The function of each key on the keypad is as shown in Figure 3-9.

Figure 3-9 Foxboro 760 Keypad
W/P LOCAL/REMOTE INDICATION
W Indication at DCS Workstation VDU
P Indication on front Panel
R/L LOCAL / REMOTE SET POINT
L Local setting by key pad
R Set point from Remote position e.g. from a workstation.
A/M Auto - Manual switch

 
In NORMAL OPERATION these arrows are used to
or change the set point or the output if in manual operation.
In READ or SET mode these arrows are used to

programme the µP.
TAG This is used to change mode from NORMAL OPERATION

to READ or SET mode and back again.
ACK In NORMAL OPERATION this is used to ACKnowledge an

alarm.
In READ or SET mode this is used to enter changes in

the measured value.
SEL In NORMAL OPERATION this is used to SELect the bar

graph status light.
In READ or SET mode this changes the displaying steps

to show what programme has been placed in the µP.

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760 Inputs
1) 4 analog 4-20mA signals.
2) There are two frequency inputs from 1 to 9 999 Hz. These are used to
accept different signals from, for example, a turbine flow meter.
3) A single 3 wire RTD input.
4) 2 switched contact inputs.
760 Outputs
There are 2 analog outputs; one for a 4 to 20 mA loop and one for a 1-5V dc loop.
There are 2 digital switched outputs.
Note
1. The inputs to the 760, may require the addition of a 250Ω ± 0. 1 % resistor
in series with the standard 4-20mA loop current input. This changes the
4-20mA signal to a 1-5 V signal for the controller electronics.
2. The 760 can also provide an internal supply (25V dc) to power two
transmitter loops

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 4 - Hazardous areas & intrinsic safety INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 2 RECORDERS


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 4 - Hazardous areas & intrinsic safety
Para Page
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4
4.2 HAZARDOUS AREAS 4
4.3 EXAMPLES OF HAZARDOUS AREAS 5
4.4 HAZARDOUS AREA EQUIPMENT 7
4.4.1 Coding 7
4.4.2 Temperature Rating 7
4.4.3 Gas Grouping 8
4.5 EXAMPLES OF INTRINSIC SAFETY CODING 9
4.6 INTRINSIC SAFETY 12
4.7 THE SAFETY BARRIER 14
4.7.1 One Way Barrier 14
4.7.2 Two Way Barrier 15
4.7.3 References 17
4.8 MODERN TRENDS IN INTRINSIC SAFETY 18
4.9 PRACTICAL POINTS ON HAZARDOUS AREA EQUIPMENT 19
4.9.1 Testing a Barrier 19

4.9.2 Flameproof Equipment 20
4.9.3 Basic Rules 21

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INSTRUMENTATION

The student will be able
• Define what is meant by Zone 0, Zone 1 and Zone 2 hazardous areas.
• Explain the coding of equipment used in hazardous areas.
• Sketch a one way barrier
• Sketch a two way barrier
• Explain how to check a barrier.


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4.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to explain the system of coding for hazardous areas. It also
explains how safety barriers work.
4.2 HAZARDOUS AREAS
A hazardous area is "an area where flammable gases, vapours and mists, and
ignitable dust, fibres and flyings are present in a mixture with air and could be
ignited by a spark of energy". Hazardous areas are found in many manufacturing
processes (e.g. mines, grain silos, gas platforms, refineries etc.). Special electrical
safety systems must be used to ensure that accidents are prevented.
There are many regulations about electrical safety in hazardous areas.

Unfortunately they are not the same from country to country. However, in general
the regulations can be divided into two main groups. The European group uses the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) code of practice (IEC 79-14). The
other group uses the USA code of practice (ANSI/ISA RP 12.6). The following
diagrams and tables are designed to show the differences between the two groups.
The table below gives the definitions of hazardous areas for both groups.
I.E.C U.S.A
ZONE 0 CLASS 1 DIVISION 1

Hazardous concentrations of
An explosive gas atmosphere is flammable gases or vapours or
present continuously, or is present for combustible dusts in suspension
long periods. continuously, intermittently or
periodically present under normal
ZONE 1 operating conditions.
An explosive gas atmosphere is likely

to occur in normal operation.
ZONE 2 CLASS 1 DIVISION 2

An explosive gas atmosphere is not Volatile flammable liquids or

likely to occur in normal operation and, flammable gases present, but
if it does occur, it will exist for a short normally confined within closed
period only containers or systems from which
they can escape only under abnormal
operating or fault conditions.
Combustible dusts not normally in
suspension nor likely to be thrown into
suspension.
.

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4.3 EXAMPLES OF HAZARDOUS AREAS

Figure 4-1 shows, as an example, a product tank containing flammable liquid. The
zone system has been applied to the product tank. The tank is surrounded by a wall
(bund). The area between the tank and the bund must be large enough to contain
all the liquid from a full tank in case the tank leaks.
Figure 4-1 Hazardous Areas Zones
The size of each zone depends on the actual construction of the site. Hazardous
area maps of the plant are normally made so that the people concerned, (e.g.
electrical and instrument staff) can make sure that the right kind of equipment is
installed in the hazardous zone. A typical hazardous area plot for an installation is
shown on the next page (see Figure 4-2).

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Module No. 3: Instrumentation 3 INSTRUMENTATION
ZONE 1
ZONE 2
Figure 4-2 Typical Hazardous Area Plot

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4.4 HAZARDOUS AREA EQUIPMENT

4.4.1 Coding
Electrical and instrument equipment fitted in hazardous areas is tested and given a
code to show the area where it can be used. A table of the equipment codes is
given below:
4.4.2 Temperature Rating
The equipment in hazardous areas will also indicate the maximum surface
temperature it may rise to, in an ambient temperature of 40 0 C. The code is as
follows:
Note:- Equipment with a lower maximum surface temperature is safer than
equipment with a higher temperature.
TEMPERATURE CLASS MAX.SURFACE TEMPERATURE 0°C

T1 450
T2 300
T3 200
T4 135
T5 100
T6 85

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4.4.3 Gas Grouping

Finally the equipment will indicate in what gas atmosphere it can safely be used.
There are four main groups. An example gas is given.
Note: In the IEC system, group H C is the safest equipment and in the USA
system, group A is the safest group.

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4.5 EXAMPLES OF INTRINSIC SAFETY CODING

Figure 4-3 MTL Shunt Zener Diode Safety Barrier
Figure 4-3 shows an MTL safety barrier as an example of equipment coding for a
hazardous area. - Most international companies code for both IEC and USA
standards as follows:

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Figure 4-4 shows another example of a hazardous area coding; an electrical

junction box.
Note:
BASEEFA - British Approvals Service for Electrical Equipment in Flammable

Atmosphere.
CENELEX - Committee European De Normalisation Electrotechnique.
Figure 4-4 Electrical Junction Box
Field Device Labelling
Field device labelling (e.g. transmitter, I/P converters, switches, etc.) for hazardous
areas depends on the manufacturer. Some will put on a label if requested. Some
put on only the national code (e.g. Foxboro : factory mutual). Some put the code
inside the serial number (e.g. Rosemount). Therefore, to find out if the device fits
the area it is placed in, the manual must be consulted.

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INGRESS PROTECTION SYSTEM

GLOSSARY:
Ingress protection system = A system which prevents unwanted

substances from getting in to equipment.
Immersion = Going under water for a short time
Submersion = Saying under water all the time.

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4.6 INTRINSIC SAFETY

Intrinsic safety means safety devices built in to the equipment. It is very unlikely that
ordinary electrical equipment, e.g. Motors, fans, lights etc. will ever be placed in a
zone 0 hazardous area. So, intrinsic safety systems are only used with
instrumentation. There are two classes of intrinsically safe equipment under the
European system; Ex ia and Ex ib.
The definition of Ex ia is given below. It is almost the same as the USA definition of
intrinsically safe equipment.
Ex ia Electrical apparatus (equipment) of category "ia" shall be incapable

of causing ignition in normal operation, with a single fault, and with
any combination of two faults applied, with the following safety
factors:
1.5: in normal operation and with single fault.

1.0: with only combination of two faults
The following example is given to explain the definition
Figure 4-5 4-20mA Transmitter
Figure 4-5 shows a 4-20 mA transmitter located in the most dangerous gaseous
atmosphere. The minimum energy required to ignite the atmosphere is 20 µJ. To be

classed as Ex ia II C the barrier must;
1) In normal operation and with one fault (e.g. too much current) break the
circuit before 15 µJ can be released.
2) With two faults (e.g. too much current and too much voltage) break the
circuit before 20 µl can be released,

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A practical example of how this works is given below.

If the supply voltage is 24Vd.c. with a current of 20mA then the power available is :
In order for the barrier (fuse) to be intrinsically safe Ex ia, the fuse must break in
4µs
Ex ib has the same definition as Ex ia except that it only protects against one fault.
Ex ib can only be used in Zone 1. A typical example of Ex ib equipment is the newer
ENTIS-ENRAF tank level transmitters.

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4.7 THE SAFETY BARRIER

4.7.1 One Way Barrier
The safety barrier makes sure that any fault in the safe area (control room) cannot
provide enough energy to ignite the gaseous atmosphere in the hazardous area.
However, the system will not be intrinsically safe unless all the equipment in the
loop is also intrinsically safe (e.g. the transmitter is also Ex ia IIC UP is Ex ia IIC
etc.)
A typical one way safety barrier is shown in Figure 4-6. This is used mainly as a
safety barrier for switch (digital) circuits.
Figure 4-6 Safety Barrier
The barrier consists of a series resistor and fuse plus a Zener diode to earth. The
series resistor limits the current to about 100mA from a 28V supply when the
hazardous terminals are short circuited. The Zener diode operates in the region of
30V and the fuse is rated at around 30 mA. The barrier thus ensures that either too
much current or too much voltage will blow the fuse. This will keep any dangerous
energy levels away from the hazardous area.

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4.7.2 Two Way Barrier

The one way barrier is not suitable for 4-20mA loops which are floating (neither side
connected to earth). Figure 4-7 below shows a typical barrier used with a floating
supply.
Figure 4-7 Two Way Barrier
This barrier has extra Zeners and resistors. The resistor R is actually 3 diodes in
series. When they are working normally they act like a resistor and allow the return
loop current to pass. If a fault occurs, it is possible for a dangerous reverse current
to flow. R then acts as a diode to stop the reverse current.
Note: The reverse rating for the diodes must be high, around 600V.

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It is important that the earthing is good, i.e. less than IΩ to ground. All the earth
wires must also be earthed to the same point. If the earths are not to the same point
then currents may circulate in the earth line. If this happens then it's possible that a
fault in other equipment will blow all the barriers in the system.
he diagram below shows a typical Zener barrier earthing system (see Figure-4-8).
Figure 4-8 Zener Barrier Earthing System
Note: All electrical earthing systems are normally checked and tested by
the electrical department.

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4.7.3 References
The above notes show the two basic types of barrier in use. There are other types
of barriers for special purposes. You must read the manual for the barriers on your
installation, for special applications. The workshop has a wall chart produced by
MTL (Measurement Technology Limited) which summarises the rules for intrinsic
safety.

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4.8 MODERN TRENDS IN INTRINSIC SAFETY

If a digital system of transmission is used it is possible to use what is called

"galvanic isolation", (no electrical connection). Figures 4-9 & 4-10 shows two
methods of doing this.
Figure 4-9 The Opto-Isolator
Figure 4-9 shows a typical opto-isolator. The digital input signals from the field
produce pulses of light in the LED. These produce pulses of electrical current
through the photo-transistor. The electronic amplifier converts the pulses of current
into a digital signal output for control purposes. The photo diode and transistor
come in a single package. They are fully insulated from each other. They are
manufactured to meet Ex ia standards.
Electro-Maqnetic Isolation
A transformer can provide galvanic isolation and produce the required output
signals when the transmission system is a.c. However, it is difficult to design a
transformer without interwinding capacitance. The relay is a more simple method
which uses electro-magnetic isolation. Figure 4-10 shows a system which can be
used.
Figure 4-10
A signal energises the coil in the safe area. The magnetic field closes a relay
contact in the hazardous area. There is no electrical connection between the safe
area and the hazardous area. This is sometimes called "voltless switching".

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4.9 PRACTICAL POINTS ON HAZARDOUS AREA EQUIPMENT

4.9.1 Testing a Barrier
Figure 4-11 Testing, a Barrier
To test the Zener safety barrier properly you need- speciatised test equipment. You
also need to use pulse techniques to make sure that each Zener diode is working
correctly. If you try to test the device fully without the correct test gear you may blow
the fuse. You can assume that if the fuse in a barrier is not broken then the whole
circuit is working correctly. Therefore, the most reasonable on-site test is to check
that the end to end resistance is the same as the resistance value printed on the
barrier (e.g. 300Ω). Figure 4-11 shows an ohmmeter used to check a dual barrier.
Note that the driving voltage from the ohmmeter must be 9 volts or less. Remember
that there are diodes in the barrier so only the correct polarity of ohmmeter supply
will indicate the barrier resistance.

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4.9.2 Flameproof Equipment

The following is a basic explanation of "flameproofing". This technique is of more

interest to the electrician but you should follow the basic rules written at the end of
this section.
Figure 4-12 Flameproof Box
It is not practical to seal all equipment in hazardous areas (maintenance will be

required from time to time). So, there is a system which allows for a controlled
explosion. This system stops the resulting flame from igniting the hazardous area
atmosphere around the equipment.
Figure 4-12 shows a simple equipment box. The lid is fixed so that there is a small
gap between the lid and the box. The combustion gases from the explosion can
escape from the box, but the flame will be extinguished before it reaches the ends
of the flanges. Experiments done using a 25mm flange have given a standard size
for the working gap. The following table gives sample values from the I.E.C
regulations.
GAS GROUP GAP

I
0.5 mm
Il A 0.4 mm
HB 0.2 mm
HC 0.025 mm

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4.9.3 Basic Rules

1) When you replace the lid after servicing, make sure all the seals are fitted
correctly and the lid is tightened down evenly. Check the gap is the correct
size all round.
2) Never make extra holes in Ex d fittings. Any damage to the box or lid makes
the box unsafe.
3) Any part which is changed in Ex d equipment must be replaced

with a part which has the same safety factor as the original part.
4) Follow the instructions on the label about cleaning, cable sizing etc.

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INSTRUMENTATION
MODULE No. 4
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS 1
July 1999- Rev.0

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 1 - The electrical circuit INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 1 THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
UNIT 2 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
UNIT 3 ELECTROMAGNETIC PRINCIPLES
UNIT 4 BASIC ELECTROSTATICS AND THE CAPACITOR
UNIT 5 THE INDUCTOR, CAPACITOR AND D.C.
UNIT 6 A.C. PRINCIPLES
UNIT 7 COMMON ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS

Module No. 4: Industrial electronics 1

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 1 - The electrical circuit
Para Page
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT 4
1.2.1 The Electrical Supply 4
1.2.2 Connecting Wires 4
1.2.3 Electrical Loads 5
1.3 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT 5
1.4 THE LAWS OF ELECTRICITY 6
1.4.1 Electrical Power 7
1.4.2 Electrical Energy 8
1.5 RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY 9
1.5.1 Resistance 9
1.5.2 Resistivity 9
1.6 WORKED EXAMPLES 11
1.6.1 Example 1 12
1.6.2 Example 2 12
1.6.3 Example 3 13
1.6.4 Example 4 14
1.7 KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS 15
1.7.1 First Law 15
1.7.2 Second Law 15
1.8 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT FORMULAS 16

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

• Draw a basic electrical circuit and place AMMETERS and VOLTMETERS

correctly.
• State OHM'S LAW and perform simple calculations using OHM'S LAW.
• State the formulas for ELECTRICAL POWER and ENERGY. Carry out
simple calculations using these formulas.
• State the units in common use for electrical CURRENT, VOLTAGE,

POWER, ENERGY and RESISTANCE.
• Explain RESISTIVITY and its unit.
• State KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS.


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INSTRUMENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to introduce the basic concepts of electricity to a trainee
beginning a career in Instrumentation.
1.2 THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
Figure 1-1 The Electrical Circuit
Figure 1-1 shows the basic electrical circuit. It consists of an electrical supply, a
switch and a lamp (the electrical load). The parts are connected with insulated wires
(conductors).
1.2.1 The Electrical Supply
The electrical supply provides the electro-motive force (EMF) to drive the electrical
current through the load. There are different forms of electrical supply.
• Batteries, provide a constant force, called Direct Current (D.C.). The current
flows from the positive terminal (red) to the negative terminal (black).
Two examples of batteries are the dry cell (Walkman battery) which is not
rechargeable and the lead-acid battery (car battery) which is rechargeable.
• Alternating supplies provide a changing positive and negative force called

Alternating Current (A.C.).
The wall sockets around the workshop are examples of an A supply.
1.2.2 Connecting Wires
The connecting wires, are made from material which allows electrical current to
pass through it (conductors). Copper, aluminium and silver are good conductors.

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The conductors must be insulated, to prevent accidents.

An insulator stops the passage of an electrical current. Typical examples are the
plastics (PVC, PTFE, etc.) and paper.
1.2.3 Electrical Loads
The load in an electrical circuit is a device which uses electricity. The most common
electrical load is a lamp. The electric current passes through the lamp and produces
light. Other loads in the home are televisions, microwaves, and toasters. In industry,
electric motors, industrial heaters and electrical/electronic instrumentation are
common electrical loads.
1.3 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
• The electrical circuit in Figure 1-1 shows the position of the two main
instruments used for electrical measurement.
A The Ammeter measures the electrical current flowing through

the circuit. It is connected in series (as shown). It measures
the current in a unit called THE AMPERE (Amp).
V The Voltmeter measures the electro - motive force (EMF) of

the supply. It is connected in parallel across the load (S
supply (as shown). It measures the EMF in a unit called THE
VOLT.
WARNING:
You must connect these meters as shown in the diagram. If you connect them
wrongly you may damage the circuit

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1.4 THE LAWS OF ELECTRICITY

The first and most important law of electrical engineering is OHM's LAW.
"The current in an electrical circuit is proportional to the electro motive - force

applied"
This can be written as

Figure 1-2 Ohm's Law Triangle
If you cover one of the quantities you can see how the other two will give you the
answer.

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Example:
1.4.1 Electrical Power
The power (P) of the circuit is the multiplication of the voltage supplied and the
current flowing.
P =IV = VOLTS x AMPS
The unit of electrical power is called the
WATT
Note:- Electrical power is related to mechanical power by the formula.

1 HORSE POWER = 746 WATTS.

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1.4.2 Electrical Energy

The energy (work) provided by an electrical circuit is
WORK = POWER x TIME
W = VOLTS x AMPS x SECONDS

The unit is called the
JOULE
Note:- One JOULE is a very small amount of electrical energy. Normally,
electrical energy is paid for in "electrical units". One electrical unit (The
Kilowatt Hour) is 3,600,000 Joules.

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1.5 RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY

1.5.1` Resistance
1.5.2 Resistivity
An "OHMMETER" is a device for measuring the "RESISTANCE" in a circuit. You will

practice using it in the workshop. The following points must be remembered.
• Conductors have very low resistance (less than 1Ω)
• Insulators have very high resistance (more than 10,000,000 Ohm's)
• Loads have a resistance fixed during manufacture. A fault will cause either
an open circuit (very high resistance) or a short circuit (zero resistance)
RESISTIVITY is a physical property of a material. The resistivity of a conductor is

very low and the resistivity of an insulator is very high. The resistivity of a material is
found by measuring the resistance of one cubic metre of a material between two
faces. The unit of resistivity is then the OHM METRE.
Typical examples for resistivity are:
Resistivity of copper = 1.725 x 10 8 Ωm
Resistivity of PVC = 1.2 x 10 10 Ωm
Resistivity is important because different types of conductor and insulator materials

are used in instrumentation. The following points must be remembered when
changing conductors/insulators and laying new cables.

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INSTRUMENTATION
• Changing the conductor material will change the conductor resistance (for
example aluminium has about twice the resistivity of copper)
• The longer the conductor (cable) the higher its resistance.
• The thinner the conductor (cross sectional area) the higher the conductor
resistance.
So, a long thin cable has more resistance than a short thick cable.
Example :
Question
A copper cable has a resistance of 5Ω , a cross sectional area of 4mm2 and a

length of 500 m. What would be the resistance of an 8 mm2 aluminium cable
(resistivity two times copper) of the same length ?
Solution
As aluminium has twice the resistivity of copper, the aluminium cable's resistance
will be 2 x 5Ω for the same size. However, the cross sectional area of the aluminium
(8 mm2) is two times that of the
copper(4 mm2) so its resistance will be half the copper cable 2x5
--------- Ω
2
Aluminium has more RESISTIVITY than copper but the RESISTANCE in the two
cables is the same. This is because the aluminium cable is thicker than the copper
one.
So, the aluminium cable has the same resistance as the copper one.

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1.6 WORKED EXAMPLES

The following worked examples are given to show how this theory is used, The
examples use standard multiples and sub multiples. The following list is included as
a reminder.

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INSTRUMENTATION
1.6.1 Example 1
Question:
A load has a resistance of 500Ω. If the supply current is 2 Amps, find the supply
voltage?
Solution:
OHM's LAW EQUATION
V = IR
V = 2A x 500 Ω = 1,000 V
The supply Voltage = 1,000 Volts.
1.6.2 Example 2
Question:
An electric circuit has a supply current of 20mA and supply voltage of 3kV. Find:
a) The resistance
b) The power used by the load.
Solution:

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b) The power equation is :

1.6.3 Example 3
Question:
An electric water heater has a rated power of 3.3 kW. If the supply voltage is 220V
find:
a) The supply current
b) The resistance of the heater.
Solution:
a) The power equation is
b) From the Ohm's Law triangle.


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1.6.4 Example 4
Question:
An electric light bulb has a resistance of 50Ω. If the supply voltage is 200V, find:
a) The supply current
b) The power rating of the bulb.
c) The energy used in one hour.
Solution:
a) From the OHM'S LAW TRIANGLE
b) The power formula is
P = IV
= 4 x 200 = 800
The power rating of the bulb = 800 W
c) The energy formula is
P = CURRENT x VOLTAGE x SECONDS
= 4 x 200 x 60 x 60
= 2,880,000 JOULES
The energy used in one hour = 2.88MJ

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1.7 KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS

Kirchhoff's laws are extensions of Ohm's law. You must remember them. They will
be used in the next unit on series and parallel circuits:
1.7.1 First Law
Figure 1-3 Kirchhoff's First Law
"The sum of electric currents flowing into a point (X) in an electrical circuit equals
the sum of the electric currents flowing out of that point" Thus from Figure 1-3
1.7.2 Second Law
"The sum of the voltages around a circuit must equal the supply EMF"
Figure 1-4 Kirchhoff's Second Law
Thus from Figure 1-4

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1.8 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT FORMULAS

OHM'S LAW V = IR
I = V/R
R = V/I
POWER = IV = I2 R = V2 / R Watts
ENERGY = AMPS x VOLTS x SECONDS Joules
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ
KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS
First Law:
At a point in a circuit: Currents in = Currents out
Second Law:
Supply EMF = Sum of voltages around the circuit.


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Unit No. 2 - Series & parallel circuits INSTRUMENTATION


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INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 2 - Series & parallel circuits
Para Page
2.1 INTRODUCTION 4
2.2 THE SERIES CIRCUIT 4
2.3 SERIES CIRCUIT EXAMPLES 5
2.3.1 Example 1 5
2.3.2 Example 2 6
2.3.3 Example 3 7
2.4 THE PARALLEL CIRCUIT 8
2.5 PARALLEL CIRCUIT EXAMPLES 9
2.5.1 Example 1 9
2.5.2 Example 2 10
2.6 SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATION CIRCUITS 11
2.6.1 Example 1 11
2.6.2 Example 2 13
2.7 MEASUREMENT PROBLEMS 15
2.8 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE 17

2.8.1 The Bridge Circuit 17

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• State the formula for resistors in series.
• State the formula for resistors in parallel.
• Carry out simple calculations on series, parallel and series-parallel

combination circuits.
• Sketch a typical Wheatstone bridge and calculate the value of the unknown
resistor.

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2.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to explain the three common circuits used in instrument
electrical work. The series circuit, the parallel circuit and the Wheatstone bridge.
2.2 THE SERIES CIRCUIT
Figure 2-1 The Series Circuit
Figure 2-1 shows an example of the basic series circuit with four loads (resistors)
connected to a supply.
The rules for this circuit are:
a) Kirchhoff's second law applies. The supply voltage equals the sum of the
voltages around the circuit.
b)
b) The supply current is the same in all parts
c) The TOTAL RESISTANCE of the circuit is the SUM OF THE INDIVIDUAL

RESISTORS around the circuit.
d)
NOTE: The series circuit is not used much in industry because it has serious
disadvantages.
• If extra loads are added to the circuit the voltage across each load
will fall.
• If one load is broken (open circuit) the supply is cut off to all the loads
on the circuit.
However the series circuit is used for the basic instrument electrical signal circuit
(loop). This circuit will be shown during the instrument course.

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2.3 SERIES CIRCUIT EXAMPLES

The notes above give the rules for a series circuit. The example circuit has four
loads. The following worked examples show the steps required to find unknown
quantities in series circuits.
2.3.1 Example 1
Question
Two 100Ω loads are connected in series to a 100V supply. Find
a) The total circuit resistance
b) The supply current.
Solution
Circuit Diagram

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2.3.2 Example 2
Solution:
Using the circuit diagram given above. Find :a) The supply current (Is) b) The power
of the 40Ω load.
Total circuit resistance = 50EI + 1 M + 40Ω


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2.3.3 Example 3
Question:
30 lights are connected in series across a 210V supply. Find the voltage across
each bulb and the supply current if the resistance for each bulb = 2.93Ω
Solution:

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2.4 THE PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Figure 2-2 The Parallel Circuit
Figure 2-2 shows as an example the arrangement for three parallel electrical loads.
The rules of this circuit are:
a) In this case Kirchhoff's first law applies, "Currents into a point on an

electrical circuit equal the currents leaving that point " so that
The supply current increases as more loads are added in parallel.
b) The supply voltage will be the same for each load.
c) The total resistance of the circuit (RT) is given by the equation.
Note: The parallel circuit is the standard industrial circuit because

• The supply voltage is the same for each load.
• If one load is disconnected (open circuited) the other loads will still work.

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2.5 PARALLEL CIRCUIT EXAMPLES

The notes above give the rules for a parallel circuit. The example circuit has three
loads. The following worked examples show the steps required to find unknown
quantities in a parallel circuit.
2.5.1 Example 1
Question:
Two 100Ω loads are connected in parallel to a 100V supply. Find
(a) The total circuit resistance.
(b) The supply current.
Solution:
Circuit Diagram.
(a) The total circuit resistance is found using the formula given.

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2.5.2 Example 2
Question
An electrical circuit consists of three loads connected in parallel across a supply as

shown in the circuit diagram above. Find
a) The supply voltage (Vs)
b) The supply current (Is)
Solution :
In a parallel circuit the supply voltage is the same for each load so with 1A flowing
through the 10Ω resistor.

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2.6 SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATION CIRCUITS

It can be difficult to calculate unknown quantities in a series and parallel

combination circuit. The following examples show ways of finding the answers.
2.6.1 Example 1
Question :
Using the circuit diagram above calculate
a) Total circuit resistance
b) Supply current (Is)
c) The voltage across each resistor.
Solution:
a) Work out the total resistance of the parallel part first.


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Unit No. 2 - Series & parallel circuits INSTRUMENTATION
b) Redraw the circuit using the parallel result.
Total series resistance = 10Ω + 12.Ω = 22Ω
c) Supply current
Supply current = 4.55A
d) Voltage across the 10Ωresistor.
V 10Ω = Is x 10
= 4.55A x 10Ω
V10Ω = 45.5 V
e) Voltage across 20Ω and 30Ω resistors will be the supply current times the
parallel total resistance
V20Ω or V 30 Ω = Is x 12
= 4.55A x 12Ω
V20Ω or V 30 Ω = 54.6 V
Note: To check your answer, add V20Ω to V10Ω The result should be V SUPPLY within
the accuracy of the calculator.

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2.6.2 Example 2
Using the above diagram calculate the supply voltage if Is = 2A
Solution:
a) Work out the total resistance of each branch first.


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b) Draw the new circuit

c) The supply voltage


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2.7 MEASUREMENT PROBLEMS

Figure 2-3 Using an Ammeter and Voltmeter
Figure 2-3 shows a circuit with an ammeter (in series) and voltmeter (in parallel)
measuring the circuit current and potential difference (PD) across the load. Another
circuit can be drawn which includes the resistance of the meters (see Figure 2-4)
Figure 2-4 Equivalent Circuit with Ammeter and Voltmeter Added
For true readings the value of RA must be very small and Rv very big. Otherwise,
the current and voltage readings are all wrong because the meters change circuit
values.
Normally the ammeter causes no problems as it has a very low resistance.

However, the voltmeter can cause problems, especially the old type of moving coil
meter. An example is given below.
The diagram shows a voltmeter (resistance 10kΩ) used to measure the PD across
R2.
Current with voltmeter not connected.

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Voltage across R2 with voltmeter not connected.

Current with voltmeter connected
Voltage across R2 with voltmeter connected
From the example it can be seen that using a voltmeter of low resistance changes
the readings a lot. Most measurements in instrumentation must be carried out with a
digital voltmeter (DVM), with a high input resistance (> 10MΩ). If the voltmeter does
not have a high input resistance the measurements will not be correct.

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2.8 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

The Wheatstone bridge is widely used in instrumentation to measure resistance

accurately. It is also used to show changes in the resistance of sensors used to
measure pressure, level, temperature, etc. The following notes explain the basic
principle of the Wheatstone bridge. Practical applications will be shown later in the
training .
2.8.1 The Bridge Circuit
Figure 2-5 The Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone bridge circuit (see Figure 2-5) consists of two very accurate
(standard) resistors(Rl & R2) called the ratio arms. There is an accurate variable
resistor (Decade Box R3). A very sensitive ammeter which will detect very small
currents (called a Galvanometer (G)) is connected across points D and B. A supply
voltage is connected across points A and C. There are also two terminals to
connect an unknown resistor Rx across the points A and B.
The value of the unknown resistor is given by the equation.


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Theory:
The value of the unknown resistor is found by adjusting the value of the variable
resistor until the galvanometer reads zero. This is called the balanced position so
that at balance when I3 = 0
This is the balance equation for a Wheatstone bridge and must be remembered.

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Resistors in Series
RT = R1+ R2 + R3 etc.
Resistors in Parallel
1 / RT : =: 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 etc.
Wheatstone Bridge
Rx = Ratio Arms x Decade Box Value.


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Unit No. 3 - Electromagnetic principles INSTRUMENTATION


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 3 - Electromagnetic principles
Para Page
3.1 INTRODUCTION 4
3.2 BASIC MAGNETICS 4
3.3 THE ELECTRIC CURRENT AND MAGNETIC FIELDS 5
3.4 SOLENOID APPLICATIONS 6
3.4.1 The Relay 6
3.4.2 The Solenoid Valve 7
3.5 INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C) 8
3.6 MOTOR PRINCIPLE 11
3.6.1 The Moving Coil Meter 11
3.7 SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCE. 12
3.7.1 Self Inductance 12
3.7.2 Mutual Inductance 12
3.7.3 The Transformer 13
3.7.4 Example 14


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INSTRUMENTATION

• State the basic rules for magnets
• Sketch typical magnetic fields around magnets.
• Sketch the magnetic field produced by an electric current.
• Sketch the magnetic field produced by a solenoid and give examples of its
use.
• Explain generator principle and the production of an alternating current

waveform.
• Explain the terms RMS, peak, peak to peak, cycle and frequency of an A.C.
waveform.
• State the standard workshop supply.
• Explain, in simple terms, motor principle using the moving coil meter.
• Explain self and mutual inductance; the Henry.
• Explain the action of a transformer and state the formula used.
• Carry out simple calculations using the transformer equation.


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3.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to introduce the electric current and its magnetic field.
3.2 BASIC MAGNETICS
Magnetic materials produce magnetic fields as shown below. Only three materials
can be made to produce a large magnetic field.
a) Iron 
b) Cobalt  Ferro - magnetic elements
c ) Nickel 
Rules
1) Magnetic lines go from N to S.
2) Magnetic lines never cross
3) Like poles repel
4) Unlike poles attract.


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3.3 THE ELECTRIC CURRENT AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

When a current is passed through a conductor it will produce a magnetic field, as

shown in the diagram.
Current (+) into the paper; the Current (0) out of the paper; the
field is clockwise. field is anti-clockwise.
The magnetic field around a conductor can be increased by increasing the current.
However, a better method of increasing the magnetic field produced by electricity is
to make a solenoid. A solenoid is made by coiling insulated wire around a cylinder.
The greater the number of turns in the coil, the greater the magnetic field produced
(see Figure 3-1).
Figure 3-1 The Simple Solenoid
When a current is passed through the coil, the magnetic field is concentrated. This
field has a pattern similar to a bar magnet with N and S poles as shown.

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Note:
(a) Reverse the current flow and the polarity reverses.
(b) Reverse the direction of the turns in the coil and the polarity reverses.
(c) Normally it is impossible to tell the direction of the turns in the coil. If you
want to reverse the polarity, reverse the current flow.
3.4 SOLENOID APPLICATIONS
3.4.1 The Relay
A typical relay is shown in Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2 The Relay

The relay consists of a solenoid and contacts. When the solenoid is energised it
attracts a piece of iron (the armature) which changes over a set of contacts. The
magnetic core of the solenoid is made of a material which is magnetic only when
current flows through the coil (a temporary magnet). When the coil de-energises the
return spring pulls the armature back and the contacts return to their normal
positions. Relays operate using A.C or D.C supplies. The coils have many turns of
small diameter insulated wire. This gives a strong magnetic field from a small
energising current.

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3.4.2 The Solenoid Valve

The solenoid valve is an on-off device used to control the flow of liquids and gases
through piping. When the supply voltage is applied to the coil, the solenoid is
energised. It attracts the valve plunger and the valve opens. When the solenoid is
de-energised the return spring closes the valve. A typical solenoid valve is shown in
Figure 3-3.
Figure 3-3 The Solenoid Valve


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3.5 INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C)

Figure 3-4 The Simple A.C Generator
Figure 3-4 shows a simple alternating current generator. The single turn coil,
rotated in the magnetic field, has an alternating voltage induced in it to produce an
alternating current in the load resistor (R). The size of the voltage depends on the
following:
(a) The strength of the magnetic field.
(b) The speed of the rotating coil.

(c) The length of the coil in the magnetic field.
(d) The number of turns on the coil.
(e) The voltage is maximum when the coil is at right angles to the magnetic field
(moving across). The voltage is at zero when the coil is parallel to the
magnetic field,- (moving in the same direction). See figure 3-5.
(f) Industrial electric generators normally keep the coils steady and rotate the
field. The output will still be the same.

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Module No. 4: Industrial electronics 1 INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 3-5 The A.C Waveform
Figure 3-5 shows, in simple terms, a single rotation of a coil in a magnetic field:

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Position A Horizontal. The coil is moving parallel to the field. Zero volts
induced
Position B Vertical. The coil has rotated 90°. Maximum induced voltage.
Position C Horizontal. The coil has rotated 180°. Zero induced voltage
Position D Vertical. The coil has rotated 270°. Maximum induced

voltage. The voltage is in the opposite direction as the coil is
reversed in the field.
Position A Back to position A. The coil has rotated 360° and completed
one cycle.
The voltage between the given points changes to . produce what is called a
SINEWAVE. A complete rotation through 360° is called a CYCLE. The number of
cycles per second is called the FREQUENCY and is measured in HERTZ (Hz).
Meters measuring A.C voltages and currents are set up to give the D.C equivalent.
This is called the ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) value. It is given by the formula:
Note:
Electrical devices using an A.C supply have a fixed frequency. The standard
frequency is 50Hz or 60 Hz , The voltage of a domestic supply is also fixed 120 or
140V. Make sure that electrical equipment used in the workshop is set to work at
240V@ 50Hz, otherwise you may damage the equipment.

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3.6 MOTOR PRINCIPLE

MOTOR PRINCIPLE is the reverse of GENERATOR PRINCIPLE described in the

previous section, In an electric motor the current is applied to a coil placed in a
magnetic field. This makes the coil rotate and rotates the mechanical load
connected to it. The construction and operation of industrial electrical motors is
complicated. They are studied by electrical technicians.
3.6.1 The Moving Coil Meter
A simple example to show motor principle is the moving coil meter shown in Figure
3-6.
Figure 3-6 The Moving Coil Meter
When a D.C current is passed through the coil the coil moves, by motor principle,
against the controlling spring. When the force produced by motor principle equals
the force of the controlling spring, the position of the needle on the scale shows the
size of the current.

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3.7 SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCE.

3.7.1 Self Inductance
Figure 3-7 The Inductor
Self inductance occurs when a coil is supplied with an alternating current (see
Figure 3-7). The changing magnetic field cutting the coil produces a back EMF
which opposes the supplied current. The size of the back EMF depends on the
construction of the coil and the rate of change of the supplied current. Written as an
equation.
Back EMF(e) = A constant for the coil x rate of change of current.
The coil constant is called its SELF INDUCTANCE and is measured in a unit called
the HENRY. The symbol for self inductance is L.
3.7.2 Mutual Inductance

M
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE is the property of two coils placed side by side so that the
magnetic field in one coil cuts the other one. When an A.C supply is connected to
the primary coil the changing magnetic field cuts the secondary one. By generator
principle this induces a voltage in the secondary coil. The amount of EMF produced
in the secondary depends on the MUTUAL INDUCTANCE between the two coils,
measured in HENRYS.
The symbol for mutual inductance is M

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3.7.3 The Transformer

The transformer is a practical example of mutual inductance. The mutual

inductance is made as high as possible by winding one coil on top of the other on a
temporary magnetic core. All the magnetic field produced by the primary coil cuts
the secondary coil. The secondary output voltage depends on the turns ratio of the
two coils. Assuming no losses (100% efficient), the transformer equation is as
follows:
Note:
(1) If VP or NP is greater than Vs or Ns it is a STEP DOWN transformer.
(2) If Vs or Ns is greater than VP, or Np it is a STEP UP transformer.
(3) transformer only works with an A.C supply. A D.C supply will produce no
changing magnetic field or back EMF. The resistance to D.C. is very low so
the transformer will burn out.

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3.7.4 Example
Question:
A transformer has 500 turns on the primary coil and 27 turns on the secondary coil.
The supply voltage is 240V and the secondary load current is 10 A. Find the:
(a) Secondary voltage
(b) Primary current.
Solution:

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V RMS = 0.707 V PEAK
I RMS = 0.707 I PEAK
Transformer Equation

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Unit No. 4 - Basic electrostatics & the capacitor INSTRUMENTATION


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 4 - Basic electrostatics & the capacitor
Para Page
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4
4.2 THE CAPACITOR 4
4.2.1 Capacitor Construction 5
4.2.2 Examples Of Capacitor Types 5
4.3 CAPACITOR CONNECTIONS 6
4.3.1 Series 6
4.3.2 Parallel 6
4.4 EXAMPLES ON CAPACITANCE 7
4.4.1 Example 1 7
4.4.2 Example 2 7
4.4.3 Examples 3 8


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• Sketch a simple capacitor
• State the basic formulas for a capacitor Q = CV, C = εA/d. Understand the
unit of capacitance; the Farad.
• State the formula for capacitors in series.
• State the formula for capacitors in parallel.
• Carry out simple calculations on capacitors in series and parallel
• State the formulas for energy stored in a capacitor.


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4.1 INTRODUCTION
The previous section (Unit 3) dealt with basic electro-magnetism. The ability of an
electric current to produce energy in the form of a magnetic field. This unit will deal
with the CAPACITOR; a device which stores electrical energy as an ELECTRIC
FIELD.
4.2 THE CAPACITOR
Figure 4-1 The Capacitor
Figure 4-1 shows the simplest form of a capacitor. It consists of two conducting
plates separated by an insulator (dielectric). When a voltage (V) is applied across
the plates the insulator will take in a charge and produce an electric field between
the plates. The charge (Q) taken in is given by this equation
Q =CV
C is called the CAPACITANCE of the device. The unit of measurement is the

FARAD (F).
Q The total charge stored has a unit called the COULOMB (C).
V Is the voltage applied across the plates.
Total charge is also given by the equation
Q = AMPS. SUPPLIED x SECONDS
The electrostatic energy in a capacitor is given by the equation
Note : A battery stores electrical energy by chemical means. A car battery is

measured by the charge stored in Ampere-Hours (Ahr). A 30 Ahr battery will
store
30 x 3600 = 108,000 Coulombs.

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4.2.1 Capacitor Construction

The capacitance of a capacitor depends upon the following factors.
• The area of the plates (A).
• The distance between the plates (d). The closer the plates, the higher the
capacitance.
• The dielectric strength of the insulator (ε).
This gives the equation
It is difficult to make large values of capacitance. Usually the plates and insulator
are rolled up and placed in a can to increase the value of capacitance. The
dielectric can also be made from chemicals (e.g. Tantalum and Aluminium oxides).
This reduces the dielectric thickness to millionths of a metre (micron). This
increases the capacitance value because the plates are closer together.
4.2.2 Examples Of Capacitor Types
• Electrolytic Dielectric :
Aluminium and Tantalum. Approximate range of values from 0.1µF to 1 F.

These are usually polarised and must be fitted correctly when used with D.C.
The positive and negative sides are clearly marked.
• Plastic Dielectric :
Polypropylene, Polycarbonates, Polyester. Approximate range of values

from 100 µF to 1 µF. Non-polarised.
• Ceramics, mica and air dielectric :
Very small values. Approximate range of values 1 µF to 1000µF.

Non-polarised.

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4.3 CAPACITOR CONNECTIONS

4.3.1 Series
Connecting capacitors in series has the same effect as pulling the two plates further
apart.
The capacitance will go down. The formula is similar to resistors in parallel.
4.3.2 Parallel
Connecting capacitors in parallel has the same effect as enlarging the area of the
plates .
The capacitance will go up. The formula is similar to resistors in series.


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4.4 EXAMPLES ON CAPACITANCE
4.4.1 Example 1
Question
Find the charge stored in a 1 00µ F capacitor connected to a 100 V D.C. supply.
Solution :
The charge in a capacitor is given by the equation
Q =C V
Q = 100 X 10 -6 F x 100V
Q = 10-2C
The charge stored = 0.01 C
4.4.2 Example 2
Question
Two 10,000 µF capacitors are connected in parallel across a 5,000 D.C. supply.
Find
(a) The total capacitance of the circuit.
(b) The charge stored.
Solution :
(a) Using the equation for capacitors in parallel
CT = C1 + C2
= 10,000 µF= + 10,000 µF
= 20,000 µF.
Total capacitance = 20,000 µF
(b) Stored charge equation is
Q = CV
Q = 20,000 x 10-6 F x 5000V
Q = 100C
Stored charge = 100 Coulombs

Module No. 4: Industrial electronics 1 Unit No. 4 - Basic electrostatics & the capacitor
4.4.3
July 1999- Rev.0

Question
Examples 3
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Page 9/9
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For a Capacitor
C = εA/d
Q = CV
Series connection:
1 / CT = 1 / Cl + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 etc.
Parallel connection:
CT = Cl + C2 + C3 etc.
Energy stored
W = 1/2 C V 2

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Unit No. 5 - The inductor, capacitor & DC


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
5.1 INTRODUCTION 4
5.2 D.C AND THE INDUCTOR 4
5.3 D.C. AND THE CAPACITOR 6
5.3.1 Circuit Operation 7
5.4 CAPACITOR TIMING CIRCUITS 7
5.4.1 Example 8


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• Explain with the aid of a diagram D.C. applied to an inductor.
• Explain with the aid of a diagram D.C. applied to a capacitor.
• Explain the time constant of a resistor - capacitor circuit and its use as an
electronic timing circuit.

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5.1 INTRODUCTION
Units 2 and 3 explained the rules to be used when dealing with resistive circuits.
The calculations can be carried out using either D.C. values or A.C RMS. values.
The results will be the same. This is not true when inductors and capacitors are
included in a circuit. This unit will explain what happens when D.C is applied to an
inductor and capacitor.
5.2 D.C AND THE INDUCTOR
Figure 5-1 The Electrical Circuit
Figure 5-1 shows D.C applied to an inductor via a switch. The graph below shows
what happens when the switch is closed.

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At the moment the switch is closed the build up of the magnetic field in the coil
produces a back EMF which opposes the applied EMF The starting current is zero.
When the magnetic field is steady the back EMF is zero. The current is a maximum
and is limited only by the winding resistance of the coil. The time it takes to reach
maximum current flow depends on the ratio of the coil inductance to its winding
resistance. Because of this effect relay coils and the solenoids of electrically
operated valves have increased resistance. This reduces excessive hold on
currents.
If the switch is open the field in the coil collapses and a high voltage is produced.
When the switch is open this high voltage can destroy the switch contacts by
sparking. Therefore special circuits must be used to protect the switch and the
connected supply voltages. These circuits will be explained in Industrial Electronics
11.
Note:
1. The above principle is used to ignite the fuel of a gasoline engine. The
voltage produced when the circuit of an energised coil is broken is used to
make a spark across the plug fitted in the cylinder.
2. An energised coil stores energy in a magnetic form. The energy stored is

given by the equation
W = 1/2 L I2

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5.3 D.C. AND THE CAPACITOR

Figure 5-2 D.C Applied to a Capacitor
Figure, 5-2 shows D.C applied to a capacitor. Switch A closed and switch B open
charges the capacitor. Switch A open and Switch B closed discharges the capacitor.
The graph below shows what happens when the switches are operated.

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5.3.1 Circuit Operation

Charging:
When switch A is first closed the current flow into the capacitor is only limited by the
loss resistance of the insulator. As the capacitor charges the current flow will fall to
zero and the voltage across the capacitor will equal the supply voltage. This means
that a charged capacitor is an open circuit to D.C.
Discharging:
When switch B is closed the discharge current is in the opposite, direction to the
charging current. It will start at maximum and then fall to zero as the capacitor
voltage falls to zero.
5.4 CAPACITOR TIMING CIRCUITS
The capacitor is often used in electronics as a timing circuit. An explanation of the

basic principle is given in Figure 5-3. We will look at how this circuit can be used
during more advanced work in later units.
Figure 5-3 Basic RC Timing Circuit
Figure 5.3 shows a basic timing circuit using the voltage across the capacitor (C).
The switch is closed and when the voltage (V) rises to a set value the timing unit
operates. It is normal to use what is called the time constant for the circuit. The time
constant is given by the equation.
TIME CONSTANT (T) RESISTANCE (R) x CAPACITANCE (C)
(SECONDS (OHMS) (FARADS)
The voltage across the capacitor will be 63.2% of the D.C supply voltage at the time
constant (T = RC).

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5.4.1 Example
Question:
A 1 MΩ resistor is connected in series with a 100µF capacitor and supplied with

D.C. Find the time taken for the capacitor to reach 63.2% of its maximum value
after the supply is switched on.
Solution:
The time to reach 63.2% of the supply voltage is the time constant of the circuit RC.
T.C = 1 X 106Ω X 100 X 106 F
Time Constant = 100 seconds.
TIME CONSTANT = RESISTANCE x CAPACITANCE
(SECONDS) (OHMS) (FARADS)
T = RC

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Unit No. 6 - AC Principles INSTRUMENTATION


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Unit No. 6 - AC Principles INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
6.1 INTRODUCTION 4
6.2 A.C. AND THE INDUCTOR 4
6.3 A.C. AND THE CAPACITOR 5
6.3.1 The Inductor-Resistor Combination 6
6.3.2 The Capacitor-Resistor Combination 7
6.3.3 RL and C in Combination 8
6.3.4 Resonance 9
6.4 WORKED EXAMPLES 9
6.4.1 Example 1 9
6.4.2 Example 2 10
6.4.3 Example 3 10
6.4.4 Example 4 12
6.4.5 Example 5 13
6.4.6 Example 6 14
6.4.7 Example 7 15

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Unit No. 6 - AC Principles
• Explain with the aid of a diagram the effects of A.C. on an inductor.
• Explain with the aid of a diagram the effects of A.C. on a capacitor.
• State the formula for inductive reactance.
• State the formula for capacitive reactance.
• State the formulas for RL and C combination circuits supplied with A.C.
• Explain the term impedance.
• Carry out simple calculations using the formulas for RL and C combination
circuits supplied with A.C.
• Explain resonance.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to explain the operation of a capacitor and an inductor when
supplied with A.C. both individually and in combination with resistors.
6.2 A.C. AND THE INDUCTOR
Figure 6-1 A.C. and the Inductor
The previous unit showed the effect of applying D.C. to an inductor. The back EMF
across the inductor falls from maximum to zero and the current rises from zero to
maximum. A.C. is a form of continuously switching D.C. The diagram and the graph
(see Figure 6-1) show the effect of supplying A.C. to an inductor. The voltage
waveform leads the current waveform by 90'. When the voltage is maximum the
current is zero. When the current is maximum the voltage is zero and so on. The
faster the A.C. changes (the higher the frequency) the greater the back EMF which
is produced. The back EMF reduces the current. The alternating current resistance
provided by the coil is called INDUCTIVE REACTANCE (XL) and is given by the
formula
XL = 2 ∏ f L Ohms,
XL = Inductive reactance (Ohms)
L = Coil inductance in Henrys (H)
f = Frequency in Hz
∏ = Mathematical constant (3.142).
This formula must be remembered.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
6.3 A.C. AND THE CAPACITOR

Figure 6-2 A.C. and the Capacitor
The previous unit showed the effect of applying D.C. to a capacitor. The charging
current starts at a maximum and falls to zero and the voltage across the capacitor
starts at zero and rises to a maximum. The effect is the exact opposite to an
inductor. The diagram (see Figure 6-2) shows the effect of supplying A.C. to a
capacitor. This time the graph shows the current leading the voltage by 90'. When
the current is maximum the voltage is zero and so on.
The faster the A.C. changes (the frequency) the less time the capacitor has to
charge so the current through the device increases. The A.C. resistance
(reactance) of a capacitor (Xc) goes down as the frequency goes up and is given by
the formula
Xc = I Ohms
---------
2∏fC
Xc = Capacitive reactance in Ohms
C = Capacitance in Farads (F)
f = Frequency in H2,
∏ = Mathematical constant (3.142).
This formula must be remembered.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
6.3.1 The Inductor-Resistor Combination

RL in series circuit RL in parallel circuit
Figure 6-3 Inductor - Resistor Combination
Figure 6-3 shows the series and parallel circuits of an RL combination. Calculating
the unknown values of Vs and Is is difficult because the current and voltage
waveforms through the inductor are 90° apart.
The total A.C. resistance, IMPEDANCE (Z) for a series circuit is given by the
formula:
A simple line diagram is used to illustrate the problem. From the diagram we get the
following formulas. These must be remembered.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
6.3.2 The Capacitor-Resistor Combination

Figure 6-4 Inductor - Capacitor Combination
Figure 6-4 shows the series and parallel circuits of an RC combination. The
formulas for the total A. C. resistance (IMPEDANCE) of the above circuits follow the
same principle as for the resistance and inductor circuits to give:

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
6.3.3 RL and C in Combination

Figure 6-5 shows the series and parallel circuits for an RLC combination. In this
case the reactance of the reactive parts oppose each other to give the formulas.
Figure 6-5 Resistor - Capacitor - Inductor Combination


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
6.3.4 Resonance
When the value of XL equals the value of XC then XL - XC= 0. So the formula for
impedance changes to:
Therefore Z = R for both circuits
This effect is called RESONANCE. At one frequency the circuit is only resistive.
At resonance;
The frequency (f) is called the RESONANCE FREQUENCY of the circuit. It

produces a circuit that is purely resistive.
This circuit is useful because it is used to select one frequency from all others. A
range of these circuits is used to select a television channel or radio station. Each
channel transmits at a different frequency to stop interference
6.4 WORKED EXAMPLES
6.4.1 Example 1
Question
Find the inductive reactance of a 5 mH coil at 50 kHz.
Solution
Inductive Reactance (XL) = 2∏fl
XL = 2 ∏ x 103 (Hz) 5 x 10-3 (H)
XL = 500 ∏ Ω
XL = 1571 Ω

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Inductive Reactance = 1571Ω

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
6.4.2 Example 2
Question
Find the capacitive reactance of a 1∏ capacitor at 50 kHz.
Solution
Capacitive Reactance (Xc) = 1

--------
2 ∏C
Xc = 1
-------------------------------------
2 ∏ 50 x103 (Hz ) x l x l 0-6 (F)
= 103
-------- = = 3.183 Ω
100∏
Capacitive Reactance = 3.183 Ω
6.4.3 Example 3
Question
Find the impedance of a 50Ω resistor and 100 µF capacitor connected in series to a
50 Hz supply.

Module No. 4: Industrial electronics 1 Unit No. 6 - AC Principles
July 1999- Rev.0

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6.4.4 Example 4
Question
Find the impedance of a 50Ωresistor and inductive reactance of 50Ω connected in

series. ,
Solution
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM R = 50Ω


TRAINING MANUAL
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6.4.5 Example 5
Question
Using the diagram above, find the circuit impedance.


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
6.4.6 Example 6
Question
Using the diagram above, find the circuit impedance.
Solution

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
6.4.7 Example 7
Question
Using the circuit diagram above, find
(a) Resonant frequency
(b) Circuit impedance at resonance
Solution
a) At resonance
(b) At resonance XL cancels X. and the circuit is resistive only.
Circuit impedance = .10 Ω

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

Ohm's law and A.C.
V = IR
V = I XC
V = 1 XL
V = IZ

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

Unit No. 7 - Common electrical symbols
UNIT 4 BASIC ELECTROSTATIC$ AND THE CAPACITOR


TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 7 - Common electrical symbols INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
7 . COMMON ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS 3


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INSTRUMENTATION
7. COMMON ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS

Unit No. 7 - Common electrical symbols
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM


Module No. 4: Industrial electronics 1 Unit No. 7 - Common electrical symbols
July 1999- Rev.0

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GRAPHIC SYMBOLS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
PRACTICAL TASK 1 3
PRACTICAL TASK 2 6
PRACTICAL TASK 3 8
PRACTICAL TASK 4 10
PRACTICAL TASK 5 11
PRACTICAL TASK 6 12
PRACTICAL TASK 7 13
PRACTICAL TASK 8 16
PRACTICAL TASK 9 19
PRACTICAL TASK 10 22
RESISTANCE COLOUR CODES 35


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL TASK 1
PROOF OF OHM'S LAW
1. Connect the circuit as shown using the components supplied.
2. After the instructor has checked the circuit, switch on the D.C. supply
and set the supply voltage to 1V on the voltmeter. Write down the
current reading on the table provided.
3. Repeat step (2) for a D.C. supply setting of 2V to 10V- Increase the
supply in one volt steps. Note the current reading each time.
4. Switch off the D.C. supply.
5. Plot a graph of voltage against current from the readings obtained.
6. The graph must be a straight line to show Ohm's law. V α 1.
7. Find the slope of the graph.
8. The slope of the graph will be the value of the resistor.


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INSTRUMENTATION
Slope = Distance X (Volts) = Resistance

----------------------
Distance Y (mA)
RESULTS TABLE
Questions to be answered to show understanding. of the practical task.
(1) What is the current, if the supply voltage is 25 volts?
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(2) What is the circuit current with a supply voltage of 10 V, if the resistor is
changed to 300Ω
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Module No. 4: Industrial electronics 1 Unit No. 8 - Practical tasks
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PRACTICAL TASK 2
1. Connect the circuit as shown using the components supplied. Do not

connect the meters.
2. After the instructor has checked the circuit, set the supply voltage to
10V with the voltmeter. Switch off.
3. Connect an ammeter across A-B. Switch on and note the ammeter

reading. Switch off.
4. With the ammeter across A-B short out C-D. Switch on and note the
5. Short out A-B and connect the ammeter across C-D. Switch on and
note the reading. Switch off.
6. above readings should show that in a broken series loop, the current
is zero. Also the current is the same in all parts of a series circuit.
7. Short out A-B and connect an ammeter across C-D. Switch on.
8. Connect a voltmeter across P-Q, R-S and T-U in turn and note the
reading of each. Switch off.
9. The voltage readings obtained will prove KIRCHHOFFs second law.
10. Divide the supply voltage (10V) by the total resistance (RT) for a
series circuit.
RT = 10OΩ + 20Ω + 30Ω = 60Ω
This will give the reading measured on the ammeter within the tolerance of
the resistor values and the accuracy of the meters.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
RESULTS TABLE
Questions to be answered to show understanding of the practical task.
(1) What does the ammeter read, if the supply voltage is 5 volts?
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(2) What happens to the voltage across the 20Ω resistor, if the short circuit
across AB is replaced with a 40Ω resistor?
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PRACTICAL TASK 3
THE PARALLEL CIRCUIT
1. Connect the circuit as shown, without the meters connected.
2. Set the D. C. supply to 10 V using the voltmeter. Switch off.
3. Short out G - H and place the ammeter across A-B. Switch on and note the
4. Repeat step (3) with the ammeter connected across C-D and E-F.
5. Short out A-B, C-D and E-F. Reconnect the short circuit on G-H and replace
with the ammeter across G-H. Switch on and note the reading. Switch off.
6. KIRCHHOFFs first law is now proved as
7. Short out G-H, A-B, C-D and E-F. Switch on. With a voltmeter measure
VSUPPLY, VR1 VR2 and VR3
8. This will show that, in a parallel circuit, the voltage is the same across all
loads.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
RESULT TABLE
(1) Calculate the resistance of the three resistors in parallel and find the
supply current (is) for a supply voltage of 10V. This answer should be,
within the accuracy of the equipment, the same as the measured Is.
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(2) Are the measured values for 11, 12 and 1,3 the same as the following?
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TRAINING MANUAL
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PRACTICAL TASK 4
THE SERIES - PARALLEL COMBINATION CIRCUIT
1 .Connect the circuit as shown, without the ammeter connected.
2. After the instructor has checked the circuit, switch on the power supply. Set
the supply and voltage to 11 V. Switch off.
3. Connect the ammeter into the circuit. Switch on and note down the reading
of the ammeter. Switch off.
RESULTS TABLE
VOLTMETER (VOLTS AMMETER (mA
Question to be answered to show understanding of the practical task.
Calculate the total resistance of the circuit and the supply current (is) with supply
voltage at 11 V. The calculated current will be, within the limits of accuracy, the
value measured on the meter.
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PRACTICAL TASK 5
THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
1. Connect the circuit as shown with the switch in the open position.
2. After the instructor has checked the circuit, set the ammeter at its highest
range. Close the switch.
3. Adjust the decade box until the ammeter reads as near zero as possible on
the lowest range. Note the value of the decade box. Switch off.
4. Calculate the value of Rx using the formula

5.
5. Check your answer by measuring Rx on an ohmmeter.


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL TASK 6
A.C. AND RMS VALUES
1. Connect a 100Ω resistor across 6.3 V RMS supply, as shown.
2. Connect an oscilloscope across the resistor and measure the peak to peak
value.
3.
4. Connect a dvm set to measure A.C. voltage across the resistor. This shows
that, within limits, the device is calibrated in RMS.
5. Connect an ammeter, which must be set to measure A.C. current, in the

circuit. It should read V RMS / 100, to show it is also calibrated in RMS.
6. Using the time basis scale, show the supply frequency is 50Hz. Remember
the frequency = 1/2 period.
Why is it not possible to display the workshop socket A.C. waveform on the
oscilloscope?
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TRAINING MANUAL
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PRACTICAL TASK 7
D.C. AND THE CAPACITOR
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. After the instructor has checked the circuit, switch on the supply. Note
the reading on the DVM every 10 seconds as the capacitor charges.
When the DVM is steady, switch-off the supply. Discharge the
capacitor by switching the DVM to the D.C. ampere range.
3. Plot the results obtained on a graph and estimate the RC time of the
circuit (time to reach 6.32V).

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
RESULTS TABLE
TIME (S) DVM (V)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
CALCULATIONS
Estimated RC time = _______________ secs
Calculated RC time = _______________ secs

QUESTION
Why are the estimated and calculated RC times different?
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PRACTICAL TASK 8
THE INDUCTOR AND A.C.
1. Connect the circuit, as shown, with the function generator set at 100
Hz with a 1 V output. Write down the reading indicated on the mA
meter.
. Repeat step (1) with a function generator output of 1V for frequencies

of 200, 400, 800, 1000, 1200 and 1400 Hz. Note the reading of the
mA meter each time.
3. Work out the reactance of the coil at each frequency (divide 1V by mA

reading).
4. Plot a graph of reactance against frequency.
5. The graph will show that inductive reactance increases linearly (in a
straight line) with frequency.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
RESULTS TABLE
Supply voltage constant at 1 V.
(1) Calculate the reactance of the inductor at 1000 Hz.
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(2) Why is it different from the measured value?
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PRACTICAL TASK 9
THE CAPACITOR AND A.C.
1. Connect the circuit as shown, with the function generator set at 100
Hz with a 1 V output. Write down the reading indicated on the mA
meter.
2. Repeat step (1) with a function generator output of 1V for frequencies

of 200, 400, 800, 1000, 1200 and 1400 Hz. Note the reading of the
mA m meter each time.
3. Work out the reactance of the capacitor at each frequency (divide 1 V

by mA reading).
4. Plot a graph of reactance against frequency.
5. The graph will show that capacitive reactance falls exponentially with
frequency.

TRAINING MANUAL
Supply voltage constant at 1 V.
(1) Calculate the reactance of the capacitor at 1000 Hz.
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(2) Why is it different from the measured value?
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PRACTICAL TASK 10
A.C. CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN AN INDUCTANCE
1. Connect the circuit as shown. Connect the earth leads of the oscilloscope
(OSC) to the LOW side of the function generator.
2. Adjust the waveforms to approximately the same size and sketch the
waveforms shown on the oscillator.
3. The waveforms should, show approximately a 90° phase shift between the
voltage across the inductor and the current (voltage across the 20Ωresistor)
through the inductor.
Does the voltage lead the current or the current lead the voltage?
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PRACTICAL TASK 11
A.C. CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN A CAPACITANCE
1. Connect the circuit as shown. Connect the earth leads of the oscilloscope
(OSC), to the low side of the function generator.
2. Adjust the waveforms to approximately the same size. Sketch the

waveforms displayed.
3. The waveforms should show approximately a 90° phase shift between the
voltage across the capacitor and the current (voltage across the 20Ω
resistor) through the capacitor.
1 Does the voltage lead the current or the current lead the voltage?
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PRACTICAL TASK 12
A.C. AND THE INDUCTOR / CAPACITOR RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
INTRODUCTION
The previous two tasks (10 and 11) showed the phase shift between the
current and voltage waveform when a capacitor or inductor is supplied with
A.C. This task will show how the phase shift between the current and the
voltage can be adjusted. This is done using an inductor / capacitor with a
resistor in a series circuit.
1. Connect the circuit as shown. Sketch the two waveforms shown on

the oscilloscope.
2. Change the frequency to 500 Hz. Sketch the waveforms.
3. Change the frequency to 2000 Hz. Sketch the waveforms.
4. Replace the 100 mH inductor with a 0.1µF capacitor.
5. Repeat steps (1) through (3) and sketch the waveforms.
Questions to be answered to show understanding Of the practical task.
(1) Work out the phase shift at the various frequencies from the sketches
you have made.
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(2) Do these sketches show that the inductive reactance goes up with frequency
and the capacitive reactance goes down with frequency?
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PRACTICAL TASK 13
RESONANCE
SERIES
1. Connect the circuit as shown.
2. Set the function generator to 200 Hz and note the reading on the
DVM
3. Repeat step (2) for frequencies of 400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200, 1400.
1800, 2000 and 2200 Hz.
4. Adjust the frequency on the function generator to obtain the largest

reading on the DMV. Note the frequency.
5. Draw a graph of DVM reading against frequency.
6. The graph should show the circuit resonates. It. has a maximum
voltage (current) at one frequency.

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(2) Does your calculation agree with the result obtained from step (4) ?
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PARALLEL
1. Connect the circuit as shown.
2. Set the function generator to 200 Hz. Note this reading on the DVMI.
3. Repeat step (2) for frequencies of 400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200, 1400.
1800, 2000 and 2200 Hz.
4. Adjust the frequency on the function generator to obtain the smallest

reading on the DMV. Note the frequency.
5. Draw a graph of the DVM reading against the frequency.
6. The graph should show the circuit resonates. It has a minimum

voltage (current) at one frequency.
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(2) Does your calculation agree with the result obtained from step (3) ?
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RESISTANCE COLOUR CODES

Method 1
The diagram shows a colour coded resistor. The colour code is there to
show you the resistance of the resistor. Reading from left to right, the first
and seconds bands indicate a number, (eg. if the first colour band is 4 and
the second colour band is 7 then the number is 47). The third band is the
3
multiplier in power form, (eg. 10 ) . The fourth band indicates the tolerance of
the resistor (eg. ± 5%). The numbers to match the colours are internationally
fixed and are given below.

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INSTRUMENTATION
Example 1
GREEN
The example has the bands red, violet, green and gold. This means
27 x 100 000 (105) = 2.7 MΩ
Tolerance ± 5%
Example 2
The example has the bands black, green, gold and red. This means
05 x 0. 1 = 0. 5Ω
Tolerance ± 2%
Example 3
The example has the bands red, black, black and brown. This means
20 x 1 = 20.Ω
Tolerance ± 1 %

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Method 2
The newer types of resistor have the value and tolerance printed on them. These
use letters to show the powers.
R = 1
K = 1000
M = 1 000 000
Examples
100 R = 100 Ω
1R1 = 1.1Ω
1 K5 = 1 500Ω
4M7 = 4 700 000Ω
This method of numbering resistors is now used on circuit diagrams and in

catalogues when ordering resistors.
Note: Various colour codes for capacitors have been devised. However none of
these are widely accepted so they are not worth learning.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Tolerance:
This is the range over which a component is allowed to vary from its stated value.
The closer the tolerance- the more accurate the component. However, the closer
the tolerance the higher the cost. Electrical/electronic circuits are designed so that
close tolerance components are only used when it is necessary for correct
operation.
Example
Find the acceptable range of values for a 1 K resistor with a tolerance of ± 5%.
5% of 1 000 = 50Ω
Acceptable range will be 1 000 ± 50Ω
or 950 Ω to 1 050Ω

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Power Rating.
When an electric current is passed through a resistor, energy is dissipated (used) in

the form of heat. So, resistors are made according to how much heat (power) they
can take without burning out. This is called the power rating. The power -rating of a
resistor is not usually printed on the resistor. The manufacturer's catalogue will tell
you the maximum power it can handle. The construction of resistors depends on
their power rating. There are two basic kinds.
(1) Film Resistors
Figure PT-1 Film Resistor
Figure PT-1 shows a film resistor used in electronics. It is made by putting a thin
coating (a film) of a carbon or metal compound onto a ceramic cylinder. The
resistivity of the coating compound is varied to give the necessary resistance value.
The resistance can be made more accurate by cutting grooves in the film. The
grooves change. the area and thus the resistance. The connections to the resistor
are made by brass or nickel caps and copper connecting leads. The device is
coated with a plastic insulator and painted with the colour code. These resistors are
made in various values from about I Ω- to 10MΩ with a power rating to about 2W.

TRAINING MANUAL
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(2) Wire Wound

These resistors are made for high power applications. An instrument technician will
only see these types in power amplifiers driving field devices (e.g. relays, solenoid
valves, etc.) however, they are often used in electrical work.
Figure PT-2 Wire Wound Resistor
Figure PT-2 shows a wire wound resistor. It consists of a ceramic cylinder with a
resistance wire wound around it. The resistance value depends on the resistivity of
the wire and the number of turns. These resistors can be very accurate. They are
used as standard resistors. The insulation on the device depends on what the
device will be used for. Very high power resistors which need to dissipate kilowatts
usually have no insulation. They lose the heat by radiating it outwards like the sun.
Electronic power resistors are usually insulated with what is called 'vitreous
enamel". This provides good insulation with good heat radiation properties. The wire
wound resistor usually has its resistance value and its tolerance written on the
device (no colour code). Wire wound resistors are only produced in the lower
resistance ranges with a maximum value of about 100kΩ. The power ratings
produced for electronics vary from about 2.5W to 50W. However, some electrical
systems may use resistors with power ratings of many kilowatts.
Note: The latest type of resistors come in what are- called "chips". These are
film resistors. They are constructed on a ceramic chip. There are
connecting pads on the bottom so it can be surface mounted on a printed
circuit board. The "chips" come from the factory stuck on a tape. They are
removed one at a time when they are needed. Figure PT-3 shows a typical
chip resistor.
Figure PT-3 Chip Resistor

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
MODULE No. 5
July 1999- Rev.0

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 1 - Basic semiconductor theory INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 1 BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY
UNIT 2 DIODE APPLICATION
UNIT 3 THE CONTROLLED DIODE
UNIT 4 TRANSISTOR S


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 1 - Basic semiconductor theory
Para Page
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 BASIC ATOMIC THEORY 4
1.2.1 Electrical Conduction 6
1.3 THE INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR 7
1.3.1 Doping an Intrinsic Semiconductor 8
1.3.2 The PN Junction 10
1.3.3 The PN Junction Diode 11
1.3.4 Diode Symbols 12


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

• Explain an electric current as a movement of electrons or holes.
• Explain the difference between a conductor, insulator and semiconductor by

electron shell theory.
• Explain the terms 'P' type and 'N' type material.
• Describe the action of a PN junction.
• With the aid of a sketch explain the action of a PN junction diode.


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to explain, in basic terms, the physics of the conductor,
insulator, semiconductor and the PN junction.
1.2 BASIC ATOMIC THEORY
The basic unit of all matter is the atom. Figure 1-1 shows a very simplified diagram
of an atom.
Figure 1-1 The Simple Atom
The atom contains a central group of particles called the NUCLEUS. This nucleus is
made up of PROTONS with a POSITIVE CHARGE and NEUTRONS with ZERO
CHARGE. The ELECTRON clouds, with a NEGATIVE CHARGE, move around the
nucleus in a spherical space at a fixed distance from the nucleus called a SHELL.
The number of electrons and protons in an atom are equal, so an atom has no
charge. The number of electrons or protons in an atom depends on the substance
(element). For example:
There are about 100 elements. Every element has an atomic number. The atomic
number tells you how many protons/electrons are in the element. So, the atomic
number of Hydrogen is 1, Oxygen is 8 and so on. Everything is made, of atoms. If
all the atoms in a substance are of one type that substance is an element. If the
atoms are of two or more types the substance is a compound. A typical compound
is water, which is made of Hydrogen and Oxygen. It's basic unit (molecule) is shown

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as H20'

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The electrical properties of an element depend on how many electrons are in the
outside shell. Good conductors like copper only have 1 electron in the outside shell.
Good insulators like neon have a full outside shell (8 electrons). Semiconductors
are half-full; eg, silicon. Elements are classified according to the number of
electrons in the outside shell from group 1 (good conductors) to group 8 (good
insulators). Group 3, 4 and 5 materials are used to make semiconductor devices in
use today, e.g. diode, transistor, integrated circuit etc.(see Figure 1-2)
• Group 1 example Lithium
One electron in the outside shell
• Group 4 example Silicon

Four electrons in the outside Shell

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• Group 8 example Neon

Eight electrons in the outside shell
Figure 1-2 Atomic Shell Structure examples
1.2.1 Electrical Conduction

Figure 1-3 Simple Electrical Conduction
Figure 1-3 shows a few atoms in a conductor. Each atom has a single (free)
electron in the outside shell. When an EMF is applied, the free electron (which has
a negative charge) is pulled towards the positive charge. The 'hole' left by the
electron is filled by the next moving electron. So, the hole (the positive charge)
appears to move to the negative. The electron flow of an electric current is from
negative to positive. Hole flow is from positive to negative. It is hole flow that is used
to show the direction of an electric current, (conventional flow).
Note : The charge of an electron is very small. A current of 1 Amp means that
1.6 x 1019 electrons are moving per second.

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1.3 THE INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

The intrinsic semiconductor is a group 4 material with 4 electrons in the outside

shell. This means there are four (4) empty places in the outside shell into which an
electron can move. The most common intrinsic semiconductors are silicon and
germanium. They are produced as crystals. Crystals are an extremely pure form in
which the atoms have a regular pattern (see Figure 1-4).
Figure 1-4 Arrangement of Atoms in a Crystal


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The atoms hold together as a solid, by sharing the electrons between them to keep
the outside shell full some of the time. arrangement in which atoms share electrons
is called a covalent bond. A simple diagram of this is shown in Figure 1-5.
Figure 1-5 Covalent Bonding
Note : A good quality crystal has less than 1 part in 10,000,000,000 impurities.
1.3.1 Doping an Intrinsic Semiconductor
Doping an intrinsic semiconductor is the trick which makes all semiconductor

devices work. There are only two types of doping that can be done.
N Type
A small amount of a group 5 material; eg, arsenic, which has 5 electrons in its outer
shell, is added to an intrinsic semiconductor. This causes the shared area around a
covalent bond to have a 'spare' electron which is free to move; 4 from silicon 5 from
arsenic = 9 electrons. There is one spare electron because 8 is a full shell.
Figure 1-6 shows the action of an N type material which has free electrons to give
away: doNate.

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Unit No. 1 - Basic semiconductor theory INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 1-6 ‘N’ Type Material
P Type
A small quantity of a group 3 material, eg, aluminium, which has 3 electrons in the
outer shell, is added to an intrinsic semiconductor. This causes the shared area
around a covalent bond to be one electron short. There are 4 electrons from silicon
and 3 from aluminium which makes 7 electrons in total. This is one short of a full
shell so a 'hole' is produced where an electron can go. The P type material will take
in electrons, accePtor. Figure 1-7 shows the action of a 'P' type material.
Figure 1-7 'P' Type Material
Note: The doping rates are very small, about one part in a million. However,
doping rates vary depending on the amount of excess holes or electrons
required.

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1.3.2 The PN Junction

Figure 1-8 The PN Junction
Figure 1-8 shows what happens when a piece of 'P' type material and a piece of 'N'
type material are joined together.
The excess holes from the P side and excess electrons from the side cross the
barrier and cancel each other out. The 'P' area gain electrons and goes NEGATIVE,
the 'N' area gains holes and goes POSITIVE. A CONTACT POTENTIAL is formed.
The electric field which it produces stops any more hole-electron connections. The
area where these holes and electrons cancel each other is called the DEPLETION
LAYER.

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1.3.3 The PN Junction Diode

Figure 1-9 The PN Junction Diode
Figure 1-9 shows what happens when an external voltage is applied to a PN

Junction. If the 'N' region is made positive to the 'P' region the depletion layer gets
stronger and no current flows. If the 'P' region is made positive to the 'N' region, the
contact potential and depletion layer are broken down and current will flow. The PN
junction acts like a non-return valve. It allows current to flow in one direction only.
Therefore, it is a diode. The current depends on the size of the voltage applied

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Note : The current will only flow in the forward direction after the contact
potential (barrier voltages) has been overcome. This is about 0.7v with
silicon diodes and about 0.2v with germanium diodes. If enough voltage
is applied in the reverse direction, the diode will break down and high
current will flow. The amount of voltage needed to do this is called the
ZENER breakdown voltage.
Figure 1-10 Diode Symbols
Figure 1 -10 shows the common symbols for a diode. Figures (a) and (b) show the
symbol used on an electronic diagram. The 'P' region is called the 'ANODE' and the
'N' region the "CATHODE'. Forward current flow is from anode to cathode. Figures
(c) and (d) show the markings on the diode itself. Two examples of industrial
semiconductor diodes are shown below.

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STUD MOUNTING
WIRE CONNECTIONS

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Unit No. 2- Diode application
UNIT 4 TRANSISTOR S

Module No. 5 : Industrial electronics 2

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
3.1 INTRODUCTION 4
3.2 SYMBOLS 4
3.3 CHARACTERISTICS 5
3.3.1 Forward Characteristics 6
3.3.2 Reverse Characteristics 7
3.4 PARAMETERS 8
3.5 IDENTIFICATION 9
3.6 TESTING DIODES 11
3.7 APPLICATIONS 13
3.8 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES 15
3.9 REVIEW 17

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The trainee will be able to:
• Recognise the common diode symbols
• Explain the meaning of
∗ Forward bias
∗ Reverse bias
∗ Anode
∗ Cathode
∗ Reverse (breakdown) voltage
∗ Forward voltage/current
∗ LED
∗ Photodiode
• Explain how to test a diode
• Briefly explain how diodes can be identified
• Describe one application for a diode (or an LED)


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3.1 INTRODUCTION
A diode is a semiconductor device. It is usually made of Silicon (Si) or Germanium

(Ge).
It has two terminal connections and, within voltage limits, conducts current only in
one direction. It does the same job as a non-return valve. It is this characteristic
which is important in electronics. Diodes are used to convert Alternating Current
(AC) to Direct Current (DC). Direct Current is used in all electronic equipment.
The connections of a diode are called the ANODE and the CATHODE (see figure
3.1). If the diode is FORWARD BIASED, the anode is connected to the positive
voltage and the cathode to the negative voltage. When the diode is forward biased,
current flows through it. When the diode is REVERSED BIASED, only a very small
amount of current (leakage current) flows through it.
Figure 3-1 Symbol of Diode
Diodes allow current to flow only in one direction. It is this characteristic which is
very useful in electronics. Diodes are used to convert Alternating Current (AC) to
Direct Current (DC). Direct Current is used for all electronic equipment. You will
learn about this when you study Rectifiers in Unit 4.
3.2 SYMBOLS
The general symbols for diodes are:

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Figure 3-2 Symbols for Diodes
Some symbols also show the polarity of the diode (see figures 3.3 and 3.4).
Figure 3-3 Polarity of Diodes - Polarity shown by symbol

Figure 3-4 Polarity of Diodes - Polarity shown by line
3.3 CHARACTERISTICS
When a diode is connected to a supply with a positive anode and negative cathode
polarity, the diode is FORWARD BIASED.

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When a diode is connected to a supply with a negative anode and positive cathode
polarity, the diode is REVERSE BIASED.
When the diode is Forward Biased, it conducts current. When the diode is Reverse
Biased, it does not conduct much current.
Each of these two conditions has a different characteristic (see figure 3.5).
Figure 3-5 Characteristics of Forward and Reverse Biased Diodes

In figure 3.5, note that the current is shown in mA and µA and that the forward
voltage is positive and reverse voltage is negative. Note also that the forward
voltage is shown in tenths but the reverse voltage is shown in tens.
In figure 3.5 in FORWARD bias, the current through a Silicon diode begins to flow
when the voltage reaches about 0.6V. In REVERSE bias, the current through the
Silicon diode begins to flow when the voltage reaches about -50V. What are the two
limits for a Germanium diode?
3.3.1 Forward Characteristics
Figure 3.5 shows that Silicon diodes and Germanium Diodes have different
characteristics. The Silicon diode has a higher "turn-on" voltage and a higher
"breakdown" voltage. The "turn-on" voltage is the voltage at which the diode begins
to work. The "breakdown" voltage is the voltage at which the diode cannot control

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the current.

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The Silicon diode has a higher FORWARD VOLTAGE DROP than the Germanium
diode (see figure 3.6). In figure 3.6 the Silicon diode is shown with a FORWARD
VOLTAGE DROP from about 0.6V. What is the FORWARD VOLTAGE DROP of
the Germanium diode shown in figure 3.6?
Figure 3.6 Forward Characteristics
There are many different types of diode. Some diodes break when only a few
milliamperes (mA) of current flow through them. Other diodes break when over 100
amperes of current flows through them.
3.3.2 Reverse Characteristics
In theory, no current flows when the diode is reverse biased. In practice, however,
some LEAKAGE current does flow.
The Germanium diode has a larger leakage current at lower voltages than the
Silicon diode.
At some values of reverse voltage the current suddenly increases very quickly. This
is called the REVERSE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE. Voltage at this level will destroy
the diode. So it must be controlled by a resistor connected in series (see figure 3.7).

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Figure 3-7 Reverse Characteristics
The leakage current of diodes increases when the temperature rises. The leakage
current of Germanium diodes increases faster than Silicon diodes.
3.4 PARAMETERS
Diode manufactures give the following ratings, or information, about their diodes:
V-f Forward Voltage for a particular forward current (eg up to 1.5

@ 5A for a silicon diode but the value will usually be less than
1 V for most diodes) - or the voltage in a forward bias
direction - at which the diode begins to work.
I-f the Forward Current at which a diode begins to work.

V-rrm the Repetitive Reverse Maximum Voltage (sometimes

referred to as PRV - Peak Reverse Voltage - or PIV - Peak
Inverse Voltage). The amount of voltage a diode can
withstand in a reverse bias direction without breaking down.
When choosing a diode, you should consider:
• how much FORWARD CURRENT it will carry.(or at what voltage it will begin to
work).
• how much REVERSE VOLTAGE it will tolerate (or at what voltage it will break
down).
• whether it is made of Silicon or Germanium (remember that they have different

characteristics).

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3.5 IDENTIFICATION
There are many different types, sizes, styles and ratings for diodes (see figure 3.8,
3.9 and 3.10). The diodes therefore have to be identified so that we know what they
can do.
Figure 3-8 Diode Case Styles


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There are two numbering systems for diodes. The AMERICAN system starts with a
1 N. This means that the device has one PN junction. For example, a 1 N4004 is a
Silicon diode with a voltage rating of 400V. A 1 N4020 is a Zener diode made of
Silicon with a voltage rating of 12V and which can handle 5W. A 1 N2326 diode is
made of Germanium with a rating of 1 V and 2mA. The numbers after 1 N are
reference numbers.
The EUROPEAN Pro-Electron system starts with two letters. The first letters are A
or B. The second letters are Y or Z.
A = Germanium (a detection or switching diode)
B = Silicon (a variance capacitance diode)
Y = a rectifier diode
Z = a voltage reference diode (or a transient suppresser diode)
For example, a BY200 is a type of Silicon Rectifier diode. The numbers after the
two letters are reference numbers.
Some diodes have ratings which say that they can handle only a few milliamperes.
Other diodes can handle several hundred amperes (see figure 3.10).

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3.6 TESTING DIODES
Diodes can be tested with an ohmmeter:
• connect the ohmmeter across the diode
• look at the reading
• reverse the ohmmeter leads
• look at the reading
If the readings are exactly the same, the diode is probably not working. Can you
explain why? Remember that a diode works like a one-way valve.
The ohmmeter test is about 98% accurate. It is not 100% accurate because the
diode could be overheating when the circuit is operating.
Diodes can also be tested with analogue and digital voltmeters.
Using a DIGITAL voltmeter (see figure 3.11), set it to the DIODE CHECK position.
Note that the RED lead is the POSITIVE lead and the BLACK lead is the
NEGATIVE lead.
The digital voltmeter uses a constant current to check resistance. On the resistance
range, the voltage would not be enough to "turn on" the diode since it is less than
0.6V. On the DIODE CHECK range, the current is still constant but there is enough
voltage for the diode to conduct. The reading is the forward voltage drop of the
diode. This reading is useful to find diodes with similar V-fs.

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Figure 3-11 Using a Digital Voltmeter (DVM)
In figure 3.11 the lamp lights up when the supply is connected. When the current is
reduced, the lamp becomes dimmer and the voltage falls. In figure 3.11 B when the
diode is reversed, the lamp does not light up. Can you explain why?
Using an ANALOGUE voltmeter (or Multimeter), set it to the Ohms x 1 range. In

this range, the BLACK lead is POSITIVE and the RED lead is NEGATIVE (see
figure 3.12).

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Figure 3.12 Using an Analogue Multimeter
All the meters will show an OPEN CIRCUIT diode as an open circuit and a SHORT
CIRCUIT diode as a short circuit.
Some diodes will show a resistance other than infinity when in REVERSE BIAS. For
Germanium diodes, this could be correct because Germanium diodes have more
leakage current than Silicon diodes. For Silicon diodes, a resistance other than
infinity when in REVERSE BIAS probably means the diode is not working.
3.7 APPLICATIONS
The diode has many uses but two uses will be described here.
Look at figure 3.13. It is a circuit for a dimmer control for a lamp. The lamp is OFF
when the switch is in the centre position. When the movable contact of the switch
meets the upper contact, the lamp is ON at FULL brightness because FULL voltage
is supplied to it. 'When the movable contact meets the lower contact, the current
flows through the diode. The diode allows current to flow only one way. HALF of the
AC Waveform is blocked during each cycle. So HALF of the voltage is supplied to
the lamp. So the lamp is ON - but at HALF brightness.

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Figure 3.13 Lamp Dimmer Control
This is a dimmer control. The advantage of this type of control is that ordinary
lamps can be used.
Look at figure 3.14. It is a circuit is for a dynamic brake for a small AC induction
motor. AC induction motors can be braked by applying DIRECT CURRENT to their
stator windings. Remember that diodes allow current to flow only in one direction.
The current becomes DIRECT CURRENT because it does not reverse direction.
Figure 3-14 Dynamic Braking Circuit for AC Induction Motor
The AC induction motor is OFF when the switch is in the centre position. When the
switch is in the MAINTAINED CONTACT position, the AC motor is ON. When the
switch is in the MOMENTARY CONTACT position, the current flows through the
diode and the limiting resistor. This applies direct current to the stator winding and
brakes the motor. The resistor limits the amount of current to a safe value for the
diode and the winding of the motor.

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3.8 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) give out light when current passes through them (see
figure 3.15).
Figure 3-15 - Light Emitting Diode
Photodiodes are turned on by light (see figure 3.16). They will not work without
light.
Figure 3-16 - Photodiode

Note the different direction of the arrows on the symbols.
LEDs and ordinary diodes are similar. They both allow current to flow in only one
direction but an LED needs a higher voltage to turn it on. An ordinary Silicon
junction diode needs about 0.7V to turn it on. An LED needs about 1.7V to turn it
on. An LED has a higher voltage drop than an ordinary junction diode. The higher
voltage drop makes an LED difficult to test with some ohmmeters. The best way of
testing an LED is put it in a circuit and see if it works.
When it is in a circuit, an LED works with about 20mA (0.020A) or less of current.
So when an LED is put in a 12V DC circuit, the current must be limited by resistor
which is connected in series (see figure 3.17). Can you calculate the value for the
resistor? Use R=V ÷ I

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Figure 3.17 Current Flow limited by Resistor
When an LED is connected in a circuit, it is important to know which lead is the

anode and which lead is the cathode. Hold the LED with the leads towards you. The
plastic case has a flat side. The flat side should match the line on the diode symbol
(see figure 3.18).
Figure 3-18 LED Polarity

LEDs are used for pilot lights and numerical and figure displays on electronic
equipment. They are inexpensive. Unlike light bulbs, they do not have any
filaments.
LEDs are used for seven segment displays. The seven segments can be lit in
different combinations to make a variety of numbers and figures.

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3.9 REVIEW
• symbols for diodes, including LEDs.
• Forward Bias is when the diode is connected to supply so that, within limits,
it conducts current.
• Reverse Bias is when the diode is connected to a supply so that, within

limits, it does not conduct current.
• The anode and cathode are the diode connections.
• When the diode is Forward Biased the anode is connected to the positive
and the cathode to the negative voltage.
• Reverse Breakdown Voltage is the voltage at which the diode cannot control
the current.
• Forward Voltage is the voltage at which the diode begins to work.
• LEDs are Light Emitting Diodes which give out light when current passes
through them.
• Photodiodes are diodes which need light to work.
• Diodes can be tested to find out if they working by using ohmmeters or

multimeters connected across them.

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Unit No. 3 - The controlled diode INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 4 TRANSISTORS


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 3 - The controlled diode
Para Page
3.1 INTRODUCTION 4
3.2 THE THYRISTOR (SCR) 4
3.2.1 A Typical SCR Control Circuit 5
3.2.2 The SCR in Industry 6
3.3 THE TRIAC 7


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The student will be able to -
• Describe the operation of a Thyristor (SCR).
• Draw and explain the operation of a typical variable D.C. supply using an SCR.
• Describe the operation of a TRIAC.
• Draw and explain the operation of a typical variable A.C. supply using a TRIAC.

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3.1 INTRODUCTION
Units 1 and 2 described the diode and its applications. This unit will explain the
operation of diode devices which can produce a variable D.C. output from an A.C.
supply, or a variable A.C. output from an A.C. supply.
3.2 THE THYRISTOR (SCR)
The thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is a 3 PN Junction device. A very

enlarged view of the construction of an SCR is shown in Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-1 The Three Junction SCR
Operation
An AC supply is connected anode to cathode. This device will only conduct when a
voltage is applied to the gate. With no voltage on the gate, the device will not
conduct in either direction.
If a positive voltage of above 3V is applied to the gate a current will flow. The
forward bias of the bottom PN junction produces enough current carriers for a
positive voltage on the anode to produce a current. This current will flow from anode
to cathode. However, a negative voltage on the anode produces no current flow
even if the gate has a positive voltage. This means the device acts as a diode but
its point of conduction is controlled by the voltage on the gate. The SCR cannot be
switched off once it is conducting. It will continue to conduct until the anode voltage
falls to zero.

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3.2.1 A Typical SCR Control Circuit

Figure 3-2 Simple SCR Light Control Circuit
Figure 3-2 shows a simple SCR control circuit. It is used to control the brightness of
a lamp (the load).
Operation.
• The timing of the pulse onto the SCR gate is controlled by an RC timing
circuit and a UJT. The UJT (Uni-Junction Transistor) has only one junction
so it only conducts when the emitter is positive enough.
• The capacitor C charges through R on the positive half cycle to a point

where the M conducts. The high current passing through R, passes a pulse
of voltage, via the diode, onto the SCR gate. When a voltage is applied to
the gate of the SCR it conducts and the bulb lights.
• The low resistance of the EMITTER-B1 junction shorts out the capacitor so it
is ready for charging on the next positive halfcycle.
• The time at which the SCR conducts on the positive half-cycle depends on
the RC time. The RC time can be adjusted by R.
• If the RC time is long, the SCR will switch on later. If the SCR takes longer
to switch on, the positive A.C. pulse across the lamp will be shorter. If the
AC pulse is shorter, the lamp will get dimmer (less bright).
• The SCR is a diode so it only operates on positive half-cycles.

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• The graph below shows the action of the circuit.

3.2.2 The SCR in Industry
The simple SCR control circuit has no practical use. It is only used to show SCR
action in a training workshop. An industrial SCR controller uses a complicated
switching circuit. This is a separate electronic unit (card). Industrial SCRs are used
in different ways. You must use the manufacturer's manual to set them up. A typical
example of SCR control is the large industrial battery charger. A typical circuit for
this is shown in Figure 3-3. The supply is three-phase with fullwave rectification.
This gives six D.C. pulses per cycle which is more efficient (see Figure 3-3b).
Figure 3-3 The Basic Industrial Battery Charger

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Figure 3-3b
3.3 THE TRIAC
The triac is basically two SCRs back-to-back in one unit. It is used to control an
A.C. wave. The symbol for a triac is
With a triac, the gate can be triggered by both negative and positive pulses (usually
positive). Current will flow in both directions when either MT2 is positive to MT1 or
MT1 is positive to MT2. The simple light control circuit (see Figure 3-4) can be
adapted to use a triac which gives better control of light dimming as shown below.
Figure 3-4 Simple Light Control Circuit

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The dimming circuit works in the same way as before but the output voltage across
the lamp will be controlled A.C. The graph below shows the basic action.
Triacs are seldom used in industry as the distorted A.C. waveform causes
unwanted electrical noise. This is difficult to filter out. However, they are used in
instrumentation as A.C. power switches. They are very good for switching devices
such as valves, relays, turbine control valves, etc which are actuated by electrical
solenoids. Full AC voltage is applied when the triac is switched on, but there is no
voltage when the triac is switched off.

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Unit No. 4 - Transistor
UNIT 4 TRANSISTORS


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4
4.2 THE BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT) 4
4.2.1 The BJT NPN Amplifier Circuit 6
4.2.2 The PNP BJT Transistor 7
4.2.3 The BJT PNP Transistor Amplifier 7
4.3 THE COMMON COLLECTOR (EMITTER FOLLOWER) AMPLIFIER 8
4.4 THE FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET) 9
4.5 THE FET AMPLIFIER 10
4.6 THE METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT
TRANSISTOR (MOSFET) 11
4.7 THE TRANSISTOR AS AN ELECTRONIC SWITCH 13


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• Explain with the aid of a diagram, the operation of a Bipolar Junction Transistor
(BJT) amplifier.
• Explain with the aid of a diagram, the operation of a Field Effect Transistor (FET)
amplifier.
• Explain with the aid of a diagram, the operation of a Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) amplifier.
• Explain with the aid of a diagram, the operation of typical transistor switching
circuits.

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4.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to introduce the basic construction of three common
transistors in use: the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), the Field Effect Transistor
(FET) and the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET).
These devices use a D.C. power supply as an energy source to increase the level
of an alternating current signal to a usable level. No modern electronic devices
(radio, stereo, television etc.) will work without transistors. This is because the
signals received from an aerial, tape or C.D. player are too small to see or hear.
They must be amplified.
4.2 THE BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)
Figure 4-1 (BJT) NPN Construction
Figure 4-1 shows an enlarged diagram of the construction of a BJT. It has two PN
Junctions to make an NPN BJT. The three areas are called EMITTER, BASE and
COLLECTOR.
Operation
• The 'N' regions are more heavily doped than the 'P' region.
• The base is much thinner than the emitter and collector regions.
• The emitter-base junction is FORWARD BIASED. The- current which flows

is mainly ELECTRONS. These are the MAJORITY CURRENT CARRIERS.
• The base-collector junction is REVERSE BIASED. This means that the

electric field across the junction will pull the majority current carriers
(electrons) into the collector region.

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The base current is very small because it is not heavily doped. So, there are few
holes for the electrons to combine with. Most of the electrons are pulled into the
collector.
The current passing into the collector, for a fixed collector voltage, is proportional to
the emitter-base bias.
The device amplifies because small changes in the base current produce large
changes in the collector current. The gain of a BJT is called HFE. HFE reflects the
change in the collector current compared to the change in the base current.
HFE = CHANGE IN COLLECTOR CURRENT

(GAIN) CHANGE IN BASE CURRENT

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4.2.1 The BJT NPN Amplifier Circuit

Figure 4-2 The NPN BJT Amplifier
Figure 4-2 shows a typical NPN BJT small signal amplifier. The output signal is an
amplified version of the input signal. The signal is amplified but it's not distorted.
Operation
• R1 and R2 set the bias voltage of the base-emitter junction so that the BJT is
conducting at it's midpoint and the voltage at the collector (Vc) is half of
+Vcc.
• The load resistor (RL) is added to develop a voltage output from the changes
in the collector current.
• C1 and C2 are added to block any D.C. levels which may affect the bias set
by R1 and R2.
• If the input signal goes positive the forward bias of the base-emitter junction
is increased. This causes the collector current to go up so Vc will fall.
• If the input signal goes negative the forward bias of the baseemitter junction
will fall. This causes the collector current to fall which means Vc will rise.
• The output signal is 180° out of phase with the input signal (inverted) but
amplified.
• This transistor is called a 'common emitter' amplifier because the emitter is

connected to both the input and the output.
• The symbol on an electrical diagram for an NPN BJT is

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4.2.2 he PNP BJT Transistor

Figure 4-3 PNP BJT Construction
Figure 4-3 shows the basic construction of a PNP BJT. It works in exactly the same
way as an NPN BJT. However, the power supply are reversed and the majority
current carriers are the holes (the spaces which attracts free electrons).
4.2.3 The BJT PNP Transistor Amplifier

Figure 4-4 PNP BJT Amplifier
Figure 4-4 shows a typical PNP BJT amplifier. The use of each component is
exactly the same as for an NPN BJT but the DC supply is negative (-Vcc).
he symbol for a PNP Transistor is:

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
4.3 THE COMMON COLLECTOR (EMITTER FOLLOWER) AMPLIFIER

The normal small signal voltage amplifier is the one shown previously for both the
PNP and NPN. This circuit is not suitable for giving power to small resistance loads.
The circuit used to provide power gain is called the common collector (emitter
follower) and shown in Figure 4-5.
Figure 4-5 Common Collector Amplifier
The load (RL) is connected in the emitter circuit of the BJT. 1 The voltage gain is
less than one but the current gain and power gain. ~, high. This circuit will thus
provide the power to drive loads requiring high power, eg. stereo speakers, solenoid
valves, relays, etc. The output waveform is in phase with the input waveform.

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4.4 THE FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET)

Figure 4-6 FET Construction
Figure 4-6 shows the construction of a field effect transistor (FET). It consists of a
piece of 'N' material (the N channel) with P type material inset around the middle as
shown. When there is no voltage on the 'P' region (gate), current flows from the
drain (D) to the source (S). If a negative voltage is applied to the gate a depletion
layer is created as shown. This makes the N channel smaller so less current flows
through it. The resistance of the 'N' channel goes up and the drain-source current
(W goes down. If a big enough negative voltage is applied to the gate the depletion
layers close off the 'N' channel so that no current can pass through it. Then ID fails
to zero. The gate voltage to do this is called the 'pinch off' voltage. It is possible to
change this device to a 'P channel` with inset 'N' type material. A 'P' channel FET
works the same way as an 'N' channel except the `pinch off' voltages are positive.
This gives a unit of conductance (1/Resistance). This unit of conductance is called

the 'SIEMEN'.
FET Symbols

TRAINING MANUAL
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4.5 THE FET AMPLIFIER

Figure 4-7 The "N" Channel FET Amplifier
Figure 4-7 shows a typical N channel FET amplifier. The bias is set by R,. The
voltage at Vs being ID R, positive. The voltage on the gate must be negative with
respect to the source.
The input signal developed across RG will move the gate voltage up and down. This
produces an inverted output signal similar to a BJT amplifier. The gain of an FET
amplifier is small (around 10) compared with a BJT amplifier (around 100). But the
input resistance is very high unlike the BJT. However, the input resistance on an
FET amplifier is much higher than on a BJT.
A P channel FET amplifier looks exactly the same as an N channel amplifier. The
big difference is that VDD is negative.
Note : The capacitor Cl is used to short out any A.C. signals that would affect the
bias developed across R,.

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4.6 THE METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

(MOSFET)
There are two types of MOSFET; depletion (see Figure 4-8a) and enhanced (see
Figure 4-8b)
Figure 4-8 The MOSFET
The N-channel in the P substrate is insulated from the gate by silicon dioxide (Si02).
When a voltage is applied across source and drain, a current will flow. The gate,
insulator and N-channel act as a capacitor. When a voltage is applied to the gate a
charge comes out of or goes into the N-channel. This increases or decreases the
current which flows from the drain to the source.
Any change in the gate voltage will produce a greater change in the drain circuit.
This produces a gain similar to an ordinary FET. This device is usually made to be
half conducting when there is no gate voltage so an amplifier circuit does not need
biasing (see Figure 4-9).
Figure 4-9 Depletion MOSFET Amplifier

TRAINING MANUAL
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Depletion MOSFET symbol

Enhanced MOSFET
The enhanced type MOSFET has no inlaid N-channel. If there is no voltage on the
gate there is no current flow between the drain and the source. A positive voltage
on the gate makes a current flow in the channel between the N+ regions. The size
of this current depends on the size of the gate voltage. These devices are not
normally used as signal amplifiers because the biasing is complicated. However,
they are very useful as electronic switches.
Enhanced MOSFET symbol
Note : P channel devices work in the same way as N channel devices except the
gate voltage must be applied in the opposite direction. A negative gate
voltage increases the current flow from drain to source. This means a P
channel MOSFET amplifier does not reverse the input signal. Input and
output signals are in phase.

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4.7 THE TRANSISTOR AS AN ELECTRONIC SWITCH

The previous sections explained the use of a transistor to amplify a small alternative
signal. This section deals with the use of a transistor as an electronic switch. The
only transistors which are useful as switches are ones that are OFF normally and
will switch ON when a signal is applied.
The transistors discussed so far are :
BJT Normally off without bias
FET Normally on without bias
MOSFET (Depletion) Normally neither on or off.
MOSFET (Enhanced) Normally off.
This means the transistors used as switches are usually either the BJT or the
MOSFET (enhanced). The circuit below (see Figure 4-10) shows the construction of
a typical BJT and MOSFET (enhanced) electronic switch.
Figure 4-10 Transistor Switches

Neither the BJT nor the MOSFET have any bias. A positive voltage applied to the
base or gate is sufficient to drive both devices into full conduction and to operate
the relay coil or solenoid valve. Remove the positive voltage and the device
switches OFF. A capacitor, C, is sometimes added, particularly to a BJT, to quicken
the switching action. The power MOSFET used as a switch is very popular today as
it can be made to switch at least 200A as required.

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UNIT 4 TRANSISTORS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
INTRODUCTION 3
PRACTICAL TASK 1 4
PRACTICAL TASK 2 7
PRACTICAL TASK 3 10
PRACTICAL TASK 4 18
PRACTICAL TASK 5 21
PRACTICAL TASK 6 24
PRACTICAL TASK 7 30
PRACTICAL TASK 8 34
PRACTICAL TASK 9 39
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INTRODUCTION
The previous units (theory) have described the discrete (separate) components
which are used in electronics. These discrete components are only used in
instrumentation for simple tasks. Diodes for rectification. Transistors as output
devices to drive 4-20 mA loops, relays, solenoids etc.
Most electronic tasks are done using Integrated Circuits (IC). These IC's provide the
amplification, computing, switching, etc. of the electronic signals. The IC has
thousands of diodes, transistors etc. in one package using either BJT or MOSFET
TECHNIQUES. The practical tasks given for this unit will enable you to learn the
use of discrete components and identify the circuits in an overall instrument circuit
diagram. The next unit will show you how to use IC's.
The connections to a component depend on the way it is made. The correct

connections to a device are given in data books which are held in the workshop.
You must learn how to use these data books, with the assistance of the instructor.
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PRACTICAL TASK 1
THE PN JUNCTION DIODE
(1) Connect-up the circuit as shown in the diagram above.
(2) After the instructor has checked the circuit, set the variable DC supply to
give 0.25V and note the mA reading.
(3) Repeat step (2) for 0.5V, 0.75V, 1 V, 1.5V and 2V.
(4) Reverse the positive and negative connections to the DC supply. Switch on
the power supply and note the mA reading for a 2V and 3V supply. Switch
off.
(5) Plot a graph of diode current (mA) against supply voltage.

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RESULTS TABLE
SUPPLY VOLTAGE (V) DIODE CURRENT (mA)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
-1 (Reversed connections)
-2 (Reversed connections)
Questions to be answered to show understanding of the task.

(1) IN 4001 is a silicon diode. From the graph estimate the forward bias required
to cancel the barrier (contact) potential.
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(2) Does your graph show that a diode is an electric check valve?
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PRACTICAL TASK 2
THE ZENER DIODE

(1) Connect up the circuit as shown using the components supplied.
(2) After the instructor has checked the circuit, set the DC supply to 1 V and
note the mA reading.
(3) Repeat step (2) for a DC supply of 2V, 3V, 4V, 5V, 6V, 7V, 8V, 9V, 10V
noting the mA reading each time. Switch off.
(4) Reverse the connections to the DC supply and the DMM. Switch on and
note the mA reading for a supply voltage of 0.5V, 1V, 1.5V and 2V.
(5) Draw a graph of zener diode current against supply voltage.

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RESULTS TABLE
REVERSE VOLTAGE REVERSE CURRENT
FORWARD VOLTAGE FORWARD CURRENT
0.5V
0.6V
0.7V
1V
2V
(1) Is the reverse zener breakdown voltage written on the zener correct?
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(2) Does a zener diode act like an ordinary diode in the forward direction?
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PRACTICAL TASK 3
THE DIODE AND RECTIFICATION

• HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
(1) Connect the circuit as shown using the components supplied.
(2) After the instructor has checked the circuit, switch on the AC supply and
measure the peak voltage and period of the waveform shown on the
oscilloscope (OSC).
(3) Sketch the waveform 'accurately on the graph paper supplied.
(1) What happens if the diode is reversed?
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(2) What is the RMS value of the AC supply?
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• FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

(2) After the instructor has checked the circuit, place the plug connected to the
primary side into the wall socket.
(3) Switch on. Measure the peak voltage of waveform seen on the oscilloscope
(OSC).
(4) Sketch the oscilloscope waveform accurately on the graph paper provided.
(1) Does your sketch show full wave rectification?
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(2) What happens if the diodes are reversed?
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BRIDGE RECTIFIER
(2) After the instructor has checked the circuit, put the plug connected to the
primary side into the wall socket.
(3) Switch on the 240V - supply and measure the peak voltage shown on the
oscilloscope.
(4) Accurately sketch the waveform shown on the oscilloscope on the graph
paper provided.
(1) Does the bridge rectifier circuit provide full wave rectification?
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(2) What happens if the diodes are reversed?
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PRACTICAL TASK 4
SMOOTHING CIRCUITS
THE RESERVOIR CAPACITOR
primary side into the 240V wall socket.
(3) Switch on the 240V supply and carefully sketch the waveform seen on the
oscilloscope. Switch off.
(4) Replace the 10 µF capacitor with a 100 µF capacitor.
(5) Switch on and carefully sketch the waveform seen on the oscilloscope on
the same sketch drawn during step (3). Switch off.
QUESTION to be answered to show understanding of the practical task.
What is the effect of changing the size of the reservoir capacitor?
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THE RESERVOIR CAPACITOR WITH FILTER CIRCUIT

primary side into the 240V wall socket.
(3) Switch on the 240V supply and carefully sketch the waveform seen on the
oscilloscope.
(4) Measure the size of the peak to peak ripple and the DC level using the
oscilloscope.
(5) Find the frequency of the ripple using the oscilloscope. Switch off.
(1) Why is a 200Ω resistor used instead of an inductor?
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2) Does the RC filter reduce the ripple?
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PRACTICAL TASK 5
THE 3 LEG REGULATOR

(2) After the instructor has checked the circuit, put the plug from the primary
side into the wall socket.
(3) Switch on and adjust the variable resistor so that the ammeter reads 0. 1 A.
Note down the reading on the voltmeter.
(4) Repeat step (3) for ammeters reading 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9
and 1.0A. Note the voltmeter reading each time.
Do not exceed 1 A. Switch off
(5) Draw a graph of load current against output voltage.

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RESULTS TABLE
LOAD CURRENT (A) LOAD VOLTAGE (V)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
(1) How good is the regulation of the 3 leg regulator?
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(2) Find the size of the ripple across the load, if load current is 0.5A.
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PRACTICAL TASK 6
THE THYRISTOR (SCR)

(2) After the instructor has checked the circuit, switch on the A supply.
(3) Sketch the waveforms shown on the oscilloscope, for different settings of
the variable resistor. Switch off.
(4) Place a 10µF capacitor (with the correct polarity) across the 5kΩ resistor.
Switch on and prove to yourself that a variable DC level can be obtained
when the variable resistor is adjusted.
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Do your findings agree with the theory given?

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PRACTICAL TASK 7
THE TRIAC
(2) After the instructor has checked the circuit, switch on the A and DC supplies.
(3) Sketch the waveforms seen on the oscilloscope for various settings of the
variable resistor.
(4) Prove to yourself that the output is a variable AC waveform controlled by the
timing circuit.
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PRACTICAL TASK 8
THE BJT TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

Introduction
The BC 109 NPN BJT is not an accurate device. The gain (HFE) can vary over a
range from about 100 to 400. The circuit shown is thus a compromise. Your friend's
results may be different from yours. However, if your circuit works then the results
you get are good.
(2) After the instructor has checked the circuit, switch on the DC supply (9v).
(3) With a voltmeter check that the collector / earth voltage is about +4.5V.
Check the base / emitter voltage is about 0.7V.
(4) Using an oscilloscope display the output waveform on the screen. Adjust the
input signal to get the biggest undistorted signal (good sinewave). Measure
the peak to peak value of this output signal. Measure the peak to peak value
of the input signal.
(5) Switch off DC supply and AC sinewave generator. Change the BC 109 for a
BC179 (the P type equipment of the BC109).
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(6) Connect the DC supply with reversed connections. Switch on the DC supply
and AC generator.
(7) Repeat step (4). The results should be similar to the BC 109, the only
difference is the reversed supply.
RESULTS TABLE
INPUT SIGNAL OUTPUT SIGNAL GAIN
BC 109
BC 179
QUESTION to be answered to show understanding of the practical task.
1) Is the output signal the same as an inverted amplified input signal.
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2) What happens if the 1 OK resistor is shorted out?
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PRACTICAL TASK 9
THE COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER
(2) After the instructor has checked the circuit, switch on the DC supply
(3) With an input signal of 1 V p to p, find the p to p value of the output signal
on an oscilloscope. Prove to yourself that this circuit has a voltage gain of
less than one.
(4) Using both traces on the oscilloscope, show that the input and output
waveforms are in phase.
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PRACTICAL TASK 10
THE FET AMPLIFIER

(2) After the instructor has checked the circuit, switch on the D supply and the
signal generator.
(3) With an oscilloscope across the output, adjust the input A signal to obtain
the largest undistorted signal on the screen.
(4) Measure the input and output peak to peak signals. Find the gain of the
amplifier.
RESULTS TABLE
INPUT SIGNAL OUTPUT SIGNAL GAIN

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(1) Is the output signal an inverted version of the input?
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(2) Which device gives the best gain; an FET or a BJT?
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MODULE No. 6
July 1999- Rev.0

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Unit No. 1 - Digital mathematics
UNIT 1 DIGITAL MATHEMATICS
UNIT 2 INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL SYSTEMS
UNIT 3 LOGIC GATES, FLIP-FLOPS, COUNTERS AND REGISTERS
UNIT 4 MEMORIES AND CLOCKS
UNIT 5 MULTIPLEXERS, DECODERS AND DISPLAYS
UNIT 6 DIGITAL / ANALOG & ANALOG / DIGITAL CONVERTERS
UNIT 7 THE COMPUTER
UNIT 8 INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL TRANSMISSION


TRAINING MANUAL
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 BINARY NUMBERS 4
1.2.1 The Decimal System 4
1.2.2 The Binary System 5
1.2.3 Binary and Numbers Less Than One 7
1.3 OCTAL NUMBERS 10
1.4 HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS 11
1.5 BINARY CODED DECIMAL, OCTAL AND HEXADECIMAL 13
1.5.1 Binary Coded Decimal 13
1.5.2 Binary coded octal 14
1.5.3 Binary Coded Hexadecimal 14
1.6 BASIC BINARY ARITHMETIC 15
1.6.1 Addition 15
1.6.2 Binary Subtraction 16
1.7 BINARY MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION 19

1.8 ALPHANUMERICAL CODES 20
1.9 CONCLUSION 22

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• Explain the binary system of numbers and convert from binary to decimal and
decimal to binary.
• Explain octal and hexadecimal number systems and convert these numbers to
decimal. Convert decimals to octal and hexadecimal.
• Explain binary coded decimals (BCD), binary coded octal and binary coded
hexadecimal.
• Carry out simple addition and subtraction of binary, octal and hexadecimal numbers
using one's and two's directed complements.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to introduce the mathematics required to understand digital
number systems which are now in common use throughout Companies.
1.2 BINARY NUMBERS
The binary system is a counting system used by computers. It's different from our
normal system of counting because it has a base of two. To understand the binary
system it helps to start with our normal counting system and then compare it to the
binary system.
1.2.1 The Decimal System
Our normal counting system is the decimal system. In the decimal system there are
ten digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. In this system, we write numbers as multiples of ten.
So, the number 694 means 6 hundreds, 9 tens and 4 ones. We can show ones,
tens, hundreds, thousands etc. as powers of ten:
Note: Any number to the power of zero is 1. So 10°= 1, 5° = 1 694° = 1 and 20° =
1.
In the decimal system you can use the ten digits 0 to 9 in any column. The highest
number in any column is 9. To write the next number you must use the next column
to the left. So, 9 means 9 ones. 10 means 1 ten and 0 ones. 19 means 1 ten and 9
ones, 99 means 9 tens and 9 ones. 100 means 1 hundred, 0 tens and 0 ones. 999
means 9 hundreds, 9 tens and 9 ones, and so on.
Figure 1-1
Try and write one thousand on the table (Figure 1 -1 ).

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1.2.2 The Binary System

in _the binary system there are only two digits: 0 and 1. In this system we write
numbers as multiples of two. We can show ones, twos, fours, eights etc. as values
of two.
Figure 1-2
Note: Any number to the power of zero is 1. So, 2° = 1.
In the binary system you can only use the two digits 0 or 1 in any column. The
highest number in any column is 1. So, 0 in the 2° column means 0 ones which is
zero. 1 in the 2° means 1 one which is 1.1 in the 21 column and 0 in the 2° column
means 1 two and 0 ones which is 2. 1 and 1 means 1 two and 1 one which is 3. To
write 4 you must move to the next column (2 2). 1, 0 and 0 means 1 four, 0 twos and
0 ones which is 4. 5 would be written as 1 four, 0 twos and 1 one; 6 is 1 four, 1 two
and 0 ones, 7 is 1 four, 1 two and 1 one and so on.
Try and write 8, 9, and 10 as binary numbers on the table.

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Modern electronic gates only have 2 states, on and off, (1 and 0). So, the binary
system of numbers is the only one a modern computer understands.
The previous examples showed how a binary number can be translated to a

decimal number. The next example shows a quick way of changing a-decimal
number to a binary number.
The trick is to keep dividing the number by two. The binary number is the final
quotient, which is one (called the Most Significant Bit (MSB)). It is followed by all the
remainders in reverse order.

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1.2.3 Binary and Numbers Less Than One

The previous paragraph explained how binary and decimal numbers are made for
whole numbers (e.g. 57, or 10110). This paragraph shows how to write numbers
less than one.
The binary conversion to decimal is:

TRAINING MANUAL
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A further example is given to show the conversion of a binary number to decimal:


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Converting a Decimal Number to Binary

You can convert a decimal number to a binary number by continually multiplying by

two as follows:
The binary number is given by the carry column (from top to bottom).
The check is not exactly the same as the original number because the binary
number was rounded down to 6 bits. The conversion is more exact if you use more
bits. Your calculator will usually calculate and display to an accuracy of about 10
bits. A good multimeter will calculate and display to 4 bits.

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1.3 OCTAL NUMBERS

The decimal system has a base of ten which means it uses ten digits. The binary
system has base two. The octal system has base eight which means it uses eight
digits. The highest in any one column is 7.
The octal number 172 can be converted to the decimal system as follows:
To change a decimal number to an octal number you keep dividing the number by
8. The octal number is the final quotient (MSB) followed by all the remainders.
Converting the decimal number 247 into octal.

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1.4 HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS

The hexadecimal number system has base sixteen which means it uses sixteen
digits. The highest number in any one column is 15. To avoid using two digits eg. 1
and 5) in any one column, the hexadecimal system uses letters to represent the
numbers 10 to 15 as follows:
DECIMAL HEXADECIMAL
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 A
11 B
12 C
13 D
14 E
15 F
16 10
17 11
A typical hexadecimal number is written below :
The hexadecimal number 3AC


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To change a decimal number to a hexadecimal number you keep dividing the

number by 16. The hexadecimal number is the final quotient (MSB) followed by all
the remainders.
Converting the decimal number 247 into hexadecimal.
Note : Computers count in twos. However, large binary numbers can be very
long. For this reason large numbers are converted into octal and
hexadecimal systems. These numbers systems are easy for computers
because they are powers of two.
So, octal and hexadecimal numbers can be easily expressed in the binary system
using 4 and 8 bit units (bytes). A good scientific calculator will change binary, octal
and hexadecimal numbers into decimal and vice-versa. An instrument technician will
need a good calculator when programming Programmable Logic Control (PLC)
systems at work.

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1.5 BINARY CODED DECIMAL, OCTAL AND HEXADECIMAL

This is a way of presenting decimal, octal and hexadecimal numbers for binary
processing in a computer. The table below shows the decimal (0-17), octal and
hexadecimal numbers as they are changed to binary.
DECIMAL OCTAL HEXADECIMAL BINARY

0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 10
3 3 3 11
4 4 4 100
5 5 5 101
6 6 6 110
7 7 7 111
8 10 8 1000
9 11 9 1001
10 12 A 1010
11 13 B 1011
12 14 C 1100
13 15 D 1101
14 16 E 1110
15 17 F 1111
16 20 10 10000
17 21 11 10001
1.5.1 Binary Coded Decimal
This is used to change the digits in decimal numbers to binary numbers for
computer calculations '(eg. putting decimal numbers into a calculator). The decimal
number is binary coded as follows :
This code must be reversed by a BCD decoder before it can be shown as a digital
read-out (eg. on a multimeter).
The binary code for the decimal number is now processed in blocks of FOUR binary
BITS called a BYTE.

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1.5.2 Binary coded octal

This is used to change the digits in octal numbers to binary numbers for computer
calculations. The octal number is binary coded as follows.
The binary code for the octal number is now processed in units of 3 binary BITS
called a BYTE.
This code was popular when processing chips could only manage 4 bits at a time.
Modern computer chips can use 32 bits at a time (one byte has 32 bits). This means
that hexadecimal systems are mostly used today.
1.5.3 Binary Coded Hexadecimal
This is used to change a hexadecimal number (hex) to a binary number for

computer calculations. The hexadecimal number is binary coded as follows :
The binary code for the hex number is now processed in blocks of 4 bits. These can
be grouped by a modern processor or chip into a BYTE of 32 bits.

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1.6 BASIC BINARY ARITHMETIC

1.6.1 Addition
In the decimal counting system, the highest number in any column is 9. When you
add numbers in the decimal system you "carry one". Carry one means adding one
to the next column on the left if the total is more than 9. So:
In the binary counting system, the highest number in a column is 1. When you add
numbers in the binary system you still "carry one". However, carry one in the binary
system means adding one to the next column on the left if the total is more than 1 .
A further example is given below. In the left column there are 3 ones. The sum of
the 3 ones is 1 carry 1. In the next column there are now four ones. The sum of four
ones is "zero" carry two (1 and 1 in the next column
1011
1001
1011
0010
100001
1111 For every two ones a carry.

each carry added to next column
11

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1.6.2 Binary Subtraction

Binary Subtraction can be done in exactly the same way as with decimals using the
method of borrowing one from the next highest power (the next column to the left).
However, the number which is borrowed from the next highest power is written as
11 in the next column to the right:
As can be seen this method of subtraction is difficult in binary. it is not used in a

computer. The following two methods are used in computers.
ONE'S COMPLEMENT
One's complement is a method of subtraction which can be done easily in a

computer. The binary number to be subtracted is inverted (all the ones become zero
and all the zeros become ones). The two numbers are then added together. The
digit on the left shows whether the final number is positive (1) or negative (0).
Invert the number to be subtracted (the bottom number) and add the two numbers
as shown below.
+ 00100
The "1 " in the extra column on the left indicates a POSITIVE number and must be
added to obtain the answer:

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Unit No. 1 - Digital mathematics INSTRUMENTATION
Example 2: Subtract 11011 from 10111
Remember, invert the number to be subtracted and add the two numbers together:
The '0' in the first column means it is a NEGATIVE number. If the result is a
negative number then the one's complement of the result (invert the result) provides
the answer.
11011 inverted = -00100
So, that 10111 - 11011 = -00100
Proof :
Note : ONE'S COMPLEMENT IS ONLY APPLIED TO THE NEGATIVE NUMBER.

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In the following example (example 2) the result is a negative number (it begins with
1). In this case reverse two's complement is applied to the result.
The reverse two's complement of -1110 = - (0001 + 1) = -0010
Proof :
In the following example, both the numbers are negative. So, both numbers are
inverted using two's compliment.
2's reverse of - 01100 =-(1 0011 + 1) = -10100

Proof :
Note :- TWO'S COMPLEMENT IS ONLY APPLIED TO THE NEGATIVE NUMBER.

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1.7 BINARY MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

Both multiplication and division are done in the same way as in decimals. The two
examples below show how this done. The computer does this process by either
continuous addition or subtraction and this need not be remembered.
Multiplication:
Division:

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1.8 ALPHANUMERICAL CODES

The binary code for the computer is called the "Machine Code". This is the code the
computer (machine) understands. The previous section showed how to get the
binary code for numbers. However, a binary code must also be made to represent
letters. The standard computer keyboard is arranged in the same way as a
typewriter; it has a "qwerty" keyboard. There is an international standard code which
"assembles" both numbers and letters from the keyboard into the "Machine Code".
This code is called "ASCII" (American standard code for information interchange). It
is an 8 bit code which provides 256 characters for upper and lower case alphabets,
numbers, punctuation marks, symbols etc.
A few examples of this code are given in the table below. The code is given in
hexadecimal for convenience. The machine code for the computer is in binary
coded Hex. The following examples are given as a reminder.

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Some examples of ASCII (8 Bit code)


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There are many other alphanumberic codes used by manufacturers. These codes
will have to be learnt during specialised training, e.g. using the TDC 3000 or
Foxboro ]A keyboards. You have already learnt one of these codes when using the
Autodynamic simulator keyboard.
The best known example of a modern alphanumeric code is the "Bar Code" as used
on supermarket products. This code allows the price to be taken automatically and
is used to keep control of stock.
Note: Setting the rules for a computer using a "machine code" or

"alphanumeric code" would take a very long time. To make things go
faster a high level code (language) is used which does whole sentences
at one time. These high level languages are learnt by the systems
engineers. Then they programme the system to do what is wanted (e.g.
PID control, Logic control etc.). Examples of these languages are
Fortran, Pascal, C, Unix, etc.
1.9 CONCLUSION
This unit has shown you the basics of computer mathematics. You have learned the
binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems and how to add up and subtract in
binary. A computer uses these methods and others to do basic arithmetic. How a
computer makes up a number for processing and transmission will be shown on a
more advanced training course.

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Unit No. 2 - Introduction to digital system
UNIT 6 DIGITAL/ANALOG & ANALOG/DIGITAL CONVERTERS
UNIT 7 THE COMPUTER


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
2.1 INTRODUCTION 4
2.2 THE ANALOG SIGNAL 4
2.2.1 Analog Systems 4
2.3 THE DIGITAL SIGNAL 6
2.3.1 Digital Systems 8
2.4 ANALOG/DIGITAL COMPARISON 10
2.4.1 Analog 10
2.4.2 Digital 10
2.5 THE 4-20 mA ANALOG CONTROL LOOP 11
2.6 THE DIGITAL CONTROL LOOP 12
2.7 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION 13
2.8 EXAMPLES OF A DIGITAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM 13
2.8.1 E.S.D Systems 13
2.8.2 Tank Farm Systems 14


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• Explain with the aid of a diagram an analog signal.
• Explain with the aid of a diagram a digital signal.
• Explain with the aid of a diagram an analog instrument loop.
• Explain with the aid of a diagram a digital instrument loop.
• Describe, in general terms, how a digital transmission system works.
• Use block diagrams to explain the use of digital transmission systems in the
petroleum industry, e.g. ESD systems and tank farm operations.

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2.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to describe the differences between analog and digital
systems. It explains the basics of digital transmission, and gives general examples
of how digital transmission is used in the petroleum industry.
2.2 THE ANALOG SIGNAL
Figure 2-1 Analog Signal (as shown on the oscilloscope)
Figure 2-1 shows a simple circuit which produces an analog signal. The variable
resistor is placed across a supply. The slider (moveable arm) of the variable resistor
is moved by the process variable. The output signal shown on the oscilloscope,
changes continuously with time. The output signal depends on the position of the
variable resistor slider.
2.2.1 Analog Systems
Analog systems are still used because they are easier to make. The sensor itself
produces an analog signal. The control valve needs an analog signal. So, it is
simplest to use a (4-20 mA) analog signal for the loop. Also people must have
analog systems in order to see and hear etc. That's why televisions, radios, and
cassette players etc. must produce analog signals.

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However, the analog system needs a large bandwidth of frequencies when sending
a signal. This reduces the number of signals (television channels, etc.) that can be
sent along one cable. Analog systems are also very sensitive to noise and cannot
produce a good quality television picture or good quality sound over a radio or
cassette player.
. Figure 2-2 shows how amplifiers are connected to make an Analog Process
Controller.
Figure 2-2 Analog Process Controller
The error detector senses any difference between the set point (SP) and the
measured value (MV). It sends a signal to three amplifiers in parallel. The
proportional amplifier sets the gain of the system. The Integral reduces any offset to
zero. The derivative speeds up the initial change in the system (particularly used for
slow response loops). The responses of these three amplifiers are combined and
converted to a current signal. This signal adjusts the I/P converter which adjusts the
position of the control valve. The action of the three amplifiers is adjusted so that
the control valve responds as quickly as possible to changes in the loop, with
minimum overshoot. The curve shows this effect using a set point change.

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The response time will be slow (minutes) on most control loops and can be hours
on some temperatures loops. Each individuals loop has its own controller. On a
large refinery the control room is very large. There are hundreds of individual
control loops for the various physical properties being measured (e.g. pressure,
temperature, pH, 02 content, etc.)
2.3 THE DIGITAL SIGNAL
Figure 2-3 Digital Signal
Figure 2-3 shows a simple circuit which produces a digital signal. The process
variable operates a switch which opens and closes the circuit. The output signal is
always the same level but comes as a series of pulses (digital) depending on
whether the switch is open or closed. The system has a fixed timing sequence
which produces a series of "ONES" and ZEROS" to represent the process variable.
A typical example of a digital signal is shown in Figure 2-4.

Figure 2-4 A Digital Signal
The process variable timing sequence takes 1 6us There are 8 timing intervals of
2us Each digit ("1") is 1.2~is long. The digital presentation of the process variable is
10111001 Each following 16~is will produce a similar 8 digit sequence which
reflects the value of the process variable.

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From previous units it has already been shown that the transistor (FET) is ideal as a
high speed switch to provide either a maximum (on) or minimum (off) signal. By
manufacturing thousands of these FET switches on an integrated circuit the basics
of a digital computer is obtained. However, there are only two states for any one
switch. The system is binary so it can only count in twos giving either a one or zero
output. Each ONE or ZERO is called a "BIT" of information, a "BYTE" is the word
length of the processing system, e.g. 8 bits or 16 bits taken at one time.
Note : Bit rates are an approximation for powers of 2, thus:


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2.3.1 Digital Systems

Digital systems produce better quality signals than analog systems (e.g. a compact
disc player has better sound than a cassette player). The bandwidth is also
reduced. There are at least 5 times as many channels on a television when the new
digital television signals are used. The picture is also much better. Unfortunately,
new television sets are needed to process digital signals.
Digital systems are more complicated than analog systems. This is because the
analog signals from the sensor must be converted to digital signals using an analog
to digital converter (A/D). Digital signals must be converted to analog for the control
valve using a digital to analog converter (D/A). Both these devices will be explained
later in the course.
Digital systems are slowly coming into the petroleum industry as they use less cable
and cost less to install. The reduced bandwidth needed for each loop means that
many signal loops can be sent from one area to another using one cable or radio
link.
The digital system of control is based on the micro-computer which operates in

micro-seconds. So, using digital techniques it is possible to control all the loops
from one place. This means that the operator can use a VDU to control the plant
from one position. Therefore, there is no need for a control room with an individual
indicator controller recorder for each loop.

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Unit No. 2 - Introduction to digital system INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 2-5 The Digital Controller
Figure 2-5 shows a typical layout of a control system using a microcomputer. It has
the following components.
a) Signal Conditioning Cards (SCC): These take the analog signals from the
input transmitters etc. and put them into a form acceptable to the data
acquisition system (usually 1-5 volts). Typical signals are 4-20 mA, mV
(thermo-couples), pulse trains (turbine meters) and resistance (RTD).
b) Data Acquisition System (DAS): This unit changes all input signals into a
digital format which is acceptable to the microcomputer. It also switches the
loops for processing.
Note: Modern digital systems combine (a) and (b) in one unit.
c) Input Ports: These connect the digital input signals from the field to the
computer.
d) Output Ports: These connect the computer to the control devices, e.g.
relays, digital/analog converters for 4-20 mA signals, solenoid valves, etc.
They also provide the signals for the VDU display.
e) The Keyboard: This lets the operator communicate with the computer. Using
a set program the operator can call up the required loop, display it and
change the PI and D configuration as required. This is usually done under
engineering supervision.
(f) The Micro-Computer: This controls the system. Using a set program it will
check each loop and adjust the control as required. It has a memory to store
each loop's operating data so that it has a reference for each check. Each
check only takes micro-seconds so each loop can be checked every
hundred milli-seconds or so. The type of micro-computer used depends on
the system. The Foxboro !A is based on the Intel 80286 16 bit
micro-processor.
(g) Timer: This is an electronic clock which times the operation of the system.
Each operation is in time with a clock pulse. In this way the micro-computer
is synchronised with the information coming in and going out.

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2.4 ANALOG/DIGITAL COMPARISON

2.4.1 Analog
2.4.2 Digital
Analog technology is well known and has been in use for years. Most sensors use
an analog system. So, for single loop and small system control the analog system is
cheap and easy to service using standard equipment.
However, for larger systems, e.g. chemical plants, oil/gas production platforms etc.,
The analog system is difficult and expensive to install. It needs a lot of wiring to
complete all the loops. It also needs a large control room with many discrete
controllers/indicators/recorders which must be supervised by the operator on duty.
Analog signals are also very sensitive to noise. Noise degrades the signal and
cannot be removed,
Digital control systems are only possible because of the development of the
integrated circuit. It is much more complicated to process information using a digital
system than an analog system. However, once they are installed, digital systems
are more reliable than analog systems. They are noise free so there is not much
interference from atmospherics, etc.
A Distributed Control System (DCS) with modems and fibre optic cables added
needs much less wiring. Also, it is cheaper to supervise the control room, if smart
sensors are used which control between themselves without using the main
computer.
Unfortunately, the introduction of digital control means that the instrument

technician has to improve his knowledge of electronics and learn a completely new
method of control. That is the object of this training module.

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2.5 THE 4-20 mA ANALOG CONTROL LOOP

Figure 2-6 The 4-20 mA Analog Control Loop
Figure 2-6 shows a 4-20 mA analog loop using a microprocessor (µP) controller and
Video Display Unit (VDU).
The resistance of the transmitter changes as the process variable changes. The
variable, analog current signal which is produced is passed through the input of the
conditioning unit. This unit converts the analog signal to a digital signal so that the
µP controller can process the signal. The digital signal output from the j-LP
controller is returned through the output unit. This converts the digital signal back to
an analog current signal. The analog signal is converted to a pneumatic signal by
the I/P to position the valve.

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2.6 THE DIGITAL CONTROL LOOP

Figure 2-7 The Digital Control Loop
Figure 2-7 is a simplified diagram of the latest type of digital control. The transmitter
itself converts the analog sensor signal to a digital signal. The input loop sends only
digital signals. These do not need to go through a conditioner so they go directly to
the control processor. The output loop sends only digital signals. The valve
positioner uses a µP to set the correct position of the valve. The valve actuator is
usually either electro/hydraulic or pneumatic in operation.
Note: There is a half-way system in use called "Smart". You have already
worked on these in the workshop. The. "Smart" system is basically
analog in operation. The digital signals placed on top of the analog
signal are used for calibration.

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2.7 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

There are many methods of organising the digital pulses so that the microprocessor
controller can understand the signal that is being sent. The method used is called a
"protocol". Most manufacturers now use a protocol called "Hart", developed by
Rosemount. The "Smart" transmitters you have worked on use "Hart".
Understanding "protocols" and fault finding digital transmission systems will be
learnt on advanced courses later in your career.
2.8 EXAMPLES OF A DIGITAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
The following examples show in simple terms the use of digital transmission
systems in the petroleum industry.
2.8. 1 E .S.D Systems
Figure 2-8 Digital ESD System
Figure 2-8 shows a typical digital control system used for ESD processing. The
local control unit has many field alarms connected to it. The controller in the local
control unit puts all the separate input signals into a timed sequence (multiplexed)
digital stream. This means that all the input signals can be sent down one cable to
the control room. The control room µP de-multiplexes (separates) the digital stream
and shows the alarms separately on the alarm panel. This process of sending all
the alarm signals digitally down one cable saves kilometres of cable and reduces
the time it takes to install the system.

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2.8.2 Tank Farm Systems

Figure 2-9 Tank Farm Systems
Figure 2-9 shows a popular tank farm management system for indicating tank levels
in a control room.
The level transmitters (e.g. ENTIS-ENRAF) process the level of each tank into
digital signals. The field communication unit combines these signals and sends a
multiplexed signal down one cable to the control room, The µP in the control room
de-multiplexes the signal and displays each level separately on the VDU.

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Unit No. 3 - Logic gates, Flip-flops, Counters and Registers
UNIT 7 THE COMPUTER


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Unit No. 3 - Logic gates, Flip-flops, Counters and Registers INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
3.1 INTRODUCTION 4
3.2 LOGIC GATES 4
3.3 THE SR FLIP-FLOP 7
3.4 THE JK FLIP-FLOP 8
3.5 THE "D" FLIP-FLOP. 10
3.6 THE PRACTICAL JK FLIP-FLOP 11
3.7 COUNTERS 12
3.7.1 The Non-Synchronous Counter; (Ripple Counter) 12
3.7.2 The Synchronous Counter 14
3.7.3 The Decade Counter 15
3.7.4 Counter Chips 16
3.8 THE REGISTER (ACCUMULATOR) 17


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1 Draw the basic symbols for logic gates to include multiple units.
2) Draw a typical SR flip-flop.
3) Make a truth table for an SR flip-flop.
4) Draw a JK flip-flop and make a truth table to show its operation.
5) Draw the following counters made from flip-flop's and explain how they
count.
• Ripple counter
• The synchronous counter
• Decade counter
7) Draw and explain the register.
8) Explain the meaning of SISO, SIPO, PISO and PIPO registers.


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3.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of. this unit is to review logic gates and the use of these gates to make the
building blocks for digital systems.
3.2 LOGIC GATES
The following diagrams are given as a review of the logic gates learnt in Unit 2
Industrial Electronics 3. Extra symbols have been added to show the latest symbols
which are an American (IEEE) and International (IEC) joint standard.

Module No. 6: Industrial electronics 3 Unit No. 3 - Logic gates, Flip-flops, Counters and Registers
July 1999- Rev.0

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Page 5/20
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Note: The old symbol for a "NOT" function was a circle. The new IEEE/IEC
symbols use the triangle to show a "NOT" function. It is possible for
symbols to have inverters shown on the input so that:
Most gates today come as multiple units and the new standard symbol for a 2 input
quad NAND gate (e.g. 7400) is drawn as follows (the old symbol is shown on the
right so that you can compare the two).

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3.3 THE SIR FLIP-FLOP

The SR (set-reset) flip-flop is the basic building block for most digital devices, (e.g.
memories, registers, converters, etc.). It will keep either a "V' (high) or "0" (low) as a
continuous output. The output will not change unless the input is changed.
Figure 3-1 SR Flip - Flop Block Diagram
Figure 3-1 shows an SR flip-flop in block diagram form.
The SR flip-flop has two input connections; S and R. It also has two output
connections; Q and Q1 (Q1 = not Q or opposite of Q). Normally there is a " 1 " on S
and “0" on R. The outputs are " 1 on Q and “0" on Q1. If the " 1 " on S is removed
nothing happens. If a " 1 " is now applied to "R" the flip-flop changes over. This
means that the Q output is "0" and Q1 output is " 1 ". If there is a " 1 " on both R and
S the flip-flop may change its position or it may not. This is called the "undefined"
position and is not allowed.
A simple truth table below is given to shows its operation.


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3.4 THE JK FLIP-FLOP

The SR flip-flop as a chip is now obsolete and is little used today. The JK flip-flop
has taken its place. The JK flip-flop has the advantage of having no "undefined"
position. It can be connected as an SR flip-flop if required.
The JK flip-flop can be operated in two ways; synchronous or asynchronous. The

two words are often used in digital systems and you must learn what they mean.
Synchronous means the system runs like a clock. There are a fixed number of
pulses per second (e.g. 4M bit). The pulses from the clock and the changes in the
input both change the outputs. Asynchronous means the system runs without timing
like the SR flip-flop. You can only change the output by changing the input.
Figure 3-2 JK Flip-Flop Block Diagram
Figure 3-2 shows the JK flip-flop. The pulses from the clock can switch the
flip-f lop. With a " 1 on the J terminal and a '0' on the K terminal, the outputs are Q =
“1 " and Q1 = 0. If there is a “0” on the J terminal and a "'I " on the K terminal then
the outputs reverse. If a " 1 " is applied to both J and K then the outputs follow the
clock with the Q1 output out of phase with the Q output. This position is called a
"toggle".

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The truth table for a JK flip-flop is given together with the pulse diagram
The JK flip-flop has the advantage of having no "undefined" position. It can be used
as an SR flip-flip simply by not connecting the clock.
Note: The above flip-flops can be made using either "NAND" or "NOR" gates.
The actual circuit need not be remembered as these devices are
manufactured as IC chips. You are not given information about how it is
made. An example is the CMOS 4027 dual JK flip-flop.

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3.5 THE "D" FLIP-FLOP.

This is an adaptation of the JK flip-flop. It allows for the switching of one input only.
It delays the passing of the input signal by one clock pulse. That's why it's called the
"Delay" or M" flip-flop.
Figure 3-3 M" Flip-Flop Block Diagram
Figure 3-3 shows the block diagram for a "D" flip-flop. There is only one input. An
"on chip" inverter reverses the D input signal to the K input.
The output at Q will be a "1' if D is "1' and "0" if "D" is zero. The output changes at
the end of the clock pulse so that a change in D is delayed by one clock pulse. "D"
flip-flops are like JK flips-flops as they are manufactured in DIL packages, e.g.
CMOS 4013 dual D flip-flop.

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3.6 THE PRACTICAL JK FLIP-FLOP

The manufactured JK flip-flop comes with extra connections; "preset" and "clear".
Set : Pre-set = 0: Clear = 1: therefore Q = 1
Reset: Pre-set = 1: Clear = 0: therefore Q = 0
Toggle: Pre-set = 1; Clear 1: therefore Q = ?
Note : Pre-set 0 and Clear 0 is not allowed.
The output Q depends on the data at J and K and the clock. It is the same as in a
JK flip-flop.
JK flip-flops come in two types. Type 1 switches on the positive going edge of the
clock pulse. Type 2 switches on the negative going edge of the pulse. The JK
flip-flop described was of the negative edge type.

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3.7 COUNTERS
These are integrated circuits. When they are connected to a data stream of bits,
they count them.
3.7.1 The Non-Synchronous Counter; (Ripple Counter)
The simplest type of counter is called a RIPPLE COUNTER. The data passes
through the device like waves hitting the sea shore. Figure 3- shows a typical ripple
counter using 4 JK flip-flops.
Figure 3-4 Typical Ripple Counter
Remember all the J and K inputs are at "1'. Each JK flip-flop gives an output signal
as it receives a pulse from the clock terminal. The table below gives the count and
the waveform for each particular JK output.

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A ripple counter is only used if speed is not important. This is because it may take
too much time for the clock pulse to ripple through several stages. The time it takes
for the ripple to pass can be shortened by using a synchronous counter. In this
system all the flip-flops are switched at the same time.

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3.7.2 The Synchronous Counter

Figure 3-5 shows a typical synchronous counter. Note that the inputs J and K on
flip-flop A are ONE and all other flip-flop X inputs are joined together and controlled
by the AND gates X and Y. The waveforms of the 4 outputs are given below.
Figure 3-5 Synchronous Counter
Note: The output at QD comes after 16 input bits. Thus the circuit can be used
to divide things by 16. In the same way Qc will divide by 8, QB by 4 and
QA by 2.

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3.7.3 The Decade Counter

The most popular type of decade counter (a device which counts in tens) uses
flip-flops with a reset connection. If a ONE is removed from this connection the
output goes to zero. An example of the use of this type of flip-flop is given in Figure
3-6.
Figure 3-6 The Decade Counter
The counter works as follows:
All the J and K inputs are connected to the high " 1 " position (e.g. 5V). The data to
be counted is applied to the clock connection of flip-flop A.

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3.7.4 Counter Chips

The previous pages have shown how individual JK flip-flops are connected to make
counters. There is no need to remember how this is done as they are manufactured
as IC chips. A typical example of a counter chip is the 7493 14 pin TTL 4 bit binary
counter. The pin connections are the same for every manufacturer. They are given
in standard electronic data books. Normally the data book shows the basic block
diagram of how the chips are connected. It also shows how to connect them. An
example is shown in Figure 3-7.
Figure 3-7 Pin Connections for a 7493 4 Bit Binary Counter
If pin 12 is connected to pin 1 it is a 4-stage ripple counter. R1 and R2 are re-set

connections. A " 1 " applied to both positions clears the counter. This can be turned
into a decade counter by connecting pin 9 to pin 2, pin 11 to pin 3, and pin 12 to pin
1.

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3.8 THE REGISTER (ACCUMULATOR)

A register (accumulator) is a temporary storage device for data coming into or out of
the processor. It also stores data which is not completely processed. When it is
connected in the right way it can take this stored data and switch it to either a
parallel or a serial output. It is the basic block for storing a digital number and
moving it about. Figure 3-8 shows a typical register using JK flip-flops.
Figure 3-8 Register
This unit will store a 4 bit binary number as follows.
At the start, the reset has cleared the register.
QA = 0, QB = 0, QC = 01, QD = 0
Let us suppose that the number to be stored is 1101. This is fed into the data input
in the order that it reads from left to right. The register will then store the number as
follows.

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If the clock is now stopped the accumulated number will stay in the register as long
as the supply stays switched on. So, this unit can be a 4 bit memory circuit.
If the clock is started again then the data will leave the output (QD) in the order it
was entered.
This kind of register can be used to hold a number so it can be processed later. It is
then called an ACCUMULATOR. If the data is moved in and out it is called a SHIFT
REGISTER.
The shift register shown moves the data in and out in serial form (one after the
other). However, shift registers can be used to provide a parallel output (all the data
comes out at the same time). Thus the shift register can come in 4 different forms,
depending on requirements, as follows.

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1) SISO (Serial in-Serial out)

This is the method shown above. It acts as a short term storage device or a
delay circuit. The data can only be accessed in the order in which it is
stored. The first bit of data IN must be the first bit of data OUT.
2) SIPO (Serial in-Parallel out)
The information is stored as described above. However, when the

information is accessed by the next clock pulse, all 4 bits of data come out of
the outputs at the same time. It is used to change information from serial to
parallel form.
SIPO Shift Register
3) PISO (Parallel in-Serial out)
This is the opposite of SIPO. After a clock pulse is applied, the next clock
pulse will apply the 4 bits (byte) to all flip-flops simultaneously (at the same
time). The following 4 clock pulses will then read out the number in serial
form.

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4) PIPO (Parallel in-Parallel out)

The PIPO acts as a storage device but keeps and processes the byte in
parallel form.
PIPO Shift Register
Special Devices
1. There are counters which will count in both directions. They are called
"Up/Down" counters.
2. Some shift registers will move out in both directions. These are called "Shift
Right/ Shift Left" registers.
3. Very high speed systems use special flip-flops called "Master/Slave

Flip-Flops". The external connections are the same as an ordinary JK

flip-flop.

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Unit No. 4 - Memories and clocks
UNIT 7 THE COMPUTER


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4
4.2 MEMORIES 4
4.3 READ ONLY MEMORIES (ROMS) 4
4.3.1 EPROM's and EEPROM's 7
4.4 RANDOM ACCESS MEMORIES (RAM) 8
4.4.1 Static RAMs (SRAM) 8
4.4.2 Dynamic RAMs (DRAM) 8
4.5 HARD DISKS AND FLOPPY DISKS 10
4.5.1 Hard disk 10
4.5.2 Floppy Disk 12
4.5.3 Magnetic Data Readers 13
4.6 CLOCKS 14
4.6.1 The Multivibrator 14
4.6.2 The Mains Supply and a Schmitt Switch 15

4.6.3 The 555 Timer 17
4.6.4 The Crystal Oscillator 19

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• Explain the terms ROM and CD ROM.
• Explain the terms PROM, EPROM and EEPROM.
• Explain the terms RAM, SRAM and DRAM.
• Explain the terms Hard disk and Floppy.
• Explain the use of a Streaming Tape,
• Explain the terms Hardware, Firmware and Software.
• Sketch a typical Multi-Vibrator and show how the timing can be changed.
• Sketch the circuit of a 555 timer, and show how the timing can be changed.
• Sketch a typical Crystal Clock and explain its frequency of operation.


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4.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to explain in basic terms the memories and clocks used in a
computer.
4.2 MEMORIES
4.2.1 Introduction
Digital memories are units which store information. The information is for use when
checking control loops, storing operating programmes (PI and D settings), or
remembering numbers during calculations etc. This unit will introduce the basic
concepts of how digital memories are made.
4.3 READ ONLY MEMORIES (ROMS)
A ROM is a permanent memory. It cannot be changed by the operator. It has data

written into it which can be read from the memory but it cannot be removed. The
data cannot be destroyed even if the supply is switched off.
Figure 4-1 Simple Diode Operated ROM
Figure 4-1 shows a simple diode operated ROM. The programmer positions the
diodes to link the rows and columns into a matrix. In this program there are three
address lines and 4 output data lines. With the diodes in the positions shown the
program operates as follows.

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If there is no diode linking the row to the column, the output is high (1). If there is a
diode linking the row to the column when the row is earthed, the output is low (0).
The programmer can change this program by moving the diodes to new Positions.
The resistors are added to limit the current through the diodes.
The data output for a ROM with diodes as shown in Figure 4-1 is given below:
This type of memory is usually called HARD WIRED. The program can only be
changed by manually changing the position of the diodes. For example, if diode A is
moved to position B (see Figure 4-1) then the data output for address 101 will
change from 1110 to 0111.
This type of memory is still used in ESD systems (e.g. Thorn-EMI fire and gas
detectors). This gives maximum safety as only an instrument engineer can move
the diodes to change the programme. The keyboard operator cannot change the
ROM program by mistake.
The diode matrix shown in the diagram is also manufactured as an integrated

circuit. However bipolar or field effect transistors are usually used to link the rows
and columns (not diodes). It works in the same way but the switch is more accurate
and faster. This type of fixed memory is used when a manufacturer intends to mass
produce a device, eg. a calculator. You use the keyboard to address the set
programme of the memory. The answer is displayed on a screen.

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Another kind of ROM is the Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). These
come with all the rows and columns linked by transistors so that all the outputs are
set at "0" as shown below.
The user can then program the device by selecting different line/column junctions.
When you pass enough current through the junction it will blow the fuse link, and
change the output from 'TO" to “1”
There are several TTL PROM's available e.g. 74186 (64 x 8) and 74470 (256 x 8).
There are also devices to program them.
Note:
64 x 8 means 64 output words of 8 bits. 64 = 26 so you need 6 address lines to get

the correct output words.
PROM's are popular with manufacturers of washing machines, ovens, etc. They
allow flexibility in design.

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4.3.1 EPROM's and EEPROM's

Both these devices store a charge. The MOSFET insulation gate is used like a
capacitor. It either holds a charge: " 1 " or it doesn't hold a charge; "0".
The EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM) has a window in the top. By shining
ultraviolet light through the window the program in the chip can be erased. Then the
chip can be reprogrammed. The basic problem with this type of chip is that all the
program must be destroyed before any changes can be made.
The EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM) is a device which is

programmed using an electrical signal. A voltage of about 21 volts applied for about
10ms will erase a single bit of the programme. This device is must easier to use
than the EPROM, as no ultraviolet light is required. You do not need to remove it to
reprogram it. Examples of the above chips are:
EPROM Intel 2716
EEPROM Intel 2817
EEPROM's provide the operating program in many of the PLC systems used in the
field. You will see these and program them when you practice basic configuring of
the Allen Bradley PLC in the workshop.
Note
1. The latest type of EEPROM is called a FLASH memory. This is an EEPROM

which can be erased and programmed while it's in place. However, all the
memory is removed when changes are required. The memory is removed in
a "flash". An example is the INTEL N 28FO10-200 chip. This will remember
131072 words (word length 8 bit) sometimes written as a 132 k byte
memory.
2. PROMS, EPROM's and EEPROMS are programmed using special devices

supplied by the manufacturer. Normally the engineer programmes these
chips in the office. Then you change the whole chip in the field.

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4.4 RANDOM ACCESS MEMORIES (RAM)

As discussed in the previous section the ROM will store data permanently, (it is
non-volatile). However changing the programme is difficult, if not impossible.
EPROM's and EEPROM's can be erased and rewritten but they cannot be changed
at normal operating speeds. Therefore, another type of memory is required which
can be re-programmed as required. These memories are called read/write or
Random Access Memories (RAMs).
4.4.1 Static RAMs (SRAM)
The simplest RAM is the flip-flop which will store 1 bit of data. FlipFlops connected
to make a resister can store a word. Connecting resisters together will produce a
very simple memory. The TTL 74170 4x4 register contains 16 flip-flop's. It can store
4 words of 4 bits each. The TTL type RAM cannot be made very large because it
loses a lot of power (heat). Normally MOSFET technology is used to make what are
called "STATIC RAMs". These static RAMs contain thousands of flip-flop's on one
IC chip. This produces a large random access memory.
A typical static RAM is the Toshiba CMOS TC 55257 BPI-102. This will remember 1
32k byte and pass them out 8 bits at a time. This chip comes in a 28 pin DIL
package so you can connect it to a PCB.
4.4.2 Dynamic RAMs (DRAM)

Single Transistor Dynamic RAM Storage Cell
Dynamic RAMs are devices which can store a charge. A single cell is shown above.
A charge in the capacitor indicates a "ONE". These devices can only store the
information for about a milli-second, so that the data must be refreshed (rewritten
after a short period of time). These devices are popular because each cell area is
small so a large memory can be created in a single device. An example is the
Motorola 65536 (64k) x 1 high speed dynamic RAM. This will store 64k bits but only
send them out one at time.

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Note
1) Dynamic RAMs need a lot of external hardware. For example, they need a
counter, a clock for the counter and a mulitplexer to send row addresses,
column addresses and a refresh count. They are still popular because
dynamic RAMs are much cheaper per bit of information stored,
2. Chip manufacturers are developing larger and faster static and dynamic
RAMs all the time. Any electronic magazine will give you the latest
developments.
Static and dynamic RAMs are "volatile" memories. If you switch off the power, the
data is lost. Therefore, most systems have standby batteries or an Uninteruptable
Power Supply (UPS) system. This provides power if mains power is lost.
The Motorola 64 K DRAM comes in a 16 PIN DIL package with pin connections as
shown.
This type of memory is used in most personal computers. It is also the type of
memory used when changing the operating conditions for a loop.

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4.5 HARD DISKS AND FLOPPY DISKS

Static RAMs and Dynamic RAMs are used inside computers. They remember
changes that the typist makes on the P.C. or the operator makes on a control loop.
However, these devices soon become full. Therefore, other types of RAM are used
to store large' quantities of information which must be kept for a long time. These
are called hard disks and floppy disks (floppies).
4.5.1 Hard disk

Figure 4-2 A Typical Hard Disk Drive Unit

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Figure 4-2 shows the layout of a hard disk drive unit. It consists of a number of
magnetic disks. These store the information in much the same way as a music
cassette tape.
Information can be written on or read off the disk electronically. The electronics
drive motors. The motors set the position of the disk and the position of the reading
head so it will process the required data. The hard disk drive used in the office P.C.
will store about 0.5 G bytes of information. The hard disk will hold all the necessary
information. This information can be changed and rewritten as required.
The hard disk unit on a DCS in a plant is called the HISTORIAN. The historian can
be very large (many Giga bytes). It will hold and update information about the plant
over many weeks.
The hard disk will also hold the software programmes. These are programs which
are designed to do particular jobs such as typing, making diagrams, doing
calculations, etc. Windows 95 is a good example of a modern software system.
A DCS system has software specially made to show the PFD's for the plant on the
VDU. These software programmes are supplied by the manufacturer to fit your plant
and are stored on the system hard disk.

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4.5.2 Floppy Disk

Figure 4-3 Floppy Disks (Diskettes)
Figure 4-3 shows 2 typical floppy disks. These disks come in various sizes (e.g. 8
in., 51/4 in., 3.5 in., etc.). They are used to store information that is no longer
needed on the hard disk. When this course was written it was kept on a hard disk
until it was finished. Then it was put onto a floppy and kept until it was needed. The
floppy also acts as a back-up for the hard disk in case of hard disk failure.
A DCS system keeps the plant programmes on floppy disks as a back-up for the
hard disk drive. Also, the engineer may have his own floppies which he has
programmed himself. These may be used to run a maintenance schedule to check
the system micro-processors etc.
A floppy disk drive works in much the same way as a hard disk drive. The difference
is that you must insert the disk (the floppy) into the disk drive yourself.

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4.5.3 Magnetic Data Readers

The diagram shows the basic principle of a magnetic data reader. The tape/disk has
a thin coating of magnetic iron oxide. When a current is passed through the coil a
flux is produced across the gap in the iron core. This magnetises the tape/disk so
that a ONE or ZERO is recorded at that particular position. The digit depends on the
direction of the current (i.e. the polarity of the induced magnet). The system is
reversible. The magnetised tape/disk is passed over the head. As magnetised areas
on the tape pass under the tape head gap, a magnetic field is formed in the soft iron
core. The variations in the field induce voltages across the coil. These voltages are
amplified to produce ONE's and ZERO's according to the data stored on the tape.
Note:
1. The latest type of programme storage method is the Compact Disc Read
Only Memory (CD ROM). This is the same type of disk as is used in a CD in
a home music system. These are read using a light source (laser). They are
better than the old magnetic disks because the data cannot be damaged by
stray magnetic fields.
2. In some systems the RAM is a cassette type tape unit. These are common
in large computer facilities as they can store Tera bytes of data. Foxboro
uses them as back-up units for the main hard drives. Foxboro calls them
"Streaming Tape" drives.

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4.6 CLOCKS
4.6.1 The Multivibrator
The basic clock or timer for digital work is the free running flip-flop (multi-vibrator).
This is easily made using two BJTs as shown in Figure 4-4.
Figure 4-4 The Multi-Vibrator
OPERATION:
When the circuit is turned on let's assume that T1 conducts more than T2. The
collector of T1 will fall and the resulting negative charge is transferred through C1.
This will tend to cut off T2 and produce a rise in T2 collector. This rise will drive T1
further on so that T1 will go "FULL ON" and T2 "OFF" almost immediately. This state
will not last. The charge of C1 will immediately drain through R2 and RA until the
voltage on T2 base reaches the "CUT ON" point. At this point T2 Will "CUT ON".
When T2 Cuts on its collector voltage will fall. This fall will "CUT OFF" T1. This state
is also unstable as C2 drains through R, and RB, so that T1 will again "CUT ON" as
T2 "CUTS OFF". This operation continues as long as the supply is switched on. The
outputs from the two load resistors are opposing square waves as shown below.
The frequency of operation is approximately 1/2 C (R + RA) Hz (if C1 = C2, RA = RB

& R1= R2). If the transistors are the same the output will have an even mark to
space ratio
This circuit is, not very stable and operates only at low frequencies. However, it is a
very simple and cheap clock.

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4.6.2 The Mains Supply and a Schmitt Switch

In some countries the frequency of the mains supply is very stable all day. So, it can
be used as a timer for electronic clocks, etc.
The diagram below shows a circuit used to obtain 50 Hz T.T.L level pulses from the
mains supply.

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The Schmitt switch is a very useful device. You can buy it as T.T.L (7414) or CMOS
(4554). It has two trigger levels. One level is for positive going signals and one is for
negative going signals. The Schmitt switch is usually shown with a "NOT" output.
This means the output is high when the input is low.
Another important use for the Schmitt switch is for telephone and radio signals etc.
The digital signals are distorted as they pass from the transmitter to the receiver.
The Schmitt switch can be used to restore the distorted signal. The diagram below
shows this using a 7414.

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4.6.3 The 555 Timer

The 555 timer is an IC which is good for low frequency non-precision timing work. It
comes in either T.T.L (LM 555) or CMOS (LM7555).
The basic circuit is given in Figure 4-5.
Figure 4-5 Basic Circuit of 555 Timer

The chip consists of an RS flip-flop with reset, upper and lower comparators and a
constant current discharge transistor.

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OPERATION:
1. The three 5 kΩ resistors inside the chip set the control voltages for the
upper and lower comparators. When the unit is switched on (+Vcc applied),
the RS flip-flop is reset so that Q is low.
. External capacitor C charges through RA and RB. When the voltage across C
(trigger) reaches the control voltage of the lower comparator, the comparator
output changes over. The change applied to the terminal of the RS flip-flop
switches the output Q to High. This change switches on the discharge
transistor.
3. The capacitor C will now discharge through this transistor. At a certain low
voltage the threshold of the upper comparator is reached. At this point the
output to the R terminal of the R/S flipflop output changes back to its starting
position. Then C starts to charge again.
4. The operation is continuous as long as the VCC is connected.
The output is a series of timed pulses depending on the charge time of the
capacitor.
The frequency of the pulse depends on the added components RA, RB and C where

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4.6.4 The Crystal Oscillator

Most computers must have a more accurate timing system than the timers
described in this unit. This is achieved using a "quartz crystal" such as the ones
used in top quality watches.
A "quartz crystal" is a specially cut crystal that has a "pieso-electric" effect. At a

particular frequency it will vibrate to produce an electrical signal and vice-versa. In
effect it is a very accurate tuned circuit. It's frequency of resonance depends mainly
on the size of the crystal and the way it is cut.
A typical 1 MHz TTL crystal oscillator is given in Figure 4-6. The crystal provides
positive feedback at its resonant frequency. This means the circuit will oscillate at
one frequency only. The crystal sets the frequency.
Figure 4-6 1 MHz Crystal


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Unit No. 5 - Multiplexers, Decoders and Displays
UNIT 7 THE COMPUTER


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
5.1 INTRODUCTION 4
5.2 MULTIPLEXERS 4
5.3 DECODERS (DE-MULTIPLEXERS) 5
5.4 THE BCD DECODER 5
5.5 THE SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY 6
5.6 THE LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY. 8
5.7 MATHEMATICAL NOTE 9


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• Explain the purpose of a multiplexer
• Explain the purpose of a decoder
• Describe the LED and LCD 7 segment display
• Explain the use of the 7 segment code.


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5.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to explain the purpose of multiplexers, decoders and displays.
5.2 MULTIPLEXERS
Multiplexers are devices which combine different analog or digital data signals into
groups. This data can then be transmitted over a single cable. Multiplexers are very
complicated devices. They are normally serviced and operated by the
telecommunication department. However, simple single chip multiplexers are found
in some instruments. A typical example is the MAX. 378 which will multiplex 8
analog signals for onward transmission.
One type of multiplexer is a device called a "UART".
The UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) takes signals from the
µP system in parallel form and changes them to a serial form for transmission. It will
also, receive serial input signals and convert them to parallel 'for µP processing.
Figure 5-1 shows in simple terms the use of a UART.
Figure 5-1 UART


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5.3 DECODERS (DE-MULTIPLEXERS)

Decoders (de-multiplexers) take in a stream of data. They convert the data so that it
can be displayed or processed by a µP. There are various types of decoder
(de-multiplexer) depending on their use.
74138 : This decoder/de-multiplexer takes in 3 input data lines and produces

8 output lines.
74154: This decoder/de-multiplexer takes in 4 input data lines to provide 16

output lines. This chip is used in your workshop project.
5.4 THE BCD DECODER
An important decoder is the BCD decoder. This converts BCD into a special code to
drive a digital display (seven segment display).
A block diagram of how a digital display is done is shown below.
The decade counter counts the input signal pulses and provides a 4 line address in
BCD to the "BCD to 7 segment.7 decoder. The output from the decoder is amplified
by the driver to operate the display.

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5.5 THE SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY

This is the standard method for digital displays on all electronic indicators. The two
common types of seven segment display use either LEDs or an LCD as follows:
Figure 5-2 The LED 7 Segment Display
Figure 5-2 shows a typical 7 segment LED display. Seven LED's are shaped and
placed in an insulating substrate (usually a ceramic). The position and-connection of
each lettered LED is standard. Therefore, all LEDs will have "a" at the top and "d" at
the bottom and so on. The device shown has the anodes of the LEDs connected
together (common anode). The LED is lit by the BCD decoder-driver which earth
different cathodes as required.
The LED display can also be obtained with all the cathodes connected together
(common cathode). In this case a positive voltage Is provided by the BCD
decoder-driver which lights the correct LED.

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Unit No. 5 - Multiplexers, Decoders and Displays INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 5-3 Digital Display of Numbers using Seven Segment Code
Figure 5-3 shows the illumination required to make a seven segment digital display.
For example, to display the number 3 - a,b,c,d and g must light, but f and e must not
light.

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5.6 THE LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY.

This is the display usually used by a calculator. The seven segment code is used for
the display in the same way as an LED. However, the method of illumination is
different, as follows:
Figure 5-4 The Basic LCD Display
Figure 5-4 shows a simplified diagram of an LCID display. The liquid crystal is
sealed between two plates of glass. The segments are set into the liquid. When a
voltage is applied to the segment it produces an electrical field across the liquid.
This makes it absorb light and so the segment looks black. When the voltage is
removed it will reflect light and so it looks white again. In the diagram a b and c
have a voltage applied (black),f, e, g and d have no voltage applied (white). The
number 7 is displayed as a black figure on a white background.

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5.7 MATHEMATICAL NOTE

ADDING BCD
There is a problem when adding BCD as a 4 bit binary code. It will produce
numbers from 0000(0) to 1111 (15). However, decimal will only allow 0000(0) to
1001 (9) in any one column. After this the number must revert to 0000 and carry.
Therefore, adding two BCD numbers is complicated. The calculator actually uses
the following method.
Note: Subtraction is done using ONE's complement and adding.

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Unit No. 6 - Digital / Analog & Analog / Digital Converters INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 7 THE COMPUTER


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 6 - Digital / Analog & Analog / Digital Converters
Para Page
6.1 INTRODUCTION 4
6.2 D/A AND A/D CONVERTERS 4
6.3 BINARY WEIGHTED RESISTOR DAC 4
6.3.1 R/2R Ladder DAC 5
6.4 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER (ADC) 6
6.4.1 Ramp Type ADC 6
6.4.2 Successive-Approximation ADC 7


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• Explain the use of a DAC
• Explain with a simple diagram the binary weighted resistor DAC.
• State the advantages of an R/2R DAC.
• Explain using a block diagram a modern DAC chip.
• Explain the use of an ADC.
• State the advantages of a successive approximation ADC over a ramp type

ADC.

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6.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to explain the Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) and Analog
to Digital Converter (ADC).
6.2 D/A AND A/D CONVERTERS
Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) and Analog to Digital Converters (AD C) are an
essential part of digital control. The DAC turns digital control signals into analog
signals for 4-20mA output loops, etc. The ADC turns analog signals from the input
loops (mA, mV, resistance, etc.) into digital signals for computer processing.
The following notes describe the techniques used. remember these converters are
obtained as an I.C (not as discrete components
6.3 BINARY WEIGHTED RESISTOR DAC
The basic principle of a Binary Weighted Resistor DAC is simple. It uses a summing
operational amplifier. This is the circuit which was made during practical tasks in
Industrial Electronics Ill. Figure 6-1 shows the basic circuit for 'a 4 bit binary to
analog converter using binarv weighted resistors.
Figure 6-1 Basic Circuit for a 4 Bit DAC
The switches represent the input binary code and it works as follows.
1. With all switches open the output is 0 Volts.

2. If D0 is closed the output is -10 / 100 x 5V = - 0. 5V.
3. If D0 is opened and D1 is closed the output is -10/50 x 5V = -1 V.
4. If all four switches are closed the output is -5 x (10/12.5 +10/25+10/50+10/100) =-5
x(0.8+0.4+0.2+0.1) = -5 x (1 .5) = -7. 5 V.
5. So if the switches are operated by a binary code the output will be from 0 volts to -
7.5 in 15 steps of -05V.
The range of the output can be adjusted by RF but the maximum will be about -14V due
to the saturation of the OP-AMO.
The above system is not much good if the input is larger than 4 bits as the range of
the resistors becomes to large.

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6.3.1 R/2R Ladder DAC

Figure 6-2 Basic R/2R Ladder DAC
A basic R/2R ladder DAC is shown in Figure 6-2. This is the normal method used by
the I.C. manufacturer. The circuit is shown at the zero position with all inputs at
zero. The binary input changes the switches (D0 to D3) to provide an output with the
same voltage steps as the previous DAC. However, the analysis of the circuit is
complicated and not worth remembering. The R/2R DAC has the advantage of only
requiring 2 values of resistor. Therefore, it is much easier to manufacture on an IC.
chip.
Modern D/A converter chips have input latches, decode logic (electronic switch), an
R/2R DAC and an output amplifier all on one chip. They will accept either serial or
parallel digital data inputs. A typical example of an instrumentation DAC is the MAX.
502. This accepts a 12 bit parallel input and produces an output voltage suitable for
driving a 4-20mA output loop.
Note: The latches collect the 12 bit input data. They pass the input data to the
decoder logic and DAC when ordered by the µP using the write line.

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6.4 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER (ADC)

6.4.1 Ramp Type ADC
Figure 6-3 Ramp Type ADC
Figure 6-3 shows a ramp type ADC. The principle of operation of this type of ADC is
simple. The ANALOG and RAMP signals are applied to a single comparator
OP-AMP. The comparator will have an output if the analog signal is greater than the
ramp voltage. The comparator output and a clock signal are both fed to an AND
gate together. The pulsing output from the AND gate is fed to a binary counter. The
counter will count until the RAMP voltage reaches the level of the analog signal.
Then it will stop. The system then resets and counts again. The binary counter will
change every count cycle so that it follows the changes in the analog signal. The
timing and control unit opens the latches at the end of each count. This provides a
16 bit parallel data output.
As an example, suppose the RAMP is set to rise at 1V every 1 ms. If the analog
signal is 2 volts then the counter will count for 2ms before stopping and resetting.
The number of counts will be
2/1000 x 1000000/1 = 2000
if the analog signal then falls to 0.5 volts then the count reduces to 500.
The problem with this type of ADC is that there are variations in the ramp generator
slope. This is caused by temperature and voltage variations. Also it is slow. A count
of 20 000 will take 100ms or more per conversion cycle.

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6.4.2 Successive-Approximation ADC

Figure 6-4 Basic layout of Successive Approximation ADC Chip
Figure 6-4 shows the basic layout of a successive approximation ADC. Remember
all of this is made on one chip (e.g. MAX 166 8bit ADC).
The great advantage of this type of converter is its speed. It will produce ONE bit of
resolution for only ONE clock pulse. The problem is that it is more complicated and
it needs a DAC to make it work. Therefore, it is expensive.
A brief explanation of the successive approximation method is given below:
1. The circuit consists of four units. A successive-approximation register (SAR),

a DAC and two operational amplifiers.
2. At the start the output is zero. On the first clock pulse the full output from
OP-AMP A will be applied to the SAR. This produces a ONE at the MS13
position. This ONE is then D/A converted and returned to OP-AMP A via
OP-AMP B. The SAR waits for the result of this comparison.
3. If the DAC signal is greater than the input then the SAR MSB reverts to zero
and the next clock pulse operates the next MSB.

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4. If the D/A signal is less than the input then the SAR keeps a ONE in MSB
position.
5. The SAR will then continue trying the next MSB until it is full.
6. The output will be a series of ones and zeros according to the analog input
successively approximated to the number of digits the SAR will
accommodate.
7. At the end of the count the latches open to provide a parallel output. The
SAR also provides a serial output if required.
8. If the output "End of Conversion" is connected to the "Start of Conversion"

(SC) then the converter will continuously recycle.

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Unit No. 7 - The Computer INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 7 THE COMPUTER


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 7 - The Computer
Para Page
7.1 INTRODUCTION 4
7.2 THE COMPUTER BLOCK DIAGRAM 4
7.3 THE MICROPROCESSOR 6
7.4 CONCLUSION 7

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• List the main parts of a computer and explain their use.
• Explain the terms hardware, firmware and software.
• Explain the term bus.


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7.1 INTRODUCTION
The previous chapters have discussed the basic digital building blocks. The
purpose of this chapter is to show how these blocks go together.
7.2 THE COMPUTER BLOCK DIAGRAM
Figure 7-1 Computer Block Diagram
Figure 7-1 shows the components of a simple single-board computer.

The functions of each components are as follows:
a) Keyboard:
This may be the same as a typewriter keyboard (e.g. secretary's PC). It may
be specially designed for a particular purpose (e.g. refinery control). You will
learn how to use a particular keyboard during specialist equipment training
(e.g. Foxboro IA, Honeywell TDC 3000 etc.).
b) Keyboard Input Unit:
This changes the signals from the keyboard into an ASCII code so that the
signals can be understood by the microprocessor. These signals are
changed from serial to parallel form using standard shift registers. The
keyboard will also provide signals so that the computer can be programmed.

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c) Memory Unit:
This is the working memory for the computer. RAM's depends on the size of
the computer. The number of RAM’s depends on the size of the computer.
d) Timing Unit (Clock):
This consists of a crystal oscillator and ROM. The ROM programmes the
timing pulses from the clock. Different microprocessors operate timers in
different ways.
e) 1/O Units (input/output Data Chips) :
These connect the computer to the outside world. They may include
parallel/serial converters, DACs and ADCs etc. The type of chip which is
used depends on the data being sent or received.
f) Power Supply Unit:
This is a standard 230V/5V DC power supply. It's similar in design to the

ones made during Industrial Electronics 2.
g) VDU Output:
This unit produces the characters which will be displayed on the VDU screen. The
RAM stores the data to be displayed. When the data is called up a character
generator displays the information on the screen.
h) Interface Unit to Disk Drives:
This unit collects/sends data to/from the disk drives fitted into the computer.
There are usually two drives. One drive takes a floppy disk at the front of the
machine. The other drive is the hard disk drive inside the machine.
Note: The connections between the chips are extremely complicated. It is only
possible to do these using a multilayered printed circuit board. They are
designed by the manufacturer and made as a particular item for the PC
in use. You can not make your own computer without a special machine
for making PC boards

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7.3 THE MICROPROCESSOR

This is the most important unit in the computer. It processes the incoming data,
carries out calculations as required, and returns the results to the outside world.
Figure 7-2 shows a block diagram of the ZILOG Z 80 CPU (Central Processing
Unit) microprocessor. The diagram shows the pin configuration i.e. the way the pins
are arranged. This operates on an 8 bit data bus (8 wires) and a 16 bit address bus
(16 wires). 8 BIT DATA
8 BIT DATA
Figure 7-2 ZILOG Z 80 CPU

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7.4 CONCLUSION
The previous units have introduced the chips required to make a digital computer
control system. The actual instrument control system used in the field varies from
company to company. This must be learnt on the job.
The instrument course on the "Introduction to Process Control" gave a short

introduction to the Foxboro IA and Honeywell TDC 3000 as examples of DCS
control. However, you may work on the Bailey INFI 90 DCS or the Rosemount RS3
DCS.
This course, "Industrial Electronics 4", has introduced what is called the
HARDWARE (the chips and components that make up digital control).
The operating instructions for the microprocessors and the computer are set by the
manufacturer in the operating ROM's. These instructions are called FIRMWARE.
The systems engineer programmes the DCS to fit the plant he is working on using
what is called SOFTWARE. This software is provided by the manufacturer (e.g.
Foxboro) to operate his system only. Usually this comes in the form of a floppy disc
or streaming tape. This data is loaded into the hard disk on start-up.
The Z80 is used as an example of a microprocessor chip. There are many more
types of chips in use. The newest chips have a 64 bit data address. However, they
all work in the same way.
The blocks provide the following functions:
1. The 16 bit address bus is used by the CPU to address the RAM's, ROM's
etc. to gather or send data required for processing.
2. Data comes in and out through an 8-bit bus.
3. The ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) performs the required data calculations.
4. The Inst. Reg. (instruction register) holds the instructions as required. This
allows the "Instruction Decode and CPU control" unit to perform the required
system and CPU control.
5 The CPU registers do many jobs;
• They act as short time stores (accumulators) for the ALU.
• They acts as memory refresh for dynamic RAM's.
• They act as a program counter

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Unit No. 8 - Introduction to data transmission
UNIT 7 THE COMPUTER


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
8.1 INTRODUCTION 4
8.2 SERIAL TRANSMISSION 4
8.3 PARITY 5
8.4 A TYPICAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM 6
8.5 THE MODEM 7
8.6 RS 232C 9
8.6.1 The RS 232C Connector 10
8.7 HANDSHAKING 11
8.8 GLOSSARY 12

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• Sketch a typical serial digital transmission signal.
• Explain parity
• Explain the use of a modem
• State the main types of modulation
• Explain the terms DTE and DCE.
• Explain why RS 232C is used.
• Explain handshaking

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8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the oil industry a Distributed Control System must be able to send operational
data from the outlying platforms to the main control room. This final chapter tells
you something about how this data is sent using digital transmission.
8.2 SERIAL TRANSMISSION
Serial transmission reduces the number of communication links (e.g. telephone wire
pairs or micro-wave links etc.) which a system needs. Serial transmission allows
the-required data to be sent as a series of bits on a single pair of wires or a
channel.
Figure 8-1 A Serial Digital Transmission Signal
Figure 8-1 shows a typical byte (character) sent in a serial form. It consists of 11
bits of data. The start and stop bits are always the same so that the receiver of the
serial signal knows which part of the byte to decode. Parity is explained in the next
section. The actual message is a seven bit word. A group of these bytes makes up
the full data. The data is sent one word at a time. The real meaning of the message
depends on the programme used. It will have to be decoded correctly at the
receiving end before it can be displayed.
The speed of the transmission is called the "Baud Rate". This is 1 divided by the
time for one bit. For example if the bit time is 1.66 ms then the baud rate is
A high "Baud Rate" means faster transmission.

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8.3 PARITY
As can been seen from the previous work if a "ONE" bit changes to a "ZERO"
during the transmission of digital information the whole meaning of the message
changes. To reduce errors a PARITY system is used. Figure 8-2 shows a typical
parity transmission system. The "parity generator and checker" on the sender finds
out if the message has an ODD or EVEN number of ONEs (e.g. 01101101 has an
odd number of ones). If the number is ODD a high signal is sent to the receiving
end, if EVEN a low signal. The "parity generator and checker" on the receiver also
works out if the number is ODD or EVEN. If it agrees with the sender then the data
is passed. If it does not agree it sends a return signal so that the sender transmits
the data again.
Figure 8-2 Parity Checking of Parallel Digital Transmission
The example given shows parity checking for a parallel data transmission system.
Normally this is only used over short distances, such as within the computer itself.
Parity checking is also used on serial transmission. The parity bit is placed at the
end of the message (see Figure 8-1). This is a 1 if the message bits are odd and 0
if the message bits are even. The receiving equipment adds up the number of ones
in each message. It checks this number against the parity bit to see if a bit has been
lost in transmission. If the parity check shows a fault the receiver sends a serial
message back to tell the transmitter to send again.
The "parity" method does not work if two errors occur. If two bits are lost the
message will still appear odd or even and the system will think the information is
correct. There are error correction systems which use more than one "parity" link.
These systems use what are called "Hamming codes".
These codes are not covered in this unit. However, students working on data
transmission "unit to unit" will cover these codes later on.

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8.4 A TYPICAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Figure 8-3 Basic Data Transmission System
Figure 8-3 shows the basic steps used to send data by radio link.
The information from the transmitters is digitised and processed through the
microcomputer. The processed information is put into serial form by a PISO register
and fed into a modulator (modem). The modulator drives the radio transmitter (Tx).
The receiver (Rx) picks up the radio signal. The signal is then changed back to
serial digital form by the receiving demodulator. Next, it is put into parallel form by a
SIPO register. Finally, it is processed by the microcomputer for display on the
receiving station's VDUs.
Note: The block diagram shows a signal being sent from a remote station to
the main control center. Most systems are capable of working in both
directions; each end can work as a receiver or transmitter. The
modulator and demodulator are combined into what is called a MODEM.

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8.5 THE MODEM
A MODEM is a unit which changes the serial data of the input so that it can
modulate the transmission system (e.g. telephone wire pairs, radio link, satellite
channel, etc.). Modulation is the process which puts the data onto a carrier wave so
that it can be sent long distances through the atmosphere. It can also do the
opposite. It converts the incoming signal to a serial data form (demodulates). There
are many systems for doing this. These systems will not be dealt with in this unit.
They are the work of telecoms technicians. However, some trainees may cover
these systems at a later date.
The four main methods of modulation are:
1) Amplitude Modulation (AM)
There is a carrier frequency for a "ONE" but not for a "ZERO"
2) Phase Shift Modulation (PSM)
The sine wave carrier reverses phase (inverts) from a "ONE" to a "ZERO".

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3) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
The frequency jumps from one frequency to another depending on the data.
Note:
a) A similar system is used by the new digital telephones. A different frequency

is used for each number.
b) This method is popular as modems can pass information in both directions

at once (duplex mode) using four different frequencies. Two frequencies are
used to send data and two frequencies are used to receive data.
4) Time Division Multiplex (TDM)
In this system, various groups of data are sent on the same transmission frequency.
However, they are separated in time. This system is also used to multiplex data
within the microprocessor. The diagram show three messages being sent at one
time.
The messages A B and C are split into small parts and sent together in one second
intervals. The receiver then separates the small parts and puts all the As, all the Bs,
and all the Cs together to make the real message. This method is used for satellite
telephone calls. About 20 calls can be made at the same time on one channel. The
time for each part of the call is in milliseconds. It is so fast that the listener cannot
detect that he is listening to a message in bits.

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8.6 RS 232C
Modems and the transmitting and receiving equipment that go with them are often
called Data Communication Equipment (DCE). The terminals and computers which
send or receive the serial data are called Data Terminal Equipment (DTE). In order
to have standard connections between DCE's and DTE's the USA "Electronics
Industries Association" (EIA) published the following standard; RS232C. This
standard is used all over the world.
This standard defines the voltage levels of the signal, the handshake signals, and a
standard 25 pin connector.
DTE - DATA TERMINAL EQUIPMENT

DCE - DATA COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT
Figure 8-4 Block Diagram of a Communication System

Figure 8-4 shows the basic block diagram of a communication system using
modems.

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8.6.1 The IRS 232C Connector

Figure 8-5 RS 232C Pin Connections

Figure 8-5 shows the RS 232C signal names and pin numbers
A basic explanation of the operation of the system is as follows:
1 The "Power on" terminal runs self - checking routines.
2. The Terminal sends a DTR signal to the MODEM
3. The MODEM replies DSR to indicate it is ready.
4. The MODEM at the receiver end is dialled.

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5. The receiver MODEM sends a ready signal. This is on a frequency of 2225

HZ on telephone lines.
6. When the transmitter MODEM gets this ready signal it sends a- CD signal to
the terminal.
7. The terminal sends an RTS signal back to its MODEM.
8. After a set time the transmitter MODEM sends a CTS signal to the terminal.
9. The terminal sends the data in serial form through the TXD output.
10 .The same steps are followed at the receiving end.
8.7 HANDSHAKING
Handshaking is used to ensure that the two ends of a communication link are ready
to receive transmitted information. This is particularly important when a duplex
system is used. For example, using telephone wires, the transmitting modem will
not send until it receives a high signal (2225 Hz) from the receiving modem (answer
mode modem).

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8.9 GLOSSARY
The following is a list of definitions of the terms used in industrial electronics and
can be used as a review of the course:


Module No. 6: Industrial electronics 3 Unit No. 8 - Introduction to data transmission
July 1999- Rev.0

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UNIT 7 THE COMPUTER


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
INSTRUCTOR'S NOTE 3
PRACTICAL TASK 1 4
PRACTICAL TASK 2 7
PRACTICAL TASK 3 10

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INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUCTOR'S NOTE
An instrument technician is not expected to service electronic cards. The digital

electronic course is concerned with what a chip does, not how it works. Therefore it
is suggested that the practical tasks for this course be done in the form of projects.
Three simple projects are enclosed which have proven successful in the past.
However, other similar projects can be carried out to fit the chips readily available in
the Company. A book which may help is "301 Circuits" by Micro-Tech Publishers.

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PRACTICAL TASK 1
THE MULTIVIBRATOR AND BINARY COUNTER
Components required.
QUANTITY DESCRIPTION
2 BC 109
2 10k Resistors
2 2.2k Resistors
2 10µF Capacitors
1 4024
7 250Ω Resistors
7 Red LED’s
1 PC Board
Procedure:
1) .Construct the given circuit on a PCB board. Remember to make sure that
the copper strips are broken in the correct places.
2) Connect up the 9V supply (power supply switched OFF).
3) Switch ON the power supply. If the circuit is counting correctly the LED's will
light in a binary sequence until they are all lit (the binary number 1111111).
4) If the circuit does not work. Start fault finding by checking that the
multi-vibrator produces pulses first.

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Questions to show understanding of project.

Q1) What is the maximum decimal count of the binary counter?
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Q2) How could you re-set the counter manually?
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM BINARY COUNTER

4024 PIN CONNECTIONS

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PRACTICAL TASK 2
BACK AND FORTH FLASHER

The object of this project is to produce a back and forth flasher. This is often used
as a brake warning light on a car. It will demonstrate the use of a 555 timer, up and
down counter, 7400 NAND logic gate and a 44ME to 16 4ME decoder
(demultiplexer).
Procedure:
1) Construct the circuit as given in the diagram. Remember to break the copper
strips as required.
2) When you have made the circuit check it for mistakes.

3) Connect the circuit Vcc to the positive terminal of a 5V dc supply. Earth the
negative terminal together with the circuit earth (make sure the power supply
is switched OFF).
4) If you have been successful in your construction, the LEDs will flash back
and forth when you switch the supply ON.
If it does not work switch OFF. Check the circuit again. With patience you will find
the fault and get it to work.

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Questions to show understanding of project.

1) How could you change the fishing rate ?
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2) Why is the UP/DOWN counter added?
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Note: Pin connections on diagram. Vcc = + 5V
Circuit Diagram Back and Forth Flasher

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PRACTICAL TASK 3
A 0-99 COUNTER
The aim of this project is to use a decade counter, BCD decoder/driver and a 7
segment display to make a 0-99 counter. This counter is made using a common
cathode LED display. If a common anode display is used the BCD decoder/driver
will be 7447.
Procedure:
1) Construct the circuit as shown in the given diagram.
2) Set the function generator to give a 1 Hz square wave output. Apply the TTL
output to pin 14 of the first counter (IN position). See if you can get it to
work.

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Note: Pin connections on diagram. Vcc = + 5V
Circuit Diagram 0-99 Counter

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INSTRUMENTATION
MODULE No. 7
INSTRUMENT WORKSHOP
July 1999- Rev.0

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Module No. 7: Instrument workshop

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INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
PRACTICAL TASK 1- 4
1.1 OBJECTIVES 4
1.2 PRACTICAL NOTES 5
1.2.1 Types of Packing 5
1.3 PACKING REPLACEMENT 8
1.3.1 Removing Old Packing 8
1.3.2 Installing New Packing 8
PRACTICAL TASK 2 12
2.1 OBJECTIVES 12
PRACTICAL TASK 3 18
3.1 SOLDERING 18
3.2 INTRODUCTION 18
3.3 GOOD P.C. BOARD SOLDERING 18


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WORKSHOP SAFETY
The following safety procedures must be followed when doing practical work on
valves in the workshop or out in the field.
• The shop should be kept clean and free from hazards which might cause
you to slip or fall.
• Inspect your tools regularly; if your tools are worn and unsafe you should
throw them away.
• Neutralise any valve body which has been in contact with flammable,
corrosive or toxic fluids.
• The employees should wear suitable clothing. If the clothing is contaminated

with any harmful or flammable substances it must be cleaned before it is
used again.
• Wear approved eye protection when you use compressed air to remove
rubbish from the equipment.
• To avoid a fire hazard or explosion, do not apply grease to valves which are
used in oxygen systems unless the grease can be removed before the valve
is put back in service.
• The disc in a butterfly valve will fall out of the valve body if the shaft is
removed. To avoid injury to personnel and damage to the disc, you must
support the disc to prevent it from failing when you remove the shaft.
• Before you begin maintenance work or removal of any equipment in the

field, you must tell the process supervisor and get a work permit.
• If you are working above ground level you will need a platform of some kind.
The platform-must be strong enough to support you, and your equipment
and tools. Platforms should have a raised edge to prevent objects from
falling off.
• To avoid personal injury and damage to the process equipment, isolate the
control valve from the system and release all the pressure from the body
and actuator before you take it to pieces. You must also relieve all
compressive actuator load on the shaft connection before performing any
maintenance operations.
• Do not clear out gas lines with air. Use steam, nitrogen or other approved
chemicals.
• Be very careful of compressed air or gases. Unfortunately, many employees

have died while working on compressed air lines that they thought were
depressurised.
• Finally, read the manufacturer's instruction manual before starting work on

any piece of equipment.

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INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL TASK 1.
REPACKING A STUFFING BOX AND DOING A LEAK TEST
1.1 OBJECTIVES
The student will :
1. Repack a gland following the procedure in the attached instructions.
2. Carry out a pressure test on the valve using the attached instructions.

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1.2 PRACTICAL NOTES

VALVE STEM PACKING
The purpose of valve packing is to prevent leakage. In a typical valve, the gland
follower is tightened until there is no leakage. The valve is then test-operated to
make sure that the packing is not compressed so tightly that the valve does not turn
easily.
Note: Constant friction is not a problem in valve packing applications. This is

because the opening or closing of a valve is a low speed operation.
Figure PT-1 Valve Stem Packing
1.2.1 Types of Packing
Packing comes in two types; in pre-shaped rings or in rope form which is cut to size.
The common pre-shaped ring packing material is Teflon. This a plastic material
which is self lubricating. Normally the Teflon rings are held in place with a spring
below the gland follower. Another form of this type of packing is called "Chevron"
packing. Teflon or rubber packing rings are shaped like a "V" (Chevron) and placed
in the stuffing box as shown in Figure PT-2. The process pressure forces the edges
of the chevrons outwards against the shaft and stuffing box wall to produce a good
seal. Chevron packing is very common in hydraulic and pneumatic systems.

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Module No. 7: Instrument workshop INSTRUMENTATION
Figure PT-2 Types of Packing
Rope type packing
Rope type packing comes in various styles and a few examples are shown in Figure
PT-2. The most common materials used to make these ropes are Teflon/Asbestos
or graphited asbestos. Both are cheaper than Teflon and can be used over a larger
range of temperatures. Also, they will seal better if the stem is roughened with wear.
Rope type packing is also easier to change during maintenance. However, it usually
needs a lubricator to work well.

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LANTERN RINGS AND LUBRICATORS

Figure PT-3 Valve Stem Packing with Lantern Ring and Lubricator
Figure PT-3 shows valve stem packing with a lantern ring and lubricator. The
lantern ring is made of metal with holes in it. it allows a lubricating compound to be
forced into the space between the ring and the stem. The lubricating compound is
usually silicon grease. It is used to ensure there is no sticking as the valve stem
moves up and down. To fill a lubricator, remove the lubricator nut and fill the
lubricator with grease. Open the isolating valve and turn the replaced lubricator nut
to force the grease into the system. You will know that there is enough grease in the
lantern ring when the lubricator nut starts to tighten. Remember to close the
isolation valve when you recharge the lubricator. Leave the valve open when you
recharge the lantern ring.

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1.3 PACKING REPLACEMENT

1.3.1 Removing Old Packing
The most common sign of packing damage is too much leakage from the gland. If
you can't control this leakage by adjusting the gland follower, then the packing
should be replaced.
Before the packing in a valve can be replaced, the valve must be locked off using
the platform's usual procedures. Next you must check manufacturer's specifications
to make sure that the old packing is replaced with packing of the right size and type.
Then you must carry out the following procedures.
Loosen the gland follower nuts.
b) Swing open the gland follower dog bolts.
c) Open (or remove for a split type) the gland follower.
d) Remove the first few packing rings. The easy way is to use a packing tool.
This works exactly like a corkscrew.
e) Take care not to scratch the shaft with the packing tool.
f) If there is a lantern ring, remove this with a piece of wire bent into a hook.
g) Remove the remaining packing rings.
h) Make sure all packing scraps have been removed.
i) Check the old packing and the shaft to see if it is only worn, or if there is a
more serious reason for the leakage.
1.3.2 Installing New Packing
a) Make sure that the exposed portion of the shaft is completely clean. It is
important to get rid of all the grit particles so that they do not get pushed into
the stuffing box with the new packing.
b) Clean the shaft and stuffing box with a non-flammable, non-toxic solvent.
c) Brush down and then wipe the area with a clean rag.
d) If no manufacturer's information is available, measure the gap between the

shaft and the stuffing box.
e) Similarly, measure the depth of the stuffing box.
f) Measure the thickness of the lantern ring.

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g) Calculate how many rings will be required. h) Find a suitable mandrel (the
same diameter as the shaft).
h) Wind the packing material round the mandrel as many times as the number
of rings required.
i) Cut the rings with a sharp knife.
k) Check how many rings you need to put below the lantern ring. The correct
number must be replaced, otherwise the lantern ring will not be in line with
the lubricator.
l) Lubricate the rings with an anti-seize compound, so they will go in more

easily.
m) Insert the packing rings and lantern ring one by one, pushing them into the
stuffing box as far as they can go.
n) The joints of the rings should be staggered and cut on a slant as shown
below.

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PERFORMING A PRESSURE TEST

A pressure test is carried out to find out if the packing has made a good seal around
the stem. If the valve is a "gate valve" the seal must be perfect at the rated
pressure. Most valves in the industry are rated using the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) code in psi. This rating is usually stamped on the valve;
for example, 600. This means the valve has a maximum rated pressure of 600 psi.
Control valves however, may be allowed to pass a small amount of process fluid as
they move up and down. This amount depends on the valve and its position in the
plant.
To make it easier to complete this task in the workshop, a gate valve is used to
show how to re-pack a stuffing box and how to do a pressure test. Both procedures
are also done on a control valve, with the actuator removed.

TRAINING MANUAL
Figure PT-4 Pressure Testing a Gate Valve
Figure PT-4 shows the layout for pressure testing a "gate valve". The outlet is
sealed off with a 'blanking plate. The inlet is connected to a pressure test rig.
Water is used as the pressurising liquid. The hand pump is operated until the test
gauge shows the maximum working pressure of the valve. If the valve leaks through
the packing, open the depressurising valve and tighten the packing. Repeat the
pressure test. If the valve still leaks through the packing, depressurise the valve and
replace the packing.
Note: If the valve does not leak when fully open you can be sure it will not leak
fully closed. This is because there is less force on the packing when the
valve is closed.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL TASK 2
2.1 OBJECTIVES
OVERHAUL CONTROL VALVE.
The student will :
1) Remove the actuator from the valve body.
2) Completely dismantle (take apart) the valve.
3) Inspect all parts for wear and damage.
4) Reassemble (put back together) the valve.
5) Re-pack the gland and carry out a pressure test.
6) Completely dismantle the control valve actuator.
7) Inspect all parts for wear and damage.
8) Reassemble the control valve actuator.
9) Refit the control valve actuator to the valve body.
10) Set the control valve stroke using the attached instructions.
11) Carry out a leak rate test on the complete control valve assembly using the
attached instructions.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Note: There is a class 6 which defines leakage for very tight shut off. This test
requires air or nitrogen to be used as the test fluid. The leakage rate is
given in bubbles of gas through water per minute. Checking this class is
not practical in a normal instrument workshop.
A P & ID may indicate a control valve must be "Tight Shut Off" (TSO). How tight this
shut off is depends on the design engineer, but class 5 and class 6 are usually
considered tight shut off.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
LEAK TEST PROCEDURE

Figure PT-5 Leak Test
Use the workshop equipment supplied and connect the pressure test rig to the valve
inlet. Connect the outlet to a measuring vessel. Connect an air supply to the
actuator signal input. Figure PT-5 shows a block diagram of the leak test
arrangement. Test as follows.
1. If the control valve assembly is air to close, apply 15 psi to the actuator to
fully close the valve
2. If the control valve assembly is air to open, apply 3 psi to the actuator, to
fully close the valve.
3. Operate the pressure test rig to apply 50 psi to the valve inlet . Time the rate
at which water is collected in the measuring vessel (litres per min).
4. Use figures given -by the instructor to work out if the valve is serviceable.
5. TSO valves may be checked for leakage using air. In this case the number
of bubbles passing through the water in the measuring vessel gives the
leakage rate, e.g. 10 bubbles per minute.
Note: Most of the CDC valves are made by "Fisher" and are standard class 2.
The rated capacity depends on the size of the valve and the way it is
made. It is calculated using manufacturers tables.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
LAPPING
How well a control valve is seated when it is fully closed, depends on the metal to
metal seal between the plug and the seat.
The above diagram shows a simplified, metal to metal seal. The plug is forced
against the seal by the actuator. The metal to metal seal can be worn away during
use because of corrosion, cavitation, sand, etc. After a time the valve leaks badly
when fully closed. The seal can be restored in the workshop using a technique
called "lapping". A grinding paste is applied between the plug and the seat. Then,
the plug is rotated against the seat. This action smoothes the surface of the plug
and seat so that the metal to metal seal is restored. The process can take a long
time, particularly with big valves. Some instrument workshops use electric lapping
machines to rotate the plug against the seat.
The actual process of lapping is difficult to describe so the instructor will

demonstrate "lapping" a valve.
If a valve fails its leak test then "lapping" is done and then the leak test is carried out
again.
It may be impossible to improve the valve seal by lapping. If this happens the seat
and plug must be replaced.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
SETTING UP A CONTROL VALVE ASSEMBLY

There is a plate on the yoke of the actuator. This tells you the operating range of
the valve and the diaphragm pressure needed to make the stem do its full travel,
(called the valve stroke).
Most modern valves will give these figures for both workshop and field operation as
the valves are balanced. Non-balanced valves however, will give two stroke ranges.
One is an operating range when in the field, under full operating pressure, (e.g.
3-15 psi). The other is the range for a "bench test". This range is used when you set
up a valve on a bench in the workshop. The range allows for the unbalanced forces
which occur in the field. A typical example of a bench test range would be 5-15 psi.
This would give a field operating range of 3-15 psi
The "bench" setting of a control valve assembly can also be done for "split range"
operation. Normally a special range spring is fitted. The actuator is then adjusted so
that the stroke is completed over a diaphragm pressure range of for example, 3-9
psi or 9-15 psi.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
CALIBRATION PROCEDURES
1) Use a calibration standard to see how much pressure is applied to the

actuator.
2) If the valve opens on air failure, the travel indicator should show the valve to
be closed when full loading pressure is applied. The valve should be open
when no pressure is applied to the diaphragm case. If the travel indicator
does not show this, then you should loosen the travel indicator screws and
shaft until it does.
3) Vary the pressure on the diaphragm case over its full range and observe the
valve travel. Make sure that the valve plug is seated on the seat rings. If the
travel is not correct, it can be changed by screwing the valve plug stem into
or out of the stem connector. Use a wrench on the stem locknuts to turn the
stem. Do not turn the stem when the valve plug is on the seat. When the
travel is set properly, lock the stem locknuts against the stem connector and
tighten the cap screws in the stem connector.
4) If travel starts at a pressure lower or higher than the required pressure, then
you can adjust it by turning the spring adjuster. Turning the spring adjuster
counterclockwise will decrease the spring compression. This causes the
valve travel to start at a lower loading pressure. Turning the spring adjuster
clockwise will increase the compression on the spring. This causes travel to
start at a higher loading pressure. For a 0.2 to 1 bar diaphragm pressure
range, the valve should start travelling at 0.2 bar pressure.
5) When the control valve is installed and connected to the controller, it should
be checked again. You must check for correct travel, freedom from friction
and correct action, air to open, to match the controlling instrument. In order
to work properly the actuator stem and valve -plug stem must move freely
when the loading pressure on the diaphragm is changed.

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INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL TASK 3
3.1 SOLDERING
3.2 INTRODUCTION
SOLDERING AND WIRE WRAPPING
The older methods of soldering connectors onto cables are not used any more and
are normally banned on oil/gas installations. All cables are joined to connectors by
crimping, the method practised during instrument craft practice.
However, you may need to do basic soldering of components onto a printed circuit
(P.C.) board. This is the type of soldering that will be practised in this task.
3.3 GOOD P.C. BOARD SOLDERING
The P.C. board consists of copper conducting strips stuck onto an insulation board.
The component is fitted onto the board using holes already drilled by the board
manufacturer. The only connection between the component and the copper strip is
the solder which is applied. A well soldered joint (low resistance connection) and a
badly soldered joint (high resistance connections) are shown in the diagram below.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
MODULE No. 8
P & ID’s
July 1999- Rev.0

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 1 - General symbols INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 1 GENERAL SYMBOLS
UNIT 2 READING A P & ID

Module No. 8 : P & ID’s

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INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 1 - General symbols
Para Page
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 GENERAL SYMBOLS FOR VESSELS, PUMPS, COMPRESSORS
AND TANKS 5
1.3 GENERAL PIPING AND INSTRUMENT LINES 7
1.4 GENERAL SYMBOLS FOR FIELD DEVICES 8
1.5 INSTRUMENT 12
1.5.1 Instrument Symbol Examples 14
1.6 COMPUTER SYMBOLS 16
1.7 PIPELINE DESIGNATION 18


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INSTRUMENTATION

• Recognise the general symbols used for valves and actuators.
• Recognise the general symbols used for vessels, pumps, compressors and
tanks.
• Recognise the general symbols used for field devices, e.g. orifice plates,
filters, Venturis etc.
• Recognise the general symbols used for piping and instrument signal lines.
• Describe the letter symbols which indicate a particular instrument.


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INSTRUMENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Piping and instrumentation diagrams show the instrumentation which is fitted to a

particular plant. These diagrams may contain only two or three sheets of paper or
many hundreds. They must be used when any plant maintenance work is carried
out. Unfortunately there is no standard method for P & ID's and only the basics of
the system can be shown. This unit shows the general symbols.

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INSTRUMENTATION
1.2 GENERAL SYMBOLS FOR VESSELS, PUMPS, COMPRESSORS AND TANKS


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Module No. 8 : P & ID’s INSTRUMENTATION

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INSTRUMENTATION
1.3 GENERAL PIPING AND INSTRUMENT LINES


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INSTRUMENTATION
1.4 GENERAL SYMBOLS FOR FIELD DEVICES


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INSTRUMENTATION
VALVES

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The P & ID indicates the position of a control valve when the ESD is operated as
follows.

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INSTRUMENTATION
Note : The symbol for manual operation is:

Most P & ID's only indicate the manual operation of important process valves. Other
manual valves e.g. drain valves, bypass valves, instrument block valves etc. do not
have the manual symbol.

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INSTRUMENTATION
1.5 INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS

The instruments fitted into a control loop on a P & ID are shown by a circle. Letters
and numbers are written inside the circle to show the function of the instrument and
its identification (tag) number. The first letter indicates the process variable being
measured and the following letters indicate what it does (function). Normally the
maximum number of letters is 4.
All instruments in the same loop i.e. transmitter, controller and control valve, have
the same tag number.
The letters used on a P & ID diagram to show the operation of an instrument are not
always the same in every diagram.
Table 1 shows a list of common letters and their meanings. Lines are drawn in the
circle to show the instrument's position in the plant as follows :

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TABLE 1
COMMON INSTRUMENT IDENTIFICATION LETTERS

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INSTRUMENTATION
1.5.1 Instrument Symbol Examples

All these instruments are on control loop 101 -
2. Alarms are drawn with the level high or low either inside the circle or outside. The
example shows a temperature alarm high.
Shut down alarms are indicated using two letters for high or low, e.g.

TRAINING MANUAL
Some alarms indicate both high and low eg.
3. Motor operated valves have their position shown by a position switch. The
control room indicator shows open or closed. This is drawn as follows :
Z for Position
S for Switch
I for Indicator
O for Open
C for Closed

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1.6 COMPUTER SYMBOLS

Modern control systems are controlled by computers (microprocessors). The

recorders, indicators, alarms etc. are displays on a video screen. The controller
function is part of the microprocessor. To indicate this on a P & ID, it is usual to put
the circles in a square box. e.g.
Some computer operations are done separately from the computer control system.
This is shown by using the circle symbol with the computer function written outside,
for example:

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INSTRUMENTATION
The following computer symbols are reasonably standard.


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INSTRUMENTATION
1.7 PIPELINE DESIGNATION

Piping on a P & ID is indicated by :
1 ) Usage: For example, process, drain, nitrogen, blowdown, etc.
2) Line Number: The identification number of the line on the plant.
3) Size: Usually in inches.
4) Piping Class: The piping specification, both material and pressure rating.
The specification is usually given using American standards e.g. American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). or American Petroleum Institute (API).
Each installation uses slightly different methods to do this but the end result is the
same. A typical example is given below.

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Unit No. 2 - Reading P &ID’s


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INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
2.1 INTRODUCTION 4
2.2 WHAT'S ON A P & ID 4
2.3 EXAMPLE 1 5
2.3.1 Process Description 5
2.3.2 Instrumentation 6
2.3.3 Safety System 8
2.3.4 Operator's Aids 8
2.4 EXAMPLE 2 11
2.4.1 Process Description 11
2.4.2 Instrumentation 11
2.4.3 Safety Instrumentation 12
2.4.4 Operator's Aids 13


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

• Understand P & ID for an operating company which he has not seen before.
• Get a 70% pass in a test on the understanding of a sight unseen operating

company P & ID.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Reading a P & ID is difficult and requires practice. Companies use different

methods for making their diagrams.
This course is an introduction to reading a P & ID. You will have to learn the P & lDs
for any particular plant on the job.
The P & lDs on the job site have a 'legend'. The legend is a table which tells you
exactly what all the symbols mean. You must study this table before you try to read
the P & ID.
2.2 WHAT'S ON A P & ID
The following gives a general outline of what you will see on a P & 1 D.
1. A layout of the process equipment, e.g. vessels, pumps, heat exchangers

etc. A description of the pressure, flow rate, size etc. of the main parts.
2. All the pipelines fitted to the process equipment. Each line has a code on it
to show its specification, size etc.
3. All the instrumentation fitted to the vessels, e.g. transmitters, controllers,

control valves, relief valves etc.
4. Signal lines to and from the instrumentation.
5. All control loops should be complete. The diagram should show where the
instrument is, e.g. control room or field.
6. A P & ID is only a drawing of the process. The actual position of the

instrumentation may not be correct. Sometimes there is a note on the
drawing to tell you where the instrument is actually placed.
The example P & ID only shows one part of the plant. There are many P & ID's to
show all of a plant. Each P & ID tells you what other drawing you must look at to
learn about the next part of the process

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
2.3 EXAMPLE 1
Figure 2-1 shows a typical P & ID from a plant. The legend for this P & ID is also
given (page 10). Remember this legend only applies to this P & ID. Other P & ID's
use different symbols.
With reference to the P & ID.
1. The code number for the drawing is 062-Dl 12. It shows the piping and
instrumentation for vessel 5C-1 64 and pump 5G-1 55.
2. Vessel 5C-164 is a Propane/ADIP settler. It's size is 3 500 mm in diameter

(0) and 10 500 mm T/T in length.
3. Pump 5G-155 is a lean ADIP recycle pump. It has a capacity of 122 m3 /h.
Note : T/T means tangent to tangent
2.3.1 Process Description
The vessel is used to separate propane from ADIP (AmineDiIsoPropanol). The

Propane/ADIP mixture is used to remove sulphur compounds from gases produced
in the oil field.
The input to the vessel is from vessel 5C-1630 (Propane/ADIP mixer) on pipe line
P-55211 -10"-EA 2DX, shown on P & ID drawing 05-AD-1054
The outlets are:
Propane from the top of the tank to 5C-180 on drawing 05-AD-1054.
ADIP drained from the bottom of the tank to 5C-156 on drawing 062-D110.
The main process flow is shown by the thick black lines. All other lines are
secondary to the process.

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INSTRUMENTATION
2.3.2 Instrumentation
• LOOP 803
Loop 803 is the only control loop on the diagram (area A). It is a pneumatic
control loop. It keeps the interface level between the propane and the ADIP
constant (the interface level is the level at which the propane and the ADIP
meet).
The loop consists of:
Level transmitter (LT 803). This is of the differential pressure type with a
pneumatic signal output.
Level switch low (LSL 803). This is mounted behind the control panel.
Level alarm low (LAL 803). This is an indicating light mounted on the front of
the control panel.
Level switch high (LSH 803) behind the control panel.
Level alarm high (LAH 803) indicating light on the control panel.
Level recorder (LR 803) on the control panel. The recorder is a three pen
unit which combines LR 803 and FIR 789 (2 readings).
The level indicator controller (LIC 803) is of the pneumatic type. It is

mounted on the control panel.
The control valve is a globe valve with a pneumatic diaphragm (LV 803).
• LOOP 804
Loop 804 is a shut down loop for both the pump and the control valve (LV
803). It operates when the interface level reaches the low low point. The
level is measured using a displacer type pneumatic transmitter (LT 804).
The level controller low low is an on/off controller (LCLL 804 and LCLL
804A). LCLL 804 switches off the pump and closes LV 803 when the
interface level falls below 500 mm. LCLL 804A switches the system on
(reset) when the interface level rises to 650 mm.

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INSTRUMENTATION
A time delay is fitted in the pump motor control line to allow the valve to
move before the pump starts or stops (note 1).
The pneumatic signals operate pressure switches. The switches send

electrical control signals to the pump motor and LCV 803 solenoid operated
valve (SOV 803).
When the low low level is reached SOV 803 de-energises. This breaks the
air signal to the actuator diaphragm and the valve closes. ESD HS-042/1
(Drawing 05-AD-1063) is also connected into the circuit. If the ESD is
pressed, the pump stops and LV 803 closes. (The valve is fail closed (FC)).
• LOOP 1812
This loop indicates to the operator in the control room the differential
pressure across HV 1816. HV 1816 is a gate valve on the propane outlet
line.
The loop consists of :
Electrical pressure differential transmitter (PDT 1812) with a locally mounted

indicator (PDI 1812/2).
Pressure differential indicator in the control room (PDI 1812/1). This is

combined with temperature indicator (TI 666) into one unit.
Pressure differential switch high (PDSH 1812) behind the control panel.
Pressure differential alarm high (PDAH 1812) on the control panel.


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2.3.3 Safety System

The inlet to the vessel (5C-164) and the propane outlet from the vessel are
controlled by pneumatically operated ball valves, set by hand.
HV 1841 inlet.
HV 1842 outlet.
Both these valves fail closed (FC) with tight shut off (TSO) if the ESD system is
operated. The ESD operates on SOV which breaks the air supply to the valve for
shutdown. ESD reset is done by hand in the field (HS 1841 and HS 1842).
The pressure safety valve (PSV 948) prevents the pressure in the vessel reaching a
dangerous level. It vents the vessel to the HP (high pressure) flare header (line VF-
71556-10"-EA28) and to the flare, where it is burnt. The PSV is set to operate at 20
barg.
2.3.4 Operator's Aids
A sight glass is fitted to the vessel (LG 947).
A pressure gauge (PG 949) is fitted to the discharge of the Lean ADIP Recycling
Pump.
An orifice plate and pneumatic flow transmitter are fitted in the ADIP outlet line. The
flow transmitter's signals are used to record the ADIP flow rate in the control room.

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INSTRUMENTATION
2.4 EXAMPLE 2
Figure 2-2 shows a simplified P & ]D from a more modern plant. In this plant the
control is done using a distributed control system with microprocessors. The
drawing uses the same symbols as introduced in Unit 1. You should look at this unit
if you don't remember the general symbols.
2.4.1 Process Description
The Sweet Gas K.O. (knock out) Drum is used to separate gas/condensate/water.
The input fluid stream comes from vessel 32V-101. The vessel is fitted with a mist
extractor pad and a vortex breaker. It produces three outputs.
1. Treated gas comes out of the top of the vessel. It goes to dehydration (water
removal) vessel 42E-309
This is shown on drawing 42.00.30.022
2. Water comes out of the bottom of the vessel. It goes to vessel 32V-184.
3. Condensate (hydrocarbons) comes of the middle of the vessel. It goes to

vessel H.P. separator 32V-22
2.4.2 Instrumentation
The basic control of the vessel is done using two level indicating controllers; LIC
2819 and LIC 2823.
• LOOP 2823
This is the main level control loop for the vessel. It maintains the gas/liquid
level in the drum. The level transmitter (LT 2823) is of the D/P type (4-20mA)
and provides an electrical signal to LIC 2823. This is a computer function in
the control microprocessor. The high alarm (LAH set at 4450 mm) and low
alarm (LAL set at 588 mm) are indicated on the VDU display in the control
room. The control microprocessor provides an electrical signal (4-20mA) to

set the position of the control valve (LV 2823). The control valve is
pneumatically operated. The conversion from an electrical to a pneumatic
signal is done using an I/P converter LY 2823. LIC 2823 sends an internal
data signal to a level compute unit inside the microprocessor. This unit
closes the interface loop 2819 if the liquid level in the tank falls below 1800
mm. If this operates, a low alarm (LAL 2823) is indicated on the control room
VDU.

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INSTRUMENTATION
• LOOP 2819
This loop controls the interface level between the hydrocarbons and the
water. The system uses on/off control. If the level fails below 589 mm LIC
2819 closes the valve. LIC 2819 reopens the valve when the level rises
above 988 mm. There is a connection inside the microprocessor which
closes the valve if the liquid level falls below 1 800 mm. A switch (LZSC
2819) on LV 2819 is used to indicate the position of the valve. It indicates
closed on the control room VDU (LZAC 2819).
• FLOW MEASUREMENT
The collection of instruments in area A shows the modern computer measurement

of flow rate and total flow. It consists of
a) Temperature Transmitter TT 5886
b) Pressure Transmitter PT 3996
c) Two Flow Transmitters FT 1988A and FT 1988B
The signals from these transmitters are connected to the microprocessor. The
microprocessor internally works out the gas flow rate and total flow in standard units
(Nm3 hr and N m3). Temperature (TI 5886), pressure (PI 3996) flow (FI 1998) and
total flow (FQI 1998) are all indicated on the control room VDU.
Note : Two flow transmitters are used to make the system more reliable. If one FT
fails the other still provides a signal. The microprocessor will indicate
transmitter failure.
2.4.3 Safety Instrumentation
The ESD system is applied via a computer <L2> which ensures XV 9829 and XV
9887 close when the ESD is operated. <L2> provides a signal to solenoid operated
three way valves. If the ESD is operated the signal to the solenoid valves is
removed. The three way valve vents the air supply to the piston actuator and the
valve closes. A mechanical type pressure safety valve is fitted (PSV 8005). This
releases the gas to the flare if the pressure in the vessel exceeds 75 bar g.

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INSTRUMENTATION
2.4.4 Operator's Aids
A sight glass (LG 2828) indicates the hydrocarbon/water interface. Level sight glass
(LG 2822) indicates the liquid level in the vessel. This is made from three separate
sight glasses to cover the distance required. A typical layout is given in Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3 Combination Sight glass
Note : The flow through the vessel is controlled from the previous vessel on
diagram 32.00.30.001. The control valve (FV 1821) has pneumatic
diaphragm type actuator. It is operated by an I/P converter (FY 1821). The
valve is designed to fail locked (intermediate). This means , that the loss of
the control signal will not stop operations immediately.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
3.1 INTRODUCTION 5
3.3 PRACTICAL TASK 1 7
3.4 PRACTICAL TASK 2 15


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The student will complete the following practical tasks on reading a P & I D.

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TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The following two practical tasks have been given for you to practice reading a P &
ID.

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INSTRUMENTATION
3.2 PRACTICAL TASK 1

With reference to drawing 062-D110 (page 4), complete the following tasks.
1) Using a coloured pencil, outline the main process flow lines.
2) The size of the input feed drum
3) The size of the ADIP absorber
The purpose of the ADIP absorber is to remove the sulphur compound hydrogen
sulphide from the untreated DEO (De-Ethaniser Overheads), mostly methane gas.
The gas moves up the absorber, as the lean (clean) ADIP moves down. The clean
ADIP removes the sulphur compounds from the gas and leaves the bottom as rich
(dirty) ADIP.
4) The treated gas goes to
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5) The dirty ADIP goes to
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6) Name each instrument in flow loop 785

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7) When would you expect FV 785 to open.
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8) Name each instrument in loop 1844.
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9) What does loop 1844 do?
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10) What are PSV 925A and PSV 925B?
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11) What does the interlock between PSV 925A and PSV 925B do.
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12) How many interconnected sight glasses are there for LG 923?
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13) Name each instrument in loop 781 and say where they are mounted.
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14) What does LCLL 782 do?
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15) What is PDT 783 for?
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16) What does the symbol below mean?
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17) What does the symbol below mean in a vessel?

18) What does the symbol below mean in a vessel?
19) What are the following?
P - 55200 - 10" - EA2D
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20) Where do the semi - lean and lean ADIP's come from?
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3.3 PRACTICAL TASK 2
INTRODUCTION
The previous task used a P & ID produced by Kellogg. This task uses a P & ID
produced by Bechtel-Technip. This is done so that you can see that although
construction companies follow the same basic rules for P & ID, each P & ID is a little
different.
BASIC PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The P & ID 24-00-30016 (see page 13) shows the 2nd stage of a two stage
centrifugal gas compressor. At this stage, the process is controlled by an anti-surge
controller. Using a microprocessor, the anti-surge controller controls flow through
and the pressure increase across the stage.
The product of flow and pressure increases (AP) must stay constant. If it does not
stay constant then surge occurs. (Surge means the rotor of the compressor moves
backwards and forwards). Surge can badly damage the compressor.
The output of the anti-surge controller adjusts the position of the recycle valve. This
valve allows the compressed gas to flow back to the input of the stage. (This gas
returns to the input via a cooler and suction scrubber (KO. drum)). This recycled
gas increases the flow through the stage and reduces the differential pressure
across it. This stops the surge.
1) What does UIC mean for the anti-surge controller?
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2) Write down the inputs to UIC 1632
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3) The number of the re-cycle valve is:

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4) Describe loop 1638.
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5) What is TG 6611 and where is it?
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6) Where is TI 5641 ? When will the alarm light?
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7) What happens if TAHH 5842 lights?
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8) If PAL 3842 is light, what can you do?
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9) What is PDG 4838 for?
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10) What pressure are the mechanical pressure safely valves set at?
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11) Where does the gas go if the ESD opens the compressor depressuring line?
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12) What do the letters "HVSO" and "HZLO" mean?

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13) How are the two anti surge controllers inter-connected?
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14) Explain Note 1:
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15) Where does the discharged gas go?
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16) What is the average increase in pressure across this stage?
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17) What is the size of the suction line?
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18) What is the size of the discharge line?
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19) Why is the discharge line smaller?
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20) What is meant by Nm3 /h?

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INSTRUMENTATION
MODULE No. 9
CONTROL SYSTEM 1
July 1999- Rev.0

July 1999- Rev.0
TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT 1 COURSE INTRODUCTION

Module No. 9 : Control systems 1

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 BASIC THEORY 4
1.2.2 On/Off control 4
1.2.3 Manual Control 7
1.2.4 Automatic Flow Control 8
1.2.5 Temperature Control 9
1.2.6 Pressure Control 12
1.2.7 Centrifugal Pump Control 14


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

• Use the Autodynamics simulator keyboard to adjust values on the video

display.
• Perform the following tasks on the simulator to demonstrate the use of the
following.
On/Off control
Hand control
Flow control
Temperature control
Pressure control
Pump control
Centrifugal pump

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to introduce the student to instrument control systems using
the Autodynamics simulator.
1.2 BASIC THEORY
1.2.1 Introduction
The following theory is a back-up to the practical exercises carried out on the
Autodynamics simulator.
1.2.2 On/Off control
On/Off control is the simplest form of control. The controller works between two
levels. It switches 'ON' at one level and it switches 'OFF' at the other. A simple
diagram of the system is shown in Figure 1-1.
Figure 1-1 Simple On/Off Control
On/Off control is shown on the simulator by a block valve. An example of the block
valve is the gate valve. It is either open (on) or closed (off).

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 1-2a shows the graphic display seen on the video display unit (VDU).This, is
the operator's Process Flow Diagram (PFD). The P & ID to match the PFD is also
given.
Figure 1-2b P & ID
Figure 1-2 ON/OFF Process Control
The instrumentation provided for ON/OFF flow control is:
1. Inlet (upstream) pressure by loop 111. Indication on the workstation VDU.
2. Flow rate by loop 101. Indication on the workstation VDU.
3. Outlet (downstream) pressure by loop 113. Indication on the workstation

VDU.
4. Pressure loop 112 is added to show pressure loss across the block valve.
The pressure loss is the indication on loop 111 minus the indication on loop
112.
5. The position of block valve (HV-131) is indicated as open or closed on the

workstation VDU.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
CORRECT LOOP OPERATION

OFF(closed): FIR reads zero.

ZI 131 indicates closed.
PT 112 and PT 113 read 129 kg /cm2
ON (Open): FR 101 reads 125 TPH

PI 111 reads 146.4 4 kg/ cm2
ZI 131 indicates open
PI 112 reads 144.4 kg / cm2
PT 113 reads 129 kg / cm2
The correct 'OPEN' 2 position shows the downstream (outlet) pressure fixed at 129
kg/cm . At this pressure, the flow rate for a differential pressure of 146.4-129 (17.4
kg cm2) is 125 TPH.
The correct pressure loss across the valve is 2 kg / cm2 (146.4-144.4). If the
pressure loss across the valve is higher than this it means there is a fault. The valve
is not fully open or it's in bad condition. It needs maintenance work.

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1.2.3 Manual Control
Figure 1-3a shows the process flow diagram seen on the VDU for manual control.
The matching P & ID is shown in Figure 1-3b. The operator can use the keyboard to
open and close the control valve manually. In this way the operator can set the
required flow rate.
Figure 1-3 Manual Control
The instrumentation provided for the manual flow control is :
1. Inlet (upstream) pressure by loop 211. Indication on the workstation VDU set at
2
146.4 kg/ cm .
2. Flow rate by loop 201. Indication on the workstation VDU.
3. Piston operated control valve FCV 231. The position of FCV 231 is set in the
control room by HC 231.
4. Loop 212 indicates the outlet pressure from the control valve.
5. Loop 213 indicates the downstream pressure (set at 129 kg/ cm2).
CORRECT LOOP OPERATION_
The upstream pressure is fixed at 146.4 kg/ cm2. The downstream pressure is fixed
at 129 kg/ cm2. The operator controls the flow by adjusting HC 231. The throttling
effect of the control valve is shown by the difference in pressure between loops 211
and 212 on either side of the control valve. Remember that when the control valve
is closed PI 212 will show the downstream pressure at 129.0 kg / cm2.

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1.2.4 Automatic Flow Control
INTRODUCTION
The flow of liquid is automatically controlled using a Flow Indicating Recorder

Controller (FIRC). The control actions (PID) are set to give good control. High and
low alarms are set at 150 TPH and 50 TPH. Figure 1-4 gives the PFD and the P &
ID for the system.
Figure 1-4b P & ID
Figure 1-4 Automatic Control using an FIRC
The FIRC will control at a designed flow rate of 129 TPH. The upstream and
downstream pressures are fixed at 146.4 kg/ cm2 and 129.0 kg/ cm2 . The control
valve is 60% open.

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INSTRUMENTATION
1.2.5 Temperature Control
The simulator is designed to show temperature control using an industrial shell/tube

heat exchanger. You will see many of these in use throughout operating
companies.
THE SHELL/TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
Figure 1-5 Shell/Tube Heat Exchanger
Figure 1-5 shows an example of a shell/tube heat exchanger. The cooling fluid
flows round inside the tubes and the process fluid flows outside the tubes inside the
shell.
The cooling fluid takes heat from the process fluid as it passes through the tube.
So, the process fluid is cooled. The amount of cooling depends on four factors:
1. The rate of flow of the cooling fluid.
2. The rate of flow of the process fluid.
3. The initial temperature of the cooling fluid.
4. The initial temperature of the process fluid.

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SIMULATOR PFD AND P&ID

70.6
Figure 1-6b Heat Exchanger P & ID

Figure 1-6a Heat Exchanger PFD
Figure 1-6 Temperature Control (Shell-Tube Exchanger)

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
CONTROL PRINCIPLES
The operating conditions for the heat exchanger are as follows :

Coolant flow rate 104.2 TPH with an inlet temperature of 25°'C and an outlet
temperature of 70.6°C.
Process fluid flow rate 150 TPH with an inlet temperature of 180°C and an outlet
temperature of 116.7°C (temperature reduction of 63.3°C)
The controlled variable is temperature of the process fluid at the outlet. This is
maintained by a TIRC (Temperature Indicator Recorder Controller). The TIRC
operates the 3-way valve (TCV-624). This allows some of the hot process fluid to
bypass the system.
The mixture of cooled process fluid and bypass hot process fluid keeps the output
process fluid at a constant 116.7°C.
Two operator alarms are added.
Low coolant flow rate. The alarm operates if the coolant flow falls below 10 TPH
There is a high/low temperature alarm at the process fluid outlet. The high alarm
operates at 150°C, and the low alarm at 90°C.

TRAINING MANUAL
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1.2.6 Pressure Control
INTRODUCTION
The simulation of pressure control is done using an expansion vessel. The principle
of operation is 'BOYLE's LAW' (at a constant temperature Pressure x Volume =
Constant). This means that when the volume increases the pressure must fall.
Figure 1-7 shows the PFD and P & ID for simulator pressure control.
Figure 1-7a Pressure Control PFD

Figure 1-7 Pressure Control

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
CONTROL DESIGN
For correct operation the inlet pressure of the process gas falls as it expands in the
vessel from 15.5 kg / cm2 to an outlet pressure of 4 kg / cm2 . The flow rate is fixed
at 10.2 TPH. The system is controlled by PIRC-712. This positions the outlet
pressure control valve in order to maintain the set-point pressure in the vessel.
OPERATOR ALARMS
These are set as follows :
Inlet flow
High alarm above 13.2 TPH
Low alarm below 2 TPH
Outlet pressure
High alarm above 14 kg,/ cm2
Pressure safety valve (PSV-710) is set at 15 k g/ cm2


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1.2.7 Centrifugal Pump Control
INTRODUCTION
The centrifugal pump is a common oil field device used to move liquids. It can send
oil from an offshore platform, via a pipeline, to a refinery. It can also pump oil onto a
tanker etc.
• Principle of operation
Figure 1-8 The Simple Centrifugal Pump

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INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 1-8 shows a simple centrifugal pump.
Operation
1. Liquid enters through the hole at the centre (the eye).
2. The impeller rotates very fast.
3. The vanes on the impeller drive the liquid outwards (centrifugal force). The
velocity of the liquid increases.
4. Drops of liquid fly off the ends of the vanes and hit the pump casing.
5. When the drops of liquid hit the pipe casing their kinetic energy is changed
to pressure energy. The higher pressure of the drops forces the liquid out of
the outlet at a higher pressure.
6. The size of the pump depends on the mass flow rate and the gain in head
pressure of the liquid as it passes through the pump.
7. Figure 1-9 shows a multi-stage impeller. Most large pumps use a multi-stage
impeller where the output of one impeller is the input to the eye of the next.
Figure 1-9 Multi-stage Impeller

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INSTRUMENTATION
SIMULATOR PFD AND P & ID
Figure 1-10 shows the simulator PFD of the centrifugal pump action as seen by the
operator on the workstation screen. It also shows the P & ID.
Figure 1-10a Centrifugal Pump PFD

Figure 1-10 Centrifugal Pump Control

TRAINING MANUAL
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CONTROL OPERATION
1. Under normal operation, the level in the vessel (V-500) is constant. it

provides a suction pressure of 4.5 kg / cm2.
2. The normal flow rate is 125 TPH set by FIRC-502. The outlet (discharge)
pressure is 18 kg / cm2.
3. HCV-544 allows the liquid to return to the vessel (recycle line) so that the
pump can be kept running even if FIRC-502 closes the outlet valve.
4. The minimum flow line reduces pump vibration which may occur when the
flow rate is very low.
PROCESS ALARMS
1. Suction alarm low (PAL 511) which operates at below 0.8 kg/cm2
2. Discharge -pressure alarm low (PAL-512) which operates at below

1.0 Kg/cm2
3. Electric motor overcurrent alarm (IAH-551) which operates when the current
is above 325 A.
4. Discharge flow alarm low (FAL-501) which operates when the flow fails
below 50 TPH.

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 2 - Practical Tasks INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 1 COURSE INTRODUCTION


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 2 - Practical Tasks
Para Page
PRACTICAL TASK 1 3
PRACTICAL TASK 2 5
PRACTICAL TASK 3 13
PRACTICAL TASK 4 16
PRACTICAL TASK 5 18
PRACTICAL TASK 6 19
NOTES FOR INSTRUCTOR 20


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL TASK 1
ON/OFF CONTROL
1) Make sure the Autodynamics simulator is operating as designed with the

valve open.
The screen VDU shows :
PI-111 reads 146.4 kg/cm2

FR-101 reads 125 TPH
ZI-131 reads Valve open
PI-112 reads 144.4 kg/ cm2
PI-113 reads 129 kg/ cm2
2) Close the valve manually using the keyboard.
3) Fill in the blanks.
ZI-131 reads ..............................

PI-111 reads ..............................
PI-112 reads ..............................
PI-113 reads ..............................
FR-101 reads ..............................
4) Open the valve. Does the VDU return to the normal operating position with
the valve open.
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5) Look at the screen. Describe what is happening.

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PRACTICAL TASK 2
MANUAL CONTROL
PART 1
1) Make sure the autodynamics simulator is operating as designed with HCV-

231 60% open.
The VDU screen shows :

FR-201 reads 96 TPH
HCV-231 reads 60%

PI-213 reads 129 kg/ cm2
2) Close the valve. The VDU screen shows :
PI-211 reads ..............................
FR-201 reads ..............................
HCV-231 reads ..............................
PI-212 reads ..............................
PI-213 reads ..............................


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
3) Open the valve in 10% steps to fully open (100%). Fill in the table for each
step.
%
Open Flow Rate PI 212 PI 211-PI 212
10 0 129 17.4
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
4) Plot a graph of flow rate against value % open.
5) Plot a graph of pressure drop across the valve (PI 211 -PI 212) against valve
% open.
6) Does the flow rate increase linearly with valve % open.
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7) Does the pressure drop across the valve decrease linearly as the valve
opens.
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8) Do your results show that a control valve when fully open causes a much
larger pressure loss than the block valve used during practical task 1.
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VALUE % OPEN

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
VALUE % OPEN

Module No. 9 : Control systems 1 Unit No. 2 - Practical Tasks
July 1999- Rev.0

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Page 10/20
July 1999- Rev.0

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Page 11/20
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PART 2
1) Return the manual control to its design position.
HCV-231 is 60% open.
2) Look at the screen. The upstream pressure has risen to 155 kg / cm2
. Adjust the HCV-231 so that the MV returns to a SP of 96 TPH.
The new setting of the valve is ……………………….% open.


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL TASK 3
AUTOMATIC FLOW CONTROL
1) Make sure the Autodynamics simulator is operating as designed.
The screen VDU shows :
PI-311 reads 146.4 kg/ cm2 g
FIRC-301 reads 129.0 TPH
PR-312 reads 133.5 kg/cm2 g
PI-313 reads 129 kg/cm2 g
2) Put the flow controller into manual and open the valve.
The high alarm is set at ………………………..TPH.
With the flow controller still in manual close the valve.
The low alarm is set at ………………………….TPH.
3) Return the simulator to its designed operating condition in automatic.
4) Change the set point of FIRC-301 to 120 TPH (step change).
Time the fall in the measured value every 10 seconds until the new set point
is reached.
5) Complete the enclosed graph from the results you have obtained.
6) Could the response time be improved? Ask the instructor if he can change
the PID settings for a quicker response.

July 1999- Rev.0

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Page 14/20
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INSTRUMENTATION
VALUE % OPEN

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PRACTICAL TASK 4
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
1) Make sure the Autodynamics simulator is operating as designed. The VDU

screen shows:
TI-623 reads 180.0 °C
FR-602 reads 150.0 TPH
FI-601 reads 104.2 TPH
TI-621 reads 25.0°C
TR-622 reads 70.6 °C
FI-603 reads 53.7 TPH
TR-625 reads 81.4°C
TIRC-624 reads 116.7°C
2) The following questions are to be answered by observation of the screen.

The instructor will be simulating process changes to illustrate temperature
control
a) Why is the bypass flow rate rising?
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b) Why is the bypass flow rate falling?
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c) What has happened? What could you do to correct the problem?

. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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PRACTICAL TASK 5
PRESSURE CONTROL

screen shows:
PI-711 reads 15.5 kg/ cm2 g

HCV-731 is 40% open
HV-731 is Open
PIRC-712 indicates 10 kg/cm2 g
2) Close HCV-731 slowly until the FAL-701 comes on.
The FAL-701 setting is ………………………….TPH.
Open HCV-731 slowly until the FAH-701 comes on.
The FAH-701 setting is ………………………..TPH.
Does the PIRC-712 maintain control over the range from FAH to FAL.
3) Return the simulator to its designed condition.
4) Close HV-732. Describe what happens.
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5) What is the setting of PSV-710 ?
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PRACTICAL TASK 6
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CONTROL

screen shows :
HCV --544 is closed
FIRC-502 reads 125 TPH
PR-511 reads 4.5 kg/cm2 g
HV-541 is open
HS-542 is on
II-551 reads 290 A
PR-512 reads 19 kg/cm2 g
HV-543 is open
2) Reduce the set point on FIRC until the FAL-501 comes on.
What is the minimum flow setting for Loop-501 ..................
If the FIRC-502 set point must be kept at this low flow level. How can we
keep the pump running correctly?
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3) Return the simulator to its designed position. Open the recycle line valve
HCV-544. Describe what happens.
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INSTRUMENTATION
NOTES FOR INSTRUCTOR

1 ON/OFF CONTROL
This task is given as an introduction to the Autodynamics simulator. Make

sure that all students can operate the keyboard to change displays and
manipulate the opening and closing of the valve.
For student operation 5, the instructor will set the control desk so that
PI-1 11 increases to 155 kg/cm2 with a ramp input set at 3.
2) MANUAL CONTROL
Make sure that all students can remember how to operate the keyboard to
change displays and manipulate the opening and closing of the valve.
For student operations in part 2 set the control desk so that PI 211 increases
to 155 kg/cm2. Step increase is best.
3) FLOW CONTROL
Make sure that all students can remember how to operate the keyboard,
To obtain a reasonable response time for the student operation 4, set the
simulator to 0.5 real time.
4) TEMPERATURE CONTROL
Make sure that all students can remember how to operate the keyboard,
This is a task to find if the student understands basic control concepts.
For student operation 2(a), decrease the process flow rate.
For student operation 2(b), lower the inlet coolant temperature.
For student operation 2(c), increase the coolant inlet temperature to 35°C and this
process flow rate to 170 TPH.
5) PRESSURE AND PUMP CONTROL
Make sure that all students can remember how to operate the keyboard, change
displays and manipulate the opening and closing of the valve.
These tasks are given so that the students can try basic manipulations of the
process using the simulator keyboard. It is hoped they will understand
• The operation of the PSV at the high high level. Pressure control.
• The operation of the recycle valve to maintain low output flow rates. Pump
control.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
MODULE No. 10
PROCESS CONTROL FUNDAMENTAL
July 1999- Rev.0

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 1 - Basic control theory INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 1 BASIC CONTROL THEORY
UNIT 2 TUNING A CONTROLLER
UNIT 3 INTRODUCTION TO DCS AND PLC
UNIT 4 HONEYWELL TDC 3000 DCS
UNIT 5 FOXBORO IA DCS

Module No. 10 : Process control fundamental

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 1 - Basic control theory
Para Page
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 PROPORTIONAL CONTROL ACTION 4
1.3 INTEGRAL (RESET) CONTROL ACTION 6
1.4 DERIVATIVE (RATE) CONTROL ACTION 7
1.4.1 Old Type Controller 8
1.4.2 Modern DCS Controller 8
1.5 RATIO CONTROL 10
1.6 CASCADE CONTROL 11
1.7 FEED FORWARD CONTROL 12
1.8 MULTI-VARIABLE CONTROL 13
1.9 ADAPTIVE CONTROL 14


TRAINING MANUAL
• Describe the use of proportional control.
• Describe the use of integral control.
• Describe the use of derivative control.
• Describe the use of combination (P plus I plus D) control
• Describe the use of cascade control.
• Describe the use of ratio control.
• Describe the use of feedforward control.
• Describe the use of adaptive control.
• Describe the use of multi-variable control.


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to describe the use of proportional, integral and derivative
control. The course also introduces the newer methods of control; cascade, ratio,
feedforward, adaptive and multi-variable.
1.2 PROPORTIONAL CONTROL ACTION
The basic continuous control mode is "proportional control". With proportional

control the controller output is algebraically proportional to the error input signal to
the controller. The simple block diagram model of the controller shows this.
In this case the controller output is the gain of the controller (K) times the error
signal (E), or
O/P = KE
This equation is called the control algorithm. The value of K can be set manually on
older pneumatic equipment. On modern DCS systems it is set using a computer
programme.
The mechanism which adjusts the gain on many industrial controllers is expressed
in terms of proportional band (PB). Proportional band is defined as the span of

values of the input which corresponds to a full or complete change in the output.
This is usually expressed as a percentage and is related to proportional gain by:
In practice, wide bands (high percentages of PB) have low gain and narrow bands
have high gain. There are many ways to show the effects of varying proportional
band. One example is shown in Figure 1-1.

TRAINING MANUAL
Figure 1-1 Effect Of Proportional Control On Controller Output
Proportional control is quite simple. It is the easiest of the continuous control modes
to tune, as there is only one value to adjust. It is very stable and responds quickly to
changes.
However, proportional control has one big disadvantage. At steady state, it shows
"offset". This means there is a difference at steady state between the set point, (SP)
and the actual value of the Measured Variable (MV).

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
1.3 INTEGRAL (RESET) CONTROL ACTION

Reset (integral) action provides a signal which depends on the size of the error
signal. It is different from proportional control because it Will continue to cancel any
error until the offset is zero.
Reset (integral) control action is combined with proportional control action. This
combination is called proportional-reset or proportional integral action (PI control).
This combination provides a control action which is stable and responds quickly with
no offset.
Figure 1-2 Proportional plus Reset Control Action
Figure 1-2 shows the action of P & I control. The rate at which integral action is
applied depends on the reset time adjustment. This is measured in either repeats
per minute or minutes per repeat, depending on the manufacturer. The simple
diagram below is used to show what this means.
In the diagram above the reset action repeats the proportional action twice in one
minute. The reset time is thus either
2 repeats per minute

or 0.5 minutes per repeat.

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1.4 DERIVATIVE (RATE) CONTROL ACTION

Derivative (rate) control action produces an output signal which is proportional to

how fast the error signal changes (its rate). This type of control is only used when
the loop response is very slow. Using derivative control on a loop which responds to
changes quickly is dangerous. The output moves too quickly to a maximum or a
minimum and can produce shock waves in the process being controlled.
Derivative control action is only used with proportional and integral action. Together,
the three control modes provide what is called a Proportional Integral Derivative
control action, (PID control).
Figure 1-3 shows the effect of PID control for a step change in the error signal.
Figure 1-3 The Output of a PID Controller
The output signal is a combination of the three control actions. Note that the rate
adjustment changes how long the derivative signal is applied. Some manufacturers
call derivative action "pre-act" as it only produces a signal at the start to quicken the
response time.
The older types of controller (e.g. Foxboro pneumatic type 43AP or SPEC 200
analog electrical/electronic) combine the PID Control into a single unit which
operates on the error signal. Modern microprocessor controllers, however use a lot
of PlD control but in different way. The block diagrams below show the difference.

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1.4.1 Old Type Controller

The block diagram shows a typical older type PID controller. If the set point is
changed the derivative action can cause large and unstable changes in output. So,
D is only used for very slow loops.
1.4.2 Modern DCS Controller
The block diagram shows a typical micro-processor based DCS controller. The
derivative action is only applied to changes in the measured value. Changes in the
set point are not affected by the derivative action. This method provides a better
response to process changes and more accurate control. Note that the PID settings
are changed using a computer programme. This programme must have an

"algorithm" of the controller characteristics.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
The table below gives a summary of the different types of control action available.
ON/OFF CONTROL.
Inexpensive
Extremely simple
Excellent for control of large capacity (volume) systems.
Process variable cycles about set point.
Control valves are easily worn out.
Cannot be used for small capacity systems.
PROPORTIONAL.
Simple
Good for small capacities.
Stable when set up (tuned) correctly.
Rapid response.
Offset at steady state.
Easy to tune.
PROPORTIONAL plus RESET (P & D.:

No offset
Better response time than reset alone
P & 1 can reduce the stability of the loop. The gain may need to be reduced when
reset is added.
PROPORTIONAL plus RESET plus RATE (PID).

Most complex
Most expensive
Rapid response
No offset
Difficult to tune
Best control if properly tuned.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
1.5 RATIO CONTROL

Ratio control is used when two fluids must be mixed together in a specific ratio. A
practical way to do this is to use a standard control system to control the flow on
one line. The same transmitter signal is used as a set point for a second controller
which controls the flow in a second line. The ratio of one flow rate to the other can
be changed by adjusting the gain for proportional band) of the secondary controller.
Figure 1-4 shows a typical ratio control system. The air to fuel ratio of the fluid going
to the combustion chamber is set at 2:1.
Figure 1-4 Ratio Control System


TRAINING MANUAL
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1.6 CASCADE CONTROL

Figure 1-5 is given as an example of cascade control. It shows a chemical mixing

vessel. When the two chemicals are mixed they produce heat. Cooling water is
passed around the outside of the vessel via spray rings. This keeps the temperature
of the reaction constant. The temperature is kept constant using cascade control as
follows. The principle of cascade control is to use two controllers. A "master"
controller and a "slave" controller. In the drawing the "master" controller compares
the temperature of the mixture (TT1) with the setpoint. The "master" controller
output signal is used as the set point for the "slave" controller. This compares the
"master" output signal with the temperature of the cooling water (TT2). The "slave"
output adjusts the cooling water flow valve to maintain the temperature of the
mixture at the desired value. The advantage of this type of control is that if there is a
change in the temperature of the mixture, the set point driven "slave" will begin
corrective action more quickly.
Cascade control is used mainly on slow reaction processes; in this example, large
capacity temperature control.
Figure 1-5 Cascade Control

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1.7 FEED FORWARD CONTROL

Feed forward control is unusual on the older types of control equipment. However, it
is becoming popular in µP systems, particularly in the control of large
gas-turbine/centrifugal compressor units. Feed forward control is best explained
using the following example.
Figure 1-6 Feed Forward Control
Figure 1-6 shows a liquid being heated by steam in a heat exchanger. The
controlled variable is the outlet temperature of the liquid (T2). T2 is maintained at a
constant temperature by controlling the flow of steam (F2). The flow control valve for
the steam is controlled by a standard controller (FC which gets its "set point" from
the feed forward controller.
The output signal of the feed forward controller depends on both the temperature
(T1) and flow rate (F1) of the liquid as it comes in. This means that any changes at
the inlet are detected "before" it affects the outlet temperatures. This means that the
response to changes is quicker and so there is closer control of the controlled
variable.
The operator adjusts the set point on the feed forward controller so that the
temperature on the output (T2) is the same as the temperature (T2) of the set point.

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1.8 MULTI-VARIABLE CONTROL

The modern µP controller uses multi-variable control. The controller has

mathematical algorithms set into the micro-processor. These provide an output
computed from many different inputs . A typical example is the anti-surge controller
of a gas compressor. Figure 1-7 below shows a typical UIC system.
Figure 1-7 Multi Variable Control
The output from the UIC to the recycle valve depends on the inputs from 6 different
transmitters. The controller normally uses a P plus I plus D control action. The
values of PID are set using a software programme.

TRAINING MANUAL
1.9 ADAPTIVE CONTROL
Adaptive control is a method whereby the gain of a system can be varied depending
on the position of the set point. The following shows a simple example of why this is
useful in control systems.
Figure 1-8 Level Control of a Separator
Figure 1-8 shows the level control of a separator. The level in the separator can be
set to control at position A or position B.
As the level changes the volume of liquid to be removed or added at position A is

much greater than what must be removed or added at position B. So, for good
response the gain at position A should be greater than the gain at position B. The
LIC is µP based. The gain of the controller is programmed by the engineer so that it
changes when the set point is changed.

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Unit No. 2 - Tuning a controller


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
2.1 INTRODUCTION 4
2.2 WHAT IS GOOD CONTROL 4
2.3 TUNING A LOOP 6


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• Describe good loop control using simple diagrams.
• Explain how the PID settings of a controller are set to obtain good control.
• Describe modern tuning methods.
• Explain how you can get the best results by co-operating with the panel
operator.

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INSTRUMENTATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to introduce the basics of controller tuning.
2.2 WHAT IS GOOD CONTROL

Figure 2-1 Good Control
Figure 2-1 shows a typical control loop The job of the loop is to keep the measured
variable (MV) at the set point. The loop is called a feedback control system. If flow is
the process variable, it works as follows.
If the flow rate increases the error detector sends a signal to the controller. This
signal indicates how much the measured value is more than the set point (MV-SP).
The controller then adjusts the correcting unit (CU) so that the MV decreases and
the flow rate goes down to the set point.

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If the flow rate decreases to below the set-point, then the error signal is (SP-MV). In
this case the controller adjusts the correcting unit (CU) so that the MV increases
and the flow rate goes up to the set point.
When you are tuning a loop you cannot wait for the variable to change. So, the set
point is changed and the MV moves to the new set point. The effect on the control
loop is the same.
The graph shows the tuning of the three mode controller (PID) to give good control
for a step set point change. The response time should be fast and the MV should
only go a little over the SP before it stabilises, (small overswing).
In some processes it is important to tune the system so that there is no overswing.

A slow and smooth response is needed. However, some processes need a fast
response and quite big overswings are no problem. The point is you must decide
what kind of control is good for each specific loop.

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2.3 TUNING A LOOP

If you must tune a loop it is best to tune it when its on automatic (closed loop). It is
possible to tune it on manual (open-loop) but this can be dangerous. The operator
may not allow any open loop tuning. For any feedback control system, if the loop is
closed (the controller is on automatic), you can increase the controller gain. As you
do this, the loop will start to swing more and more. As you continue to increase the
gain, you will see continuous cycling (oscillation) in the controlled variable. This is
the maximum gain at which the system may be operated before it becomes
unstable. The period (time) of these continuous oscillations is called the ultimate
period (see Figure 2-2).
Figure 2-2 Control Loop Response

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To determine the maximum gain and the ultimate period, take the following steps:
1. Tune out all the reset and derivative action from the controller, leaving only
the proportional action. This means you should set T1 equal to infinity and Td
equal to zero on the controller (or as close to these values as possible).
2. Maintain the controller on automatic i.e., leave the loop closed.
3. Set the gain of the proportional mode of the controller at any value. Then
make a disturbance on the process and see what happens. One easy way of
making a disturbance is to move the set point for a few seconds and then
return it to its original value.
4. If the response curve from step 3 does not damp out, as in curve A (see
Figure 2-2), it means the gain is too high (the proportional band setting is too
low). The gain should be decreased by increasing the proportional band
setting. Then you repeat step 3.
5. If the response curve from step 3 stops swinging, as in Curve C (see Figure
2-2), it means the gain is too low (the proportional band setting is too high).
The gain should be increased by decreasing the proportional band setting.
Then you repeat step 3.
6. If the response from step 3 cycles continuously, as in Curve B (see Figure

2-2), it means you have best possible gain (optimum proportional band
setting). The "ultimate period" of the response curve should be noted. This is
the maximum gain at which continuous oscillations are maintained. The
ultimate period is written as PU

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The values obtained from step 6 are then used to set the PID of the controller. The
standard method for setting the values of PID is the Ziegler and Nichols method as
follows:
Proportional only
Set the gain to half the maximum gain (or twice the PB setting)
Proportional plus reset.
Set the gain to 0.45 of the maximum gain (or 2.22 times the PB setting)
Set the reset to read 0.83Pu
Proportional plus reset plus derivative
Set the gain to 0.6 of the maximum gain (or 1.7 times the PB setting)
Set the rest to read 0.5 Pu.
Set the rate (derivative) to read 0.13 Pu
If you follow the above procedure it will produce a reasonably tuned loop. However,
it may need to be adjusted during operation. The way the loop responds to real
changes in the process must be monitored by the operator. It can take hours for a
loop to settle down to normal operational requirements. The operator must decide if
any fine tuning is required.
On older control loops the response to process changes can be seen on the
ink/paper recorder. A modern DCS system displays process variables on the VDU,
using what are called "trend" displays. You must ask the operator to show these
displays when you check the loop. Normally, it is possible to print these "trend"
displays as the information is stored on a hard disc (the historian). You can usually
get a copy of what the loop has done for the last 24 hrs.

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 3 - Introduction to DCS and PLC INSTRUMENTATION


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 3 - Introduction to DCS and PLC
Para Page
3.1 INTRODUCTION 4
3.2 INTRODUCTION TO DCS 4
3.2.1 The 5 Level Concept 5
3.2.2 Level Concept Description 6
3.3 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLC) 8

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

• Draw a simple block diagram of a DCS system.
• Explain the 5 level DCS concept.
• Draw a simple block diagram of a PLC system.
• Explain the use of PLC in field control.


TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 3 - Introduction to DCS and PLC INSTRUMENTATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to introduce, in simple terms, what is meant by DCS and PLC
in instrument control systems.
3.2 INTRODUCTION TO DCS
Modern control systems in the oil/gas industry now use what is called a Distributive
Control System (DCS). This means that the control of a plant (eg. refinery) is split
into small units which are distributed around the plant.
Figure 3-1 A Simple DCS System
Figure 3-1 shows a simple DCS system. The plant consists of three separate
(distributed) local control units: fractionation, compression and boiler. The loops for
each unit are controlled by a local control unit. The information required by the
operator is sent by a single cable (data highway) to the central control room. Here,
the information is shown on a workstation Video Display Unit (VDU). The operator
can adjust set points, Motor Operated Valves (MOV's) etc., from the workstation
using the same data highway. There are various manufacturers of DCS’s.
Operating Companies use a variety of these systems. The following notes are given
as an introduction to the DCS system you might see.

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3.2.1 The 5 Level Concept

The layout of a particular DCS depends on the manufacturer. However, all

manufacturers make the same type of 5 level DCS as shown in Figure 3-2. Read
the diagram from the bottom (level 1) to the top (level 5).
Figure 3-2 The 5 Level DCS Concept

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3.2.2 Level Concept Description

Level 1
This is the field device level. Input devices (transmitters etc.) and output devices
(control valves, etc.) are connected to input/output units (I/0 units). I/0 units convert
the 4-20mA or digital signals to specially coded signals for the fieldbus. The I/0 units
also convert the coded signals on the fieldbus to 4-20mA or digital signals for output
control.
The fieldbus (data highway) is a cable similar to a co-axial cable (like a television
aerial cable). It sends the coded digital signals from level 1 to the control processors
at level 2.
Level 2
This is the control level. The control processor (CP) uses the data from the fieldbus
to control individual control loops. The CP can control more than one loop at a time.
The PID settings are placed in the CP using a software program similar to a
computer floppy disc.
Figure 3-3 Control Processor with 5 Loops
Figure 3-3 above shows a control processor operating 5 loops (measured variables)
at one time. The data on the fieldbus contains all the information for each loop input
and output. The CP, using only milliseconds of time, controls each in turn. The PID
of each is separately programmed. To the operator it looks as if all the loops are
controlled at the same time.

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Level 3
This is the operator's supervision level. The information which is needed for each
loop is displayed on a Video Display Unit (VDU). The operator (supervisor) can
adjust the set point, or he can change from manual to automatic etc. using the
keyboards on the workstation. Large control systems may have many workstations
which display the distributed control units around the plant. Remember that loop
control is done from the CP. A fault on a workstation, eg. loss of picture, does not
mean the plant has lost control.
Level 4
This is the local management control level. The Applications Processor (AP) takes
some of the signals from the CP and puts them into a digital code (protocol) so that
they can be sent over a higher level data highway. This allows the plant engineer,
plant manager, etc. to look at the plant operation remote from the Central Control
Room (CCR), e.g. in his office. Normally, you cannot change control operations
from this level. It can only display information for management overview. I
Level 5
The group management level. Some signals for the AP are converted so that they
can be sent (by microwave link, satellite, etc.) to a distant headquarters. This means
that a senior manager, at group level, can view plant operations. The workstation at
headquarters can not make changes at plant level. However, the workstation
displays up to date information on production operations for planning purposes.

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3.3 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLC)

3.3.1 Introduction
Programmable Logic Controllers provide electronic switching operations (for

emergency shut down procedures, fire and gas alarm systems, etc.). The system is
not made to control a loop or a plant. It only provides a switching sequence which is
controlled by a software programme. Usually software programmes are written for a
PLC which operates an emergency shutdown system, such as fire and gas alarms,
starting electric motors and safety circuits etc. These systems can be very large.
They require a systems engineer to design the software programme to operate
them. However, the following notes are given as an introduction to how these
systems work.
Figure 3-4 Simple PLC Shutdown System

Figure 3-4 shows a simple PLC shutdown system. It has an "AND" gate with three
input lines. These input lines consists of alarms (either high high or low low), fire
detectors (FD) and gas detectors (G D). Alarms or detectors are connected in
series to a +24V dc supply. The second "AND" gate has two inputs. One is from the
first "AND" alarm circuit gate and the other is from the "ESD" button, which is
normally closed. The micro processor controls the shut down circuits (relays, control
valves, solenoid valves, etc.) together with an EEPROM. The EEPROM is the
memory chip which holds the shut down sequence programme. This programme is
put in by the system engineer.

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Under normal working conditions all switches are closed and a "V' digital signal
holds the microprocessor so that the "shutdown" devices are in their correct,
working position (energised).
If a field alarm operates or the ESD button is pressed the "AND" gate output to the
µP changes from "V to a "0". The µP now changes the output devices to their
"shutdown" positions, using a logic. sequence which comes from the programme in
the EEPROM memory.
Note that all shutdown systems are made so that they are energised when they are
working normally. It is not "safe" to make the system energise for shutdown. An
equipment fault or supply problem would not shut the plant down if there was an
emergency.

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 4 - Honerwell DTC 3000 DCS INSTRUMENTATION


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INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit No. 4 - Honerwell DTC 3000 DCS
Para Page
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4
4.2 HONEYWELL TDC 3000 DCS 4
4.2.2 TDC 3000 System Overview 4
4.3 HONEYWELL TDC 3000 HARDWARE 7
4.3.2 The Process and Logic Manager Cabinets 7
4.3.3 UCN and LCN 10
4.3.4 Control Room Layout 11


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INSTRUMENTATION

• Explain, at block diagram level, the Honeywell TDC 3000 system.
• Explain the terms used by Honeywell for their DCS equipment.


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INSTRUMENTATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to introduce the Honeywell TDC 3000 and to relate the TDC
3000 system to the 5 level DCS concept. The unit also explains the terms
Honeywell uses for ordinary DCS equipment.
4.2 HONEYWELL TDC 3000 DCS
4.2.1 Introduction
The autodynamics simulator which you used when you learned about control
systems uses the graphics (pictures and symbols) of the Honeywell TDC 3000
workstation. The displays of PFD's, trends, indicators, alarms etc. are the same as
you will see on a real control room VDU. This unit is given to show the layout of the
TDC 3000 system which provides the signals seen on the VDU.
4.2.2 TDC 3000 System Overview
Figure 4-1 is a simplified diagram of the components of the Honeywell TDC (totally
distributed control) 3000 DCS. The notes at the side show how the TDC 3000 fits a
generalised DCS system. The Honeywell TDC 3000 is a newer version of the older
TDC 2000. Therefore, it has extra items not seen on the older systems. The main
features are as follows:
1. Loop control (4-20mA, smart or digital) is carried out by the process

manager (PM). The I/0 units for the loops can be placed locally (inside the
same cabinet as the PM) or placed at a remote location in the plant. Remote
signals are sent using a serial data transmission link (RS422 standard) to
the PM.
2. The switched signals (e.g. alarms, valve positions, fire detectors, gas
detectors, etc.) are processed separately using a Logic Manager (LM). The
I/0 units for the Logic Manager can be either local or remote in the same
way as the PM.
3. The PM uses a microprocessor to control the loops. This µP can be

programmed to set the PID for each loop as required. The µP may also be
able to tune the loops automatically for best response. It has an auto-tune
facility.
4. The LM uses a microprocessor to operate the PLC. The Logic Manager µP

is programmed by the systems engineer to give the correct shutdown
sequences etc.

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5. Signals needed by -the supervisors on the workstations are transmitted via a

Universal Control Network (UCN). This network is not compatible with the
workstation local area network, (called a Local Control Network (LCN) by
Honeywell). Therefore, a Network Interface Module (NIM) is used.
6. The LCN data highway provides the signals to...
• The operators workstations (VDU and keyboards). These are called

Universal Stations (US) by Honeywell.
• Printers
• Historian (History Module). This contains a redundant hard disc

system which stores operating information so that "trends" can be
printed or displayed.
• Gateways
• These gateways process signals which can be sent to a

management workstation. The diagram shows a gateway which
changes LCN data so that it can be sent on an "ETHERNET" high
level data LAN. A gateway can be provided to operate a modem. The
modem can send signals by radio to the headquarters management
if required.
• Because Honeywell uses its own system for data management (the
UCN), other systems have to be connected by special Data
Conversion units. These are called Minicop Modules (MM). Typical
systems that may be connected to the TDC 3000 are crude metering
systems, tank gauging systems, compressor control systems etc.
• To make the system more reliable many of the units run on what is
called a "Redundant" system. This means that there are two units for
each operation (e.g. UCN links, NIM, Historian, etc.). If one doesn't
work the other takes over automatically.

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Module No. 10 : Process control fundamental INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 4-1 Simplified Block Diagram Honeywell TDC 3000

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INSTRUMENTATION
4.3 HONEYWELL TDC 3000 HARDWARE

4.3.1 Introduction
The following diagrams are given, with a brief description, to show what the
Honeywell TDC 3000 hardware looks like._
4.3.2 The Process and Logic Manager Cabinets
Both cabinets are the same size (shown on the LM in Figure 4-2) and are normally
placed side by side in the instrument equipment room. The number of each cabinet
depends on the installation.
LOGIC MANAGER CABINET
Figure 4-2 shows the layout of a typical logic manager. The top two racks contain
the cards required to make the logic manager and the redundant partner. The
bottom two racks contain the 1/0 cards for parallel and serial operation.
Parallel operation I/0 cards are used for loops near the LM rack (less than 30m).
Serial operation I/0 cards are used for processing serial data coming from remote
locations (RS 422 link).
The cards which are fitted into the slots of each cabinet can be removed easily.
They are connected to the system by printed board edge connectors. Normally
these cards can not be repaired. The whole card is replaced if it does not work. The
broken card is sent back to Honeywell for repair.
The LM supplies power at 110V DC and 240V DC. This provides the switching
voltages for both input devices (e.g. alarm switches) and output devices (e.g.
solenoid valves).
PROCESS MANAGER CABINET.
Figure 4-3 shows the layout of a typical process manager. The top rack contains the
input/output cards (called IOP cards by Honeywell). Racks 2 and 3 contain the
redundant process manager cards. The bottom of the cabinet contains the power
supplies to operate both the process manager and IOP cards. It also provides the
24V DC needed to drive the loops etc.
Note: All loops are connected to the back of the racks through the safety barriers.
The Honeywell system is not intrinsically safe.

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LOGIC MANAGER CABINET -

Figure 4-2 Logic Manager

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INSTRUMENTATION
PROCESS MANAGER CABINET

Figure 4-3 Process Manager Cabinet

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4.3.3 UCN and LCN

The UCN and LCN are both redundant co-axial cables. The nodes (taps) on these
cables are specially made so that if they are disconnected the lines are not broken.
The other connected units continue working. Each cable has a special terminator
(75Ω. This must not be removed as it stops signals which reach the end of the
cable from being reflected. Any reflected signals will interfere with processing data
and produce errors.
Figure 4-4 shows a redundant UCN as an example.

Figure 4-4 The UCN Network

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4.3.4 Control Room Layout

The universal stations provide the human interface with the TDC 3000 systems. The
make up of each individual control room depends on the user's needs. It is made up
of what Honeywell call "Optimum Replaceable Units" (ORU). A typical arrangement
of a control room is shown in Figure 4-5.
Figure 4-5 Supervisors Control Centre

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The following points should be noted on the typical Honeywell TDC 3000
supervisors control room.
1. Cartridge/Floppy disc drives similar to a PC drive are optional extras. These

allow new operating programmes to be added.
2. The matrix printer is used to print plant operations history for management
overview.
3. Some instrument/process engineers find the old type of pen recorders a

convenient way of showing trends. These can be added to the system if
required.
4. The engineer can connect a portable keyboard into the system. This
keyboard is used to re-configure the system as required.
5. The latest Honeywell US has a touch screen facility . To change the display
the keyboard is not required. Touch the screen and the display changes as
the operator instructs.
6. The Trackball is the same as an ordinary PC mouse. Rotate the ball and the
cursor moves, to the required position on the screen. A trackball is only a
mouse upside down.
7. The electronics modules are contained in what Honeywell call a 5 slot

chassis. These 5 slot chassis contain the electronics to drive the US,
Historian, Gateways, etc.
8. The Network Interface Module (NIM), which is fully redundant, is usually

housed as shown.

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Unit No. 5 - Foxboro IA DCS


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
5.1 INTRODUCTION 4
5.2 THE BASIC FOXBORO IA SYSTEM 4
5.2.2 Foxboro IA System Layout. 4
5.2.3 Foxboro IA Hardware 7
5.3 TYPICAL FOXBORO IA CENTRAL CONTROL ROOM 10


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

• Explain the terms used by Foxboro in their DCS.
• Sketch the layout of the Foxboro enclosure.
• Draw a simplified diagram of the Foxboro DCS and explain what the main
components do.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of the unit is to introduce the Foxboro Intelligent Automation (Fox IA) DCS.
It explains the terms used by Foxboro and shows how IA fits the 5 level concept of a
distributed control system.
5.2 THE BASIC FOXBORO IA SYSTEM
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Foxboro IA System Layout.
The Foxboro IA system is one of the most up to date distributed control systems for
oil/gas production. The Foxboro system is an improvement on older DCS's as it
uses an "Open Industrial System". This means the software used to programme the
DCS is industrial standard (UNIX). It can be used to set up both the Foxboro system
and equipment from other manufacturers connected to it.
It has improved data handling so there is no need for "handshaking". It is also has a
system called "Reporting by Exception". This means that measurements are only
changed if their values change.
I Figure 5-1 shows the layout of a typical Foxboro IA DCS. The levels of control are
the same as the Honeywell but the system is simpler at the 1, 2 and 3 level. So, it
only needs one data transmission highway. The following points should be noted.
1) The diagram shows a large Integrated Control System (e.g. control and
management of a multi-platform offshore oil field). The supervision level is
located on each platform. The area management level consists of a central
control room. This is usually on the accommodation platform. It can display
information from all the platforms. The group management display is at the
headquarters on shore. Data transmission between units can be either by
cable using a high level LAN (ETHERNET) or by radio link (e.g. satellite,
microwave link, etc.)
2) The 1/0 conditioning units and the control processors are located in one unit.
This can be placed anywhere in the plant.
3) Signals to and from the control room are placed on what Foxboro call a
"Redundant Nodebus". The same cable is used for the control room and
field units. If the field units are a long way from the control room a "Nodebus
Extender" (NBE) is used. This maintains the voltage level of the transmitted
data.

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4) The following processors are connected to the nodebus:

AP - Applications Processor. This allows data to be

processed for the Historian, Printer, etc.
WP - Workstation Processor. This allows data to be

processed for the workstation, (e.g. VDU, keyboard,
mouse/trackball, touch screen, etc.).
Comm - Communications Processor. This allows data to be

processed for items not using UNIX, (mainly the
engineer's PC which uses ASCII)
FDG - Foreign Device Gateway Processor. This allows data

to be processed so that signals can be received or
sent through a modem. The data can be sent to
another location, platform, etc.
CBLI - Carrier Based LAN Interface. This unit converts the

UNIX programming system (protocol) of the nodebus
to a protocol for the high level LAN (e.g. Ethernet) and
vice-versa. The area management system uses the
same equipment as in the control room. Therefore,
there must be a CBLI at both ends of the high level
LAN.

TRAINING MANUAL
Figure 5-1 Foxboro IA DCS Overview

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INSTRUMENTATION
5.2.3 Foxboro IA Hardware

Foxboro combines the first level (field devices) and second level (control devices)
into one unit. This unit is called an "Enclosure". It can be placed at any suitable
position in the plant. Figure 5-2 shows a Foxboro enclosure in a plant.
Figure 5-2 Foxboro IA Enclosure

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Figure 5-3 Foxboro Industrial Enclosure

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INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 5-3 shows the inside of an enclosure. The bottom two racks have slots into
which the 1/0 units are fitted. These are called Field Bus Modules (FBM) by
Foxboro. These FBM's can process any type of field input/output.
Some FBM examples are given below.
The top of the enclosure has slots which hold the system processors (called
stations by Foxboro). A plant enclosure normally has only CP's and NBE's. The
CP's control the area loops and the NBE extends the redundant nodebus to the
supervisor's control room.
FBM FUNCTION POINTS

FBM 01 0-20 mA INPUT 8 AI
FBM 02 THERMOCOUPLE 1mV INPUT 8 A]
FBM 03 RTD INPUT 8 AI
FBM 04 0-20mA INPUT 1 OUTPUT .4A1/4A0
FBM 10 120 VDC INPUT / OUTPUT SWITCHED 8D1/8DO
FBM 18 SMART TRANSMITTERS 8DA1
AI ANALOG INPUT
DI DIGITAL INPUT
AO ANALOG OUTPUT
DO DIGITAL OUTPUT
POINTS Number of inputs/outputs available on each FBM

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5.3 TYPICAL FOXBORO IA CENTRAL CONTROL ROOM

Figure 5-4 Foxboro IA CCR

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Figure 5-4 shows the typical layout of a Foxboro Central Control Room (CCR).
A basic description of the system is as follows:
1) The Central Control Room processes signals from both a remote location,
using a CBLI, and from equipment on the main platform where the CCR is
located.
2) Main platform signals are routed through what are called marshalling
cabinets. These contain the IS barriers. A Foxboro [A FBM is not intrinsically
safe.
3) The industrial enclosures are the same as the ones described in 5.3.2.
However, they need no weather-proofing and Zone 1 protection. These are
usually located in a terminal room behind the CCR.
4) Whether the system is for local supervisory control or CCR control the
equipment is the same. It is all run from a Redundant Nodebus connected
by either NBEs or CBLIs.
5) The AP, WP, and COMM processors can be fitted into a station in the
enclosure or in slots under the workstations.
6) The Nodebus Interface (NBI) connects the Nodebus to the engineers PC.
This is done so that the engineer does not interfere with operators using the
workstations.
7) The Nodebus has terminators to stop data reflections, (in the same way as
the Honeywell TDC 3000).
8) All Nodebus connectors can be removed without affecting the other units
connected to the bus.
9) Remember that loop control is done by the CP. A fault on the CCR Nodebus
will not cause the plant to lose control.
10) The operator on the workstation normally only supervises the plant
operations. However, he can switch a control loop from automatic to manual
and perform set point changes.
11) PID control functions and PLC sequence changes can only be done by the
systems technician or engineer. This is usually done via the engineer's PC
using a "password" know only to the engineering staff.

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12) Figure 5-5 shows the typical layout of a Foxboro control room.
Figure 5-5 Foxboro IA Workstations


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UNIT 2 TUNING A CONTROLLER.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
PRACTICAL TASK 1 3
PRACTICAL TASK 2 8

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PRACTICAL TASK 1
Introduction
CASCADE CONTROL
The Autodynamics simulator will be used to demonstrate cascade control. The

process variable to be controlled is the level in a tank. A liquid storage tank is used
to store a liquid before it is sent for downstream processing. The liquid has a
variable density. Figure PT 1 shows the PFD and P and ID of the process.
The normal operating conditions for the loop are:
HCV-431 is open 50% to give a flow rate of 100 TPH entering V-400. The cascade
loop maintains the level at 50% (half way) for a flow rate of 100 TPH.
Alarm settings
FAH/L 402 Above 160 TPH or below 60 TPH.
LAH/L 461 Above 75% or below 25%.


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Figure PT - 1a Process Flow Diagram (PFD).Level Control.

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Figure PT 1b P & ID Level Control

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INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL PROCEDURE
PART 1
1) Make sure the Autodynamics simulator is operating as designed. Module 4

Level Control.
The VDU screen shows:
FI-401 READS 100 TPH
FIRC-402 READS 100 TPH
HV-432 OPEN
HCV-431 READS 50%
LIRC-431 READS 50%
PI-412 READS 0.6 kg/cm2 g
2) a) What happens if you adjust the set point of FIRC-402.
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b) Explain the result of part 2 (a)
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PART 2
1 Place FIRC-402 to manual.
2. Open HCV-431 so that it reads 60%
3. Using the manual output control of FIRC-402, try and maintain the level of
V-400 at 50%.
4. Estimate the time taken to bring the level under control.
PART 3
1. Return the simulator to normal designed condition, with full automatic

control.
2. Increase HCV-431 so that it is 60% open.
3. Estimate the time taken to bring the level under control.
4. Does cascade control produce faster response in the system?


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INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL TASK 2
Introduction
RATIO CONTROL
This task uses the Autodynamic simulator to show the operation of ratio control.
Ratio control is used to produce a mixed product for tanker loading. It is possible
with the simulation to switch from ratio to cascade operation, using a product
analyser. This is also demonstrated.
Figure PT 2 gives the VDU display (PFD) and the P & ID for the process.
Mixing Operation
The mixing operation is used in the in-line blender to mix the available components.
The components are blended to meet product demands and product specification.
The mixing components for this operation are a heavy product feed and a light
product feed.
The blended product for loading meets quality specifications using a ratio or
cascade control system. Under normal operation the ratio control is used for start
up and cascade control for normal running. Ratio control sets the required mixture
of heavy and light products. The cascade control is run by an analyser. It makes
sure the correct ratio is maintained after the initial settings are made by the ratio
control.
Logic Control
This simulation has a PLC system added to provide the following safety function.
Block valves HV-526 and HV-528 automatically close when the total volume of the
respective trucks reaches 20 m3 (2000 litres). All flows stop, and the high volume
alarm comes on. To restart the loading of another tanker the system must be reset
by switches HS-531 or HS-532. These switches must be switched "Off" again after
resetting. The PLC logic will not allow the block valve (HV-526 or HV-528) to open if
the reset is left "On".

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Figure PT-2(a) Product Mixing FPD

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Figure PT-2(b) Product Mixing P & ID

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INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL PROCEDURE
Introduction
To show how ratio control is done, the simulator exercise 5020 Module 5 will be
carried out from the closed down position. The object will be to load a tanker with
20m3 (2000 litres) of SG 0.7 product.
Note:
The ratio calculation is done as follows (this is done automatically by the

loading system).
Let X = Quantity of Heavy product.
Let Y = Quantity of Light product.
Then (0.8 x X) + (0.4 x Y) = (X + Y)0.7
0.8X + 0.4 Y = 0.7X + 0.7Y
0.8X - 0.7X = 0.7Y - 0.4Y
0.1X = 0.3Y
The ratio of heavy to light product is 3:1
1. The storage tank (slops tank) holds poor quality produce that cannot be
sold. HV-526 must not be opened until AIRC-502 reads the correct quality
on automatic. When the tanker is fully loaded the system will stop
automatically. Make sure you don't open HV-525 until the AIRC-502 is on
automatic.
2. Remember to reset the totalizer after the tanker is loaded. Otherwise the
PLC logic will not allow another tanker to be loaded.

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PART 1
START UP
1) OPEN the storage tank block valve (HV-527).
2) Turn ON HS-51 5 to start the heavy product feed pump (P-f51 5).
3) With FIC-501 on manual, increase the output of FIC-501 to 10%.

This will open the heavy feed valve (FCV-501).
4) With FIC-503 on manual opens the light product feed valve by increasing the
output of FIC-503 to 10%.
5) Adjust the setpoint of FIC-501 to equal its process variable and transfer the
controller to AUTOMATIC.
6) Check the value at AIRC-502 for the specific gravity of the mixed liquid. If
the specific gravity is undesirable, adjust the light flow through FCV-503.
7) Adjust the ratio of heavy feed to light feed by adjusting the value at HC-20.
8) Switch HS-529 to RATIO CONTROL, and place FIC-503 in the CASCADE

mode.
9) Continue to gradually increase the setpoint of FIC-501 to design

(113.6m3/hr). The ratio controller HC-20 will automatically adjust the light
flow through FCV-503. The specific gravity will not change.
10) Perform a bumpless transfer to place AIRC-502 in control in the following

manner:
a) Divide the measured variable of FIC-501 by the instrument range.

b) Multiply that number by the ratio factor set on HC-20.
c) Convert that number to output percent by multiplying by a factor of

100.
d) This number becomes the required output setting for AIRC 502.
e) Adjust the output of AIRC-502 to the number above.
f) Switch HS-529 to the FEEDBACK condition.
g) Switch AIRC-502 to AUTOMATIC.
11) Begin loading tanker no. 1 by putting HV-526 in the OP condition and
switching the storage tank block valve (HV-527 CLOSED.

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MODULE No. 11
INSTRUMENT CRAFT PRACTICE
July 1999- Rev.0

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INSTRUMENTATION

Unit No. 1 - Workshop safety and tools care
UNIT 1 WORKSHOP SAFETY AND TOOL CARE
UNIT 2 BASIC HAND TOOLS
UNIT 3 TUBING SYSTEMS
UNIT 4 CRIMPING

Module No. 11 : Instrument craft practice

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INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 WORKSHOP RULES 4
1.3 PERSONAL PROTECTION 6
1.3.1 Body Protection 6
1.3.2 Head Protection 7
1.3.3 Eye Protection 8
1.3.4 Hand Protection 9
1.3.5 Foot Protection 10
1.4 CARE OF TOOLS 11


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The trainee will be able to:
• List the general safety rules used in the workshop.
• Identify the items of personal protection commonly used in the workshop.
• List the general rules for tool care.


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1.1 INTRODUCTION
To become a skilled craftsman, a trainee must learn to work safely.
He must think of his own safety and the safety of other workers. The safest way of
doing the job is the best way. Accidents are caused by careless work habits. They
do not just happen, they, are caused. There is always the possibility of accidents
when people are working with tools and equipment. These accidents can be costly
and painful. Everyone must try to prevent accidents. Managers try to prevent
accidents by providing:
1. Workshop rules
2. Protective clothing and personal safety equipment
3. Safe tools and equipment
These items alone cannot prevent accidents unless the workers do their part to
help. The responsibility of the worker is to:
1 . Follow the workshop rules.
2. Use protective clothing and equipment.
3. Use tools and equipment correctly.
1.2 WORKSHOP RULES
Every workshop has its own safety rules. These rules will vary according to the
different equipment in each workshop. It is every trainee's responsibility to learn
these rules and then follow them. The purpose of workshop rules is to protect you
and your fellow workers. The rules will not protect workers who do not learn and
follow them. Although the rules vary from workshop to workshop there are some
rules that apply to all workshops.
1. Know your job:
You, should know what you are going to do, how-to do it, and the tools
needed before you begin work.
2. Good housekeeping:
Keep your work area neat and tidy. Unused parts, scrap material or tools,
left lying around your work area will cause accidents.

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3. Conduct:
A sudden interruption to a worker who is busy doing his job is dangerous; he

could hurt himself or another worker.
4. Clothing
The type of clothing needed depends on the job and its dangers. Working in
hot areas may require light, loose fitting clothes. Working near rotating
equipment means not wearing loose clothes that can be caught. Some other
jobs require special protection, such as hard hats, goggles, or safety shoes.
5. Think safety:
Being a skilled worker and knowing all the safety rules does not mean you
will be a safe worker. You must think about safety at all times.
6. Being alert:
Although you may be a safe worker yourself, beware of others around you.
They may endanger you if they are using machine tools, grinding, or
welding.

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1.3 PERSONAL PROTECTION

Wearing personal protection is important for developing good work habits. As well
as protecting the body, you must protect your head, eyes, hands and feet.
Some suitable equipment for personal protection is as follows:
1.3.1 Body Protection
For general workshop work a coverall is the safest and most practical form of body
protection. Figure 1-1 below shows the safe way to dress in the workshop.
Figure 1-1 The Workshop Dress

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For extra protection, workers are sometimes required to wear canvas aprons. They
are worn in machine shops when using drilling or grinding equipment (see Figure
1-2).
Figure 1-2 The Canvas Apron

1.3.2 Head Protection
In some work areas it is necessary to wear hard hats. These areas are usually
places where work is going on above head height. Long hair is also a problem in the
workshop where -there is rotating equipment. If the hair is caught it can cause
serious injury.

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1.3.3 Eye Protection

Eye protection should be worn in any work situation where there are flying objects.
Jobs such as grinding, cutting, or machining require eye protection. Welding and
furnace operations require tinted safety glasses or goggles to protect the eyes from
too much light or flying objects. Safety glasses are similar to regular glasses except
that the lenses are strong. Safety glasses only protect your eyes from the front. You
can put side shields on the glasses to help protect the eyes from the side. Typical
safety glasses are shown in Figure 1-3.
Figure 1-3 Safety Glasses
Safety goggles are designed to provide more eye protection because they fit the
face better. Goggles are kept in place with a head strap so they do not fall off as
easily as safety glasses. The safety lenses are made of clear hard plastic. The
lenses allow you to see but prevent flying objects from hitting your eyes. The choice
of wearing safety glasses or goggles depends on the task being performed (see
Figure 1-4).
Figure 1-4 Safety Goggles

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Face shields give full face protection and are good for people who wear ordinary
glasses. They allow air to circulate between the face and shield so the glasses do
not mist up. When you are working in areas where there are hot flying particles,
face masks must be worn (see Figure 1-5).
Figure 1-5 The Face Mask
1.3.4 Hand Protection
Gloves should be worn when handling sharp objects, such as sheet metal, casings,
machined components and swarf. Gloves must be the correct type for the job, and
they must be in good condition. However, gloves should never be worn when
operating moving machinery. Most gloves are made of either leather, heavy cloth,
canvas, rubber, or plastic. They are designed to prevent cuts from sharp edges, or
burns from hot metal. Plastic gloves are worn when handling chemicals.
Figure 1-6 Safety Gloves

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1.3.5 Foot Protection
Safety footwear are designed to protect the feet. They must be worn at all times
around the plant and in the workshop area. They are reinforced with steel at the
toes to prevent the toes from being crushed by falling objects. If you drop a heavy
object on your toes it can cause a serious injury and can be very painful. The soles
are non-slip and are often reinforced to prevent puncture by sharp objects.
Figure 1-7 Safety Shoes

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1.4 CARE OF TOOLS
It is important to make sure that tools are kept in good condition. Worn or damaged
tools can cause injuries. A few examples of poorly maintained tools are shown in
Figure 1-8.
Figure 1-8 Poorly Maintained Tool

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The following is a list of general guide lines for the care of tools and equipment.
Store tools in the proper place

Each tool should have its own special place to be stored when it is not being used.
When the job is finished, return the tool to its proper storage place. Putting them
away immediately helps prevent them from being lost. Tools lying around the
workshop can cause accidents; eg, tripping over an electric drill left on the ground.
Care of delicate tools
Some tools require special storage because they can be easily damaged.
Measuring tools and instrument screwdrivers are good examples. They are soon
damaged if they are thrown down or dropped. Take a little time to ensure that these
tools are in a safe place when they are not being used.
Regular inspection of tools and equipment
Even with the best care, tools can become damaged and equipment worn. Some
equipment has inspection and maintenance procedures provided by the
manufacturer. These inspection procedures should be followed carefully.
Small hand tools should be checked regularly. They should be repaired or replaced
if they are defective. Electrically powered tools can be particularly dangerous if the
cable is damaged; they become a fire hazard.
Correct use of hand tools and equipment
Using a tool for a job that it was designed for will not damage it. Some tool parts,
like hacksaw blades, are replaceable, but the tool itself should not get damaged. If
you use tools for other purposes they can be permanently damaged; eg, using
wrenches as hammers and screwdrivers as levers.
Tools are designed to be held and used in a certain way. Using tools wrongly will
make the tool less effective and will cause damage. As an example, some power
tools have guards or safety devices. It is very dangerous to remove the guards.

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Using the correct size tool
Many tools come in different sizes. The size of the tool must suit the job it is to do.
Using the wrong size tool is almost as dangerous as using the wrong tool. Using a
small screwdriver to turn a large screw, or the wrong sized wrench to turn a nut is
dangerous.
Keep tools and equipment clean
Very little time is needed to clean your tools when you have finished the job. No
one likes dirty tools or equipment. Keeping your tools clean shows you have pride in
your work. Dirt and grease can destroy many tools.

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INSTRUMENTATION

Unit No. 2 - Basic hand tools
UNIT 4 CRIMPING


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INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
2.1 INTRODUCTION 4
2.2 VICE AND CLAMPS 4
2.3 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 7
2.4 HAMMERS 9
2.5 PUNCHES 10
2.6 FILES 11
2.7 PLIERS 12
2.8 WRENCHES 13
2.9 DRILLS, TAPS AND DIES 17
2.10 THE POWER DRILL 19
2.11 PNEUMATIC IMPACT WRENCH 20


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

The student will be able to explain the use of the following hand tools.
• Vices and clamps
• Rules, set squares and protractors
• Hammers
• Punches
• Files
• Pliers
• Wrenches
• Drills, tapes and dies
• Power drill
• Pneumatic impact wrench


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INSTRUMENTATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to describe and give the uses of the basic hand tools used by
the instrument technician.
2.2 VICE AND CLAMPS
The Engineer's Bench Vice
Bench vices are bolted to the top of the workbench. They are used to hold the
workpiece in the right place. The vice should be between 38 to 46 inches from the
ground, depending on the workman's elbow height (see Figure 2-1).
Figure 2-1 Typical Bench Vice

Often bench vices have a base which can be turned so that the work can be
positioned at a required angle. The vice is locked in place with a lock nut. The
material is held between the jaws by tightening the screw handle. The jaws are
usually serrated to grip the work. Soft jaws should be used to protect work which
can be scratched easily. Soft jaws are made from a soft material such as rubber or
aluminium. They are fitted over the normal vice jaws.

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Another type of hand vice is the machine vice. This is bolted onto the base of the
drilling machine to hold small items for drilling (see Figure 2-2).
Figure 2-2 Machine Vice
Pipe Bench Vice
The pipe vice is another common bench vice which must be bolted to a workbench
(see Figure 2-3).
Figure 2-3 Typical Pipe Vice
Pipe can be inserted into the vice by undoing the hook on the side, which allows the
frame to open. The pipe is placed on the bottom jaw, then the hook is brought back
over and locked in place. The hand wheel is used to make the final tightness of the
pipe in the vice. Pipe vices are made in various sizes and styles. The size of the
vice depends on the size of the pipe it is to hold. The vice should be large enough to
hold the pipe but not large enough to crush it. The pipe vice is used instead of the
bench vice for clamping round work. The V-shaped jaws allow more contact with the
work. This gives a better grip.

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C Clamp
C Clamps do the same job as a vice. They are used to hold the workpiece secure
while you are working on it. They are portable but they clamp work to the bench.
They are usually used on rough material where scratches are not a problem. C
Clamps have four main parts: the frame, the screw, the handle, and the swivel pad
(see Figure 2-4).
Toolmakers Clamps
Toolmakers clamps (parallel clamps) are used on surfaces which must not be
damaged. They come in a range of sizes, which depends on the size of the material
to be held (see Figure 2-5).
Figure 2-5 Typical Toolmaker's Clamp

Figure 2-4 Typical C Clamps

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2.3 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

These are the instruments used for marking out a job. Normally the instrument
technician will use only three. The steel rule, set square and protractor.
The Steel Rule
The engineer's precision steel rule is one of the most frequently used measuring
tools in the workshop. They are marked with either imperial or metric graduations,
or both. They are made from hardened and tempered spring steel.
A metric rule usually comes in lengths of 15cm and 30cm. The measuring accuracy
of a rule is up to ± 0.2mm. On a metric rule the longest graduation lines are for
centimetres. The centimetre lines are divided into ten smaller graduations for
millimetres. Some rules have smaller 1/2mm graduations between the mm
graduations (see Figure 2-6) below.
Figure 2-6 The Steel Rule 1

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The Set Square

A precision engineer's square is used to ensure the work material is square, and to
draw straight lines at 90° to the datum faces. The lines drawn will be parallel to the
other datum edge. Squares have a steel blade and handle, which are at 90° to each
other. Some squares have measuring graduations on the blades (see Figure 2-7)
Figure 2-7 The Set Square
The Protractor
The protractor is used to find or measure angles from 0° to 180°. The flat edge of
the protractor head is placed on one side of the angle being measured. Then the
edge of the rule is placed on the other side of the angle. The angle can be read
straight off the dial on the protractor head.
Figure 2-8 The Protractor

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2.4 HAMMERS
The most common type of hammer is the ball-pein hammer. The main parts of the
ball-pein hammer are: the face (the flat striking surface), the pein (the round face),
the wedge (used to hold the hammer head to the shaft), the eye (the hole into which
the shaft is fitted), and the shaft or handle. The flat face is for hammering, and the
pein is for rounding off rivets etc.
Soft-faced hammers, or mallets, are used instead of steel hammers when working
on machined surfaces or fragile parts. They are used especially for assembling or
dismantling parts so that the finished surfaces are not harmed. These hammers are
commonly made of plastic, copper, or rubber. Typical examples of these hammers
are shown in Figure 2-9.
Figure 2-9 Typical Workshop Hammers

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2.5 PUNCHES
Centre Punch
Before any hole is drilled, you must make an indentation with a centre punch, where
the hole is to be drilled (this is to stop the drill from slipping). The centre punch is a
precision tool so you must be careful to place the point of the punch exactly at the
centre of the hole location (see Figure 2-10).
Pin Punches
Figure 2-10 The Centre Punch
These are specially made tools for the removal of pins etc. A typical example of this
type of punch is shown in Figure 2-11. They are usually in sets of about 15 ranging
from 1 mm to 10mm.
Figure 2-11 The Pin Punch

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2.6 FILES
A file is a hand-held cutting tool which is made from good quality tool steel. The
blade is hardened, but the tang is soft to take a wooden handle. Files come in all
shapes and sizes, e.g. flat, square, round, triangular etc. They are used by the
instrument technician for cleaning burrs from tubing, holes etc.
A good instrument tool kit will also contain a set of miniature files for use in contact
cleaning. A few examples of files found in the workshop are shown in Figure 2-12.
VERY HIGH QUALITY INDUSTRIAL STANDARD NEEDLE FILES COATED WITH

DIAMOND GRIT ENABLING THEM TO FILE MATERIALS SUCH AS TUNGSTEN
CARBIDE, CERAMICS, CARBON, GLASS, HARDENED STEELS ETC. THE SET
COMPRISES SIX POPULAR PROFILES: HAND, ROUND , HALFROUND ,
SQUARE, THREE SQUARE AND TAPERFLAT.
Figure 2-12 Typical Workshop Files

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2.7 PLIERS
Pliers are used for gripping and holding small parts during assembly work. They are
also used for bending cables and wires to be connected to instruments. Many types
of instrument pliers also have a cutting edge for cutting cables to the correct length.
Pliers come in all shapes and sizes. Figure 2-13 shows some common workshop
pliers.
Figure 2-13 Common Pliers

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2.8 WRENCHES
Wrenches are used to tighten or remove nuts and bolts. They come in many
different forms. The following are the ones most commonly found in an instrument
workshop.
Spanner Wrenches
Spanner wrenches are used for fastening and removing nuts and bolts. There are
three common types of spanner wrench. They are open ended, ring and adjustable.
Figure 2-14 shows examples of these types.
Figure 2-14 Typical Spanners
Note: Don't use an adjustable spanner if the correct size spanner is available.
The repeated use of an adjustable spanner will destroy the flat sides on
the nut or bolt.

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Socket Wrench Set

Socket wrench sets are made in a wide range of sizes, but all of them have square
drives. They are made in both standard and extended length. Extended length
sockets are used in restricted places. A set of socket wrenches will include a range
of attachments, such as: a reversible ratchet, sliding tee, extension bars, universal
joints etc. They are very useful tools because they place the load at 12 points
around the nut, and they can be used in places where a spanner can't be used. A
typical socket set is shown in Figure 2-15.
A ADAPTER K REGULAR 6 POINT SOCKET
B,C,E EXTENSION BARS L REGULAR 12 POINT SOCKET

D SLIDING T HANDLE M HEX SOCKET SCREW SOCKET
F DEEP 6 POINT SOCKET N UNIVERSAL 12 POINT SOCKET
G DEEP 12 POINT SOCKET 0 FLEX HANDLE
H SPARK PLUG SOCKET P FLEX HEAD RATCHET
I SPEEDER HANDLE Q REVERSIBLE RATCHET
J RATCHET ADAPTER R UNIVERSAL JOINT
Figure 2-15 Socket Wrench Set

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Torque Wrenches.
Torque wrenches are wrenches which are used to tighten bolts to a set tightness.
They can be either of the open ended type or have a square drive which fits into a
6/12 point socket similar to a socket wrench set. The wrench has a built in indicator
which shows the torque applied in either Ibf-in or N-m. The wrench will start to slip
when the set torque is reached so that no more torque can be applied. Remember,
torque is the force applied times the perpendicular distance as shown.
A typical torque wrench is shown in Figure 2-16.

Figure 2-16 Torque Wrench

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Allen Wrenches
An Allen wrench is an "L" shaped piece of hexagonal tool steel. They are designed
for fastening or loosening Allen set screws. A set of Allen wrenches come in a
range of metric and imperial sizes. The size is taken across the flats of the-wrench
(see Figure 2-17)
Figure 2-17 Allen Wrenches


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2.9 DRILLS, TAPS AND DIES

Twist Drill
Twist drills are the cutting tools used to produce holes in most types of material.
The drill bits are made from high-speed steel. Standard bits have two helical
grooves, or flutes, cut lengthways around the body of the drill. They provide cutting
edges, admit cutting fluid, and allow space for the cuttings to escape during drilling.
The bit is made so that it can be held by a chuck fitted on the drilling machine. The
drilling machine provides the power for making the holes. Figure 2-18 shows a
typical twist drill bit.
Figure 2-18 Typical Twist Drill
TAPS
Taps are cutting tools used to cut internal threads. They are mad from high-quality
tool steel, hardened and ground.
Figure 2-19 Taps

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Figure 2-19 shows the main parts of a tap. The shank is the body of the tap. The
lands are the cutting edges. The chamfer is the angle at the leading end of the tap.
The tap is chamfered to make it easier to start in a drilled hole (taper tap). The
flutes are the grooves between the lands. The flutes allow the metal cuttings to fall
away from the -lands. The square on the end of the shank is used to attach a tap
wrench. Threading a hole with a tap is done by hand, using a tap wrench (see
Figure 2-20). When tapping a hole make sure the tap is at right angles
(perpendicular) to the hole, otherwise you will make uneven and cracked threads.
Figure 2-20 Tapping with a Tap Wrench
Dies
The "die" is used to make an external thread on a bar to make a screw. The die is
held in a device similar to a tap wrench and the thread is produced by turning the
die around the bar being threaded.
Figure 2-21 The Die
Note: You can find the correct tap or die for the hole or screw to be threaded
from drill and tap size tables. These must be used to get the correct
thread size for the nuts and bolts in use. The tap has a chamfer at the
end depending on its use. The taper tap is used to start the thread. The
plug tap is used to finish holes that go straight through. The bottom tap
for holes that only go some way into the material.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
2.10 THE POWER DRILL

A power drill rotates the drill bit at a constant high speed. This means holes can be
drilled faster and with less effort.
A typical workshop power drill is shown in Figure 2-22. Turn the handle to move the
rotating drill down through the material to be drilled. Note the safety features which
must be used.
Figure 2-22 The Power Drill
Portable power drills run on either compressed air or electricity. These are designed
to be held in the hand. The trigger switch, or speed control, is used to turn the drill
on and off. The motor is in the body of the drill. The drill bit is inserted in the chuck
and tightened with the chuck key. This prevents the bit from slipping (see Figure
2-23)
Figure 2-23 The Portable Electric Drill

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
2.11 PNEUMATIC IMPACT WRENCH

An air powered impact wrench uses an air motor and a special clutch. The clutch
changes the rotation to a series of fast, high powered impulses. It's used with a
socket wrench to turn nuts and bolts. The impulses from the air wrench deliver fast
sharp turns to the bolt head.
The motor of the impact wrench is reversible. Operating the motor in one direction
will tighten the bolt. Operating the motor in the other direction will loosen the bolt
(see Figure 2-24).
Figure 2-24 Pneumatic Impact Wrench

TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 3 - Tubing systems INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 4 CRIMPING


TRAINING MANUAL
Unit No. 3 - Tubing systems INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
3.1 INTRODUCTION 4
3.2 TUBING 4
3.3 TUBE BENDING 5
3.4 BENDING TUBING TO SIZE 7
3.5 COMPRESSION FITTINGS 8
3.5.1 Making a Compression Fitting. 9
3.5.2 Remaking a Compression Fitting. 10
3.6 CONNECTORS 11
3.7 THREADS AND TEFLON TAPE 12
3.8 TUBING TOOLS 13
3.8.1 The Tubing Cutter 13
3.8.2 The De-burring Tool 14
3.9 TUBING INSTALLATION 15


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

Unit No. 3 - Tubing systems
The student will be able to :
• State the minimum radius for a tubing bend.
• State the reasons for sloping process connections (impulse lines) and air
supply lines.
• List the problems which may happen when using compression fittings.
• Explain the use of the deburring tool
• Explain when and when not to use "Teflon" sealing tap.
• Explain the correct tubing fitting to avoid forcing fittings onto an instrument.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The most important mechanical work done by the instrument technician is laying out
and connecting up tubing used for:
• Connections from the process to the instrument
• Pneumatic signal and air supply connections to the instrument.
This unit will explain the basic rules to be followed when carrying out tubing work.
3.2 TUBING
Tubing is seamless thin wall pipe. It is made of copper or stainless steel. It is easy
to bend using simple hand tools.
Normally stainless steel tubing is used throughout the oil/gas industry. This is
because it does not corrode easily. Copper tubing is mostly used for water heating
systems. It is sometimes used in instrumentation workshops.
Low pressure systems, (for example in a training workshop), use plastic tubing
which is cheap and easy to use.
Tubing comes in standard sizes; either metric or imperial. Tubing layouts should be
made all metric or all imperial. They should not be a mixture of both. The table
below shows the standard sizes (outside diameter) of instrument tubing.
Imperial (in inches)
1 /8, 3/16, 1 A 3/8, 1 /2, 5/8, 3/4, 7/8, 1
Metric (in millimetres)

3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 20, 22 25

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
3.3 TUBE BENDING

When bending thin wall tubing it is important not to kink the tube. The radius of a
bend must be at least 2 1/2 times the diameter of the tube as shown in the example
in Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-1 Tube Bending

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Hand tubing benders are made so that the radius of the bend is correct. The correct
use of the hand bender will make good bends automatically. A typical hand tubing
bender is shown in Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2 Hand Tubing Bender


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
3.4 BENDING TUBING TO SIZE

There is a good general rule for bending a piece of tubing to the correct length. You
should bend it at a point one tubing diameter less than the required length. Figure
3-3 shows where you should bend a 1/2" diameter tube in order for it to reach the
required length of 9".
Figure 3-3 Making a 90° Bend

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
You need practice and judgement to make bends of less than 90°, The smaller the
angle, the nearer the bending point to the required length. For example, in Figure
3-3 for a 45° bend, the bending point will be at 8 3/4” Remember it is safer to be too
long and cut a bit off the tubing. You must never force a short tube into a
connection. Tubing which has been strained to fit is dangerous. It stresses the
connectors, which may leak. When it is disconnected it can spring out of place and
injure people standing nearby.
3.5 COMPRESSION FITTINGS
Instrument tubing connections are done using compression fittings. You must not
thread instrument tubing and use a nut to make a connection.
Figure 3-4 Section of a Compression Fitting
Figure 3-4 shows a section through a compression fitting. When the nut is tightened
the twin ferrules are forced into the tube and against the sides of the connector.
They make a metal to metal seal. This seal is very effective if the nut is tightened
correctly. It is good for pressures to at least 10,000 psi.
There are many manufactures of compression fittings, e.g. Parker, Swagelok etc.
Some use only one ferrule (olive) but most use two. The ferrules in different
manufacturers' fittings can not be changed with each other. You must -not mix
different types of compression fittings.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
3.5.1 Making a Compression Fitting.

Figure 3-5 Making a Compression Fitting
With reference to figure 3-5.
Step 1: Simply insert the tubing into the Swagelok tube fitting. Make sure that
the tubing rests firmly on the shoulder of the fitting and that the nut is
finger tight.
Step 2 Hold the connector tightly with a backup wrench. Turn the nut about
1 1/2 turns (from finger tight). This is enough to seal the connection
properly.
Don't over-tighten the nut


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
3.5.2 Remaking a Compression Fitting.

Figure 3-6 Re-making a Compression Fitting
Compression fittings can be re-made many times by the method shown in Figure
3-6. The nut is re-tightened correctly by turning the nut about 1 1/2 turns from finger
tight.
Don't over-tighten the nut!

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
3.6 CONNECTORS
You must choose the right connectors to connect tubing to an instrument, some
plants can use two quite different systems.
• Metric tubing with ISO pipe threads.
• Imperial (fractional), tubing with National Pipe Threads (NPT)
Manufacturers make connectors to fit all systems. They also. make connectors to
connect two different systems. Check which set of connectors are in use on a job
site before doing any new tubing work. Figure 3-7 shows a few of the types of
connector available (Swagelok).
Figure 3-7 Some Tubing Connections

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
3.7 THREADS AND TEFLON TAPE

Teflon tape is used to seal the gaps between threads. It is only used on "tapered
threads". This tape must not be used on threads Of compression fittings. The tape
will stop the metal to metal seal being made. This tape must not be used on parallel
thread connectors. It will stop the connector from sealing on the bottom of the hole.
If Teflon tape is used, make sure the tape is wound in the right direction. When the
connector is screwed into the device the tape must be tightened onto the threads,
(e.g. anticlockwise on a right hand thread). Put on Teflon tape carefully so that it
cannot become loose and block air passages.
A typical example of the correct method of putting on Teflon tape is shown in Figure
3-8.
Figure 3-8 Applying Teflon Tape

Note: Teflon tape is not as popular as it used to be, particularly on systems

running at high temperatures. In some plants special sealing compounds
must be used instead of Teflon tape.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
3.8 TUBING TOOLS

A normal tubing tool kit has two special tools; the tubing cutter and the de-burring
tool.
3.8.1 The Tubing Cutter
Figure 3-9 The Tubing Cutter
Figure 3-9 shows a hand tubing cutter. The tubing is cut by the cutting wheel. This
is rotated, by hand, round and round the tube. The adjustment screw is tightened as
the tube is cut. This keeps the wheel in contact with the tube.
The tubing cutter is easy to use and cuts tubing better than a hacksaw.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
3.8.2 The De-burring Tool

Figure 3-10 De-burring Tools
A tubing cutter will leave rough edges on the inside of the tube. These rough edges
are called burrs. They must be removed before a compression fitting is connected.
These burrs can be removed with a round file but the easiest method is to use a
de-burring tool. The deburring tool has many cutting edges. The tool is rotated by
hand to remove the burrs on the inside of the tube (see Figure 3-10). Make sure the
bits of metal are removed after de-burring. Any particles left inside the tubing will
quickly block instruments connected to the tubing.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
3.9 TUBING INSTALLATION

Air lines are usually fitted at a slight slope. This is to make sure that any moisture
which collects in the lines does not run into the instrument. The instrument is
supplied from the top of the supply line. Moisture collects above the blow down
valve. The blow down valve is opened once a day to blow out any moisture
collected.
Process connections are made differently for gases and liquids. Tubing connections
to a gas line are from above. The tubing slopes upwards to the instrument. Tubing
connections to a liquid line are from below. The tubing slopes downwards to the
instrument. Figure 3-11 shows the above points.
Figure 3-11 Tubing Installation

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

Unit No. 4 - Crimping
UNIT 1 WORKSHOP SAFETY AND TOOL CAR
UNIT 4 CRIMPING


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS,
Para Page
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4
4.2 CRIMPING 4
4.3 CRIMP CONNECTORS 6


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

• Explain the correct method of fitting a conductor into an insulated crimp.
• Explain why a rachet crimping tool should be used.


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to explain the insulated crimp connector used in
instrumentation.
4.2 CRIMPING
This is a method of putting connectors onto electrical/instrument wires so that they

can be terminated into a terminal fitting. Crimps come in two basic types, insulated
and uninsulated.
Insulated crimps are made for small cable sizes. These are the crimps which are
normally used by the instrument technician. These crimps come in three standard
sizes shown by the colour code.
Table 1.
Colour Metric Standard Wire Gauge
Red 0.25 to 1.6mm2 22-18 SWG
Blue .00 to 2.6 mm2 16-14 SWG
Yellow 2.7 to 6.6 mm2 12-10 SWG

Figure 4-1 Insulated Crimp Connection
The conductor must fit the crimp terminal within the stated range, (see table 1). You
must not use a cable which is too small for the crimp terminal if the cable is too
small the crimps will not grip the conductor and the wire can be pulled out. You
must not use a cable which is too big for the crimp terminals. If you force a cable
which is too big into the crimp terminal, the conductor will be squeezed. This
increases the resistance and the connection will get too hot.
The crimps are connected to the conductor with a crimping tool. Insulated wires
should be crimped twice. The first crimp holds the conductor. The second crimp

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
holds the cable (conductor and insulation). See Figure 4-1.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Crimping tools should be of the ratchet type. This means that the correct force must
be applied before the tool can be released. Figure 4-2 shows a twin crimp ratchet
crimping tool. This tool should be used for insulated crimps.
Figure 4-2 Ratchet Crimping Tool
This is a ratchet tool for crimping red, blue/black and yellow insulated crimp
connectors. The tool has one fixed jaw and one movable jaw which makes the tool
easy to use. It may be held in one hand, so the other hand is free to hold the
terminal and the wire. The built in ratchet system ensures a complete crimp is made
every time. You need much less hand force than with normal tools. When a
crimping action has been started the ratchet makes sure the tool cannot be opened
until the jaws have completed the crimping action.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
4.3 CRIMP CONNECTORS
There are various types of connector that can be used, e.g. spade, ring, flat tab,
receptacle etc. Typical examples are shown in Figure 4-3.

Figure 4-3 Typical Insulated Crimp Connectors with Colour Cod

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT 4 CRIMPING


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
PRACTICAL TASK 1 3
PRACTICAL TASK 2 5
PRACTICAL TASK 3 6
PRACTICAL TASK 4 7

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL TASK 1
BASIC FITTING EXERCISE
Tools Required :
Engineer's Rule
Engineer's Set Square
Scriber, Centre Punch and Hammer
Power Drill and Drills
Taps and Dies
Drill and Tap Tables
Test Piece
Job Instructions
1) Make out the test piece as shown on the diagram.
2) Centre punch points ABCDEFGH.
3) Drill
A with a 3.3 mm drill

B with a 4.1 mm drill
C with a 2.05 mm drill
D with a 2.6 mm drill
E with a 7/32" drill
F with a 33/64" drill
G with a 29/64" drill
H with a 17/64" drill
4) Using a tap and tap wrench (metric) make A and C 4mm and 2.5mm
threaded holes.
5) Using a tap and tap wrench (imperial) make E and G 1/4" and 1 /2" threaded
holes.
6) Using a die and die wrench make screws to fit the tapped holes,
i.e. 4mm, 2.5mm, 1/2" and 1/4"
7) Check that B is the clearance hole for the 4mm screw

Check that D is the clearance hole for the 2.5mm screw.
Check that F is the clearance hole for the 1/2" screw.
Check that H is the clearance hole for the 1/4" screw.

TRAINING MANUAL
Test Piece Mild Steel 15mm Plate


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL TASK 2
DISASSEMBLY AND ASSEMBLY WORK
Tools Required
Ring, Open Ended, and Adjustable Spanners
Impact Wrench
Torque Wrench
Job Instructions :
1 Disassemble and assemble control valves, flanges etc. on the instructions of

the instructor.
2) Assemble control valves, flanges etc. on the instruction of the instructor.
3) Remember to tighten a flange using the procedure as shown.
Tighten a little at a time using the sequence shown. Make sure the flange goes
down flat, not tipped to one side.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL TASK 3
TUBING EXERCISE
Tool Required :
Tubing bender, tubing cutter and deburring tool
Various tubing sizes
Various compression fittings
Job Instructions :
After the instructor has demonstrated the correct connection of tubing to a

compression fitting, practice making connections yourself.
Making the correct connection of tubing to a compression fitting is not as easy as it

seems., When the instructor is satisfied with your fittings carry out the following
exercise.
Use 4 1/2" NTP 1/4 " tubing, male connectors, one union cross ' and various
lengths of A " tubing. Make the layout shown in the diagram.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
PRACTICAL TASK 4
CRIMPING EXERCISE
Tool Required :
Various conductor sizes (to fit 1.5, 2 and 3.5mm connectors)
Various insulated connectors (spade, receptacle, pin, etc.)
Terminal strips (e.g. Klippon series)
Double crimp - rachet type crimping tools
Job Instructions
Crimp various conductors With different types of crimp connectors. Practice the
crimping technique until the work is satisfactory to the instructor.
Connect various conductors to a terminal strip. The layout of the connections will be
given by the instructor.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
MODULE No. 12
INTRODUCTION TO PLC
July 1999- Rev.0

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

Unit No. 1 - PLC Fundamental
UNIT 1 PLC FUNDAMENTALS

Module No. 12 : Introduction to PLC

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para Page
1.1 INTRODUCTION, 4
1.2 PLC SYSTEMS 4
1.3 RELAY SYSTEMS AND PLC COMPARISON 6
1.4 PLC SYSTEM EXAMPLES 8
1.4.1 The Allen-Bradley System 8
1.4.2 The Dual Redundant Emergency Shut Down PLC System 11
1.4.3 Triple Redundant PLC Systems 13


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION

• Explain the difference between PLC systems and the older relay systems.
• Explain the operation of a simple PLC ladder diagram.
• Explain the function of the Allen-Bradley PLC components.
• Explain using a block diagram the three basic PLC systems:
1. Single µP PLC
2. Dual redundant PLC
3. Triple redundant PLC
• Give examples of where the different types of PLC would be used.


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this unit is to explain the fundamentals of a Programmable Logic

Controller (PLC). It will also act as an introduction to the main part of the course;
practical work on a PLC unit.
1.2 PLC SYSTEMS
There are various manufacturers of PLC equipment. They all use different methods
for sending data and make their diagrams to different standards. This means that
the operating companies do not mix the different types of PLC systems. You cannot
mix PLC systems when controlling a process. Some of the PLC systems used in the
fields are:
The most common PLC systems are Allen-Bradley and Modicon which use the
ladder diagram method for PLC logic. This system is explained here so that you can
practice programming techniques on the Allen-Bradley training equipment available
in the workshop.

Module No. 12 : Introduction to PLC Unit No. 1 - PLC Fundamental
July 1999- Rev.0

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Page 5/14
TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
1.3 RELAY SYSTEMS AND PLC COMPARISON
The ladder diagram used has been explained using relays. Figure 1-2 shows a
block diagram of the overall system using relays. It is sometimes called a

HARD-WIRED control system. When the control logic is installed it can only be
changed manually.
Note: The relay system is still preferred in some safety systems as it is very
difficult to check the software operation of a PLC for faults.
Figure 1-2 Block Diagram Relay Logic Control


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
A PLC collects inputs and distributes outputs in the same way as a relay logic
circuit. However, the relays are replaced by a microprocessor which is programmed
to provide the switching logic. Figure 1-3 shows a typical PLC block diagram based
on Allen-Bradley.
Figure 1-3 Block Diagram Programmable Logic Control


TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
1.4 PLC SYSTEM EXAMPLES

1.4.1 The Allen-Bradley System

Figure 1-4 Main Components of Allen Bradley PLC

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 1-4 shows the major components of an Allen-Bradley PLC. It consists of the
following units.
1) Main Processor Unit.
• This units provides the following functions
• The system µP and RAM.
• EEPROM memory compartment. An EEPROM is normally added as

a back-up to hold the RAM programme in case of system failure.
• Input conditioning for 10 inputs with status indicators.
• 6 separate outputs with status indicators.
• Battery compartment with lithium battery. This battery supplies D.C.

power to hold the RAM data if the mains supply is lost.
• Communication port so that the processor RAM can be

reprogrammed.
The unit is powered by a standard single phase supply WAE: 240V-50 Hz).
This supply is connected to the incoming line terminals.
2) Expansion 1/0 unit.
This unit is connected to the main processor unit by a cable. It uses the
connections shown to provide increased 1/0's. This provides an extra 10
inputs and 6 outputs. There are status indicators for each 1/0. This unit gets
d.c. power from the main processor unit. A d.c. power indicator is provided
to show that this unit is powered -correctly.
Note: Allen-Bradley also supply a hard-wired relay expansion unit.
This unit is used if higher current switching is required. Maximum 2.5A

continuous when switching either 240V a.c. or 24V d.c.
3) Pocket Programmer.
This unit has a keyboard and display panel. It is used to programme

(configure) the required logic operations. This will be used in the workshop
when you try some simple programming techniques.

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
The Allen-Bradley system described is one of the simple single µP types. It is used
for
a) Controlling a single process (e.g. pump starting, ship loading sequences

etc.)
b) Larger processes which have no effect on plant safety. (Therefore they must
be cheap, e.g. fire detector systems for accommodation units etc.)
c) As a back-up for a large safety system. (E.g. to operate a shutdown if the

emergency shut-down button is pressed or a fire alarm if the "break glass"
unit is operated).

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
1.4.2 The Dual Redundant Emergency Shut Down PLC System
The most important feature of an ESD system is that it must only operate when
there is a failure in the plant. There are two main problems if the ESD equipment
fails. The first problem is the high cost of lost production. The second problem is
that if the ESD equipment keeps failing the operations staff by-pass the system in
order to keep the plant running. The dual redundant PLC system reduces the
chance of an ESD system shutting down the plant because of ESD equipment
failure. However, it ensures the plant is shut-down when there is a failure in the
plant. Figure 1-5 shows the basic block diagram of a fully redundant PLC system
(e.g. the new Allen-Bradley PLC-5 series and ICS).
Figure 1-5 Dual Redundant PLC System

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
OPERATION
1) The field inputs are applied to two identical PLC systems in parallel.
2) The software program for the PLC is applied to both µPs
3) If the field inputs are correct then the plant operates.
4) If a field input fails then both PLC systems will detect this. In this case both
the output control elements will shut-down the plant.
5) Because there are two identical PLC systems the chances of a fault on both
at the same time is very small. Therefore, a fault on one PLC system will not
cause a shut-down because the good system will still hold the output control
elements in the correct position.
6) A faulty unit in the PLC system will indicate it has a fault. Therefore,
maintenance can be carried out while the system is still running under the
control of the good PLC system.
7) This type of system uses automatic line checking to ensure the input/output
wiring and devices are connected correctly. These systems will be learnt
during advanced training at work.
8) Dual redundant systems are used to control a complete ESD system. They
provide a good level of safety at a reasonable cost (e.g. for platform control,
oil/gas production units, etc.)

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
1.4.3 Triple Redundant PLC Systems
This system is the latest type of safety system. It ensures the plant only shuts down
because of a plant failure but not because of an equipment failure. These systems
are expensive. They are only used when the highest safety and reliability is
required; e.g. large installations such as refineries, LNG plants etc.
An example of the triple redundant PLC is the AUGUST C 300 system. This system
is used in the refinery at Umm AI Nar. AUGUST control systems claim that their
system is 99.999% guaranteed to shut down the plant ONLY if there is a plant
failure.
Figure 1-6 Triple Redundant PLC System

TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 1-6 shows the basic principle of a triple redundant PLC system. This is
sometimes called the 3.2.0 system. The voting unit will keep the plant running if 3 or
2 of the parallel systems are working correctly. It will shut the plant down if only 1 or
none of the systems give the correct outputs. The software programme is fed into
the three µPs It uses a self checking system so a µP can detect faults in its own
system. All the units have fault indicators so that they can be changed while the
system continues to work using the good units.
All input/output wiring and devices are automatically checked to ensure that they
are connected correctly.
These systems are very complicated and will be learnt on the job, as it depends on
what system the plant uses.

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TRAINING MANUAL

July 1999- Rev.0

Unit 1 Measurement of Temperature

MODULE No. 3 - INSTRUMENTATION 3

Unit 1 Converters and Positioners

MODULE No. 4 - INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS 1

Unit 1 The Electrical Circuit

Unit 1 Basic Semiconductor Theory

Unit 1 Digital Mathematics

MODULE No. 7 - INSTRUMENT WORKSHOP

Unit 1 Practical Tasks

MODULE No. 8 - P&ID’s

Unit 1 General Symbols

MODULE No. 9 - CONTROL SYSTEMS 1

MODULE No. 10 - PROCESS CONTROL FUNDAMENTAL

Unit 1 Basic Control Theory

MODULE No. 11 - INSTRUMENT CRAFT PRACTICE

MODULE No. 12 - INTRODUCTION TO PLC

Unit 1 PLC Fundamentals

July 1999- Rev.0

July 1999- Rev.0

UNITS IN THIS COURSE

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT 2 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

UNIT 3 THE PRESSURE TRANSMITTER

UNIT 4 FLOW MEASUREMENT

UNIT 5 MEASUREMENT OF LEVEL

UNIT 6 PRACTICAL TASKS

July 1999- Rev.0 Page 1/9

1.0 COURSE OBJECTIVE 3

1.2 INSTRUMENT WORK 4

1.3 BASIC DEFINITIONS 5

1.4 PROCESS CONTROL 7

1.4.1 Open Loop (Manual Control) 7

1.4.2 Closed Loop (Automatic Control) 8

July 1999- Rev.0 Page 2/9

1.0 COURSE OBJECTIVE

The student will be able to

• Explain in general terms the duties of an instrument technician.

• Define the following terms used in instrumentation.

⇒ Process and process variable.

⇒ Transmitter and transmission signal

⇒ Process loop and plant

⇒ Indicate and record.

• Explain in general terms the purpose of instrumentation to obtain automatic

July 1999- Rev.0 Page 3/9

1.2 INSTRUMENT WORK

The duties of an instrument technician fall into five main areas.

• Repair and calibration of instruments which measure physical quantities, for

• Carry out preventive maintenance programs.

July 1999- Rev.0 Page 4/9

1.3 BASIC DEFINITIONS

• Instrument - Any device for measuring, indicating,

• Instrumentation - A complete set of instruments used to

• Indicator - A device which shows a measured value to

• Recorder - A device which continuously records

• Process Loop - A group of instruments used to control a

• Process - The operator's word for a manufacturing

• Measured Variable - The value of the property being controlled

• Desired Value - The value required by the operator.

• Error Signal - The difference between the measured

(ES) variable and the set point should be zero

• Controller - A device, either pneumatic or electrical /