Heat Transfer Lectures

Chemical Engineering Department

University of Technology, Iraq

Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

From the study of thermodynamics in the second grade, you have learned that energy can
be transferred by interactions of a system with its surroundings. These interactions are called work
and heat. However, thermodynamics deals with the end states of the process during which an
interaction occurs and provides no information concerning the nature of the interaction or the time
rate at which it occurs. Therefore, the primary goal of this class (i.e., heat transfer) is to extend
thermodynamic analysis through the study of the modes of heat transfer and the development of
relations to calculate heat transfer rates.

Heat: It is a form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another because of the
temperature difference.

Thermodynamics: it is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a

process from one equilibrium state to another.

• Thermodynamics is applicable to systems that are in thermal equilibrium while heat

transfer deals with systems that are not in thermal equilibrium.
• Heat Transfer: it deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers as well
as variation of temperature.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature medium to the lower-
temperature one.
• Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction, convection, and radiation
• All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference.
1. Modes of Heat Transfer
Heat can be transferred in three basic modes as follow:
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

1.1. Conduction
The transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent
less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles.
• Conduction in gases and liquids occur due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules
during their random molecular motion.
• Conduction in solids occurs due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a
lattice and the energy transport by free electrons.
Examples on heat conduction
• Heating a metal spoon when it suddenly immersed in a cup of hot tea.
• Losing heat from heated room to outside during the winter season.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane wall is directly proportional to the temperature
difference across the wall and the heat transfer area but is inversely proportional to the thickness
of the wall according to Fourier's law. For the one-dimensional plane wall shown in Figure 1 ,
having a temperature distribution T(x), the rate of heat conduction under the steady-state
conditions can be expressed as follow:

T1 > T2

Figure 1: One-dimensional heat transfer

(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)(𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠

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𝑑𝑇 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) Δ𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴 = −𝑘𝐴 = +𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) Δ𝑥
Δ𝑇
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴 (1)
Δ𝑥
Where
𝒒: heat transfer rate, J/s, W
𝒌: thermal conductivity, W/m. K, W/m.oC, Btu/hr.ft.Fo
𝑨: Area of heat transfer, m2, ft2
𝒅𝑻
: temperature gradient, oC/m
𝒅𝒙
𝚫𝑻: temperature difference, oC, K
𝚫𝒙: thickness of the plane wall, m
The negative sign in the Fourier's law is introduced to account for the fact that heat is
𝑑𝑇
conducted from a high temperature to a low temperature, so that (𝑑𝑥 ) inherently negative;

therefore, the double negative indicates a positive flow of heat in the direction of decreasing
temperature. Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and the temperature
gradient becomes negative when temperature decreases with increasing x. The negative sign in the
equation ensures that heat transfer in the positive x-direction is a positive quantity
Thermal Conductivity, k
According to Fourier’s law, Eq. (1), the thermal conductivity is defined as:
𝑞/𝐴 𝑞" q Δ𝑥
𝑘= = = (2)
|𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑥| |𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑥| 𝐴 Δ𝑇
For engineering calculations, we generally use experimentally measured values of thermal
conductivity (see Figure 2), although for gases at moderate temperatures the kinetic theory of
gases can be used to predict the experimental values accurately.
• The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct
heat.
• A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a good heat conductor
while the low value indicates that the material is a poor heat conductor (i.e., insulator).

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Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

Table 1: Thermal conductivities of some materials at room temperature (25 Co)

Materials type Thermal conductivity, k

(W/m. oC)
Diamond 2300
Silver 429
Copper 401
Gold 317
Aluminum 237
Iron 80.2
Mercury 8.54
Glass 0.78
Brick 0.72
Water 0.607
Human skin 0.37
Wood (Oak) 0.17
Helium (g) 0.152
Soft rubber 0.13
Glass fiber 0.043
Air 0.026
Urethane, rigid foam 0.026

Electric heater Insulation

Sample of
T1 material
k

T2
Insulation

Power supply Insulation

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of the experimental setup to determine the thermal conductivity of a material

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Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

Thermal Diffusivity (α)

It measures the ability of a material to conduct thermal energy relative to its ability to store
thermal energy. The thermal diffusivity can be defined as:
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑘
𝛼= = (3)
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝜌𝐶𝑝
Where
𝜶: thermal diffusivity, m2/s
𝒌: thermal conductivity, W/m.oC
𝝆: density of material, kg/m3
𝑪𝒑 : heat capacity, J/kg.oC
• Thermal diffusivity represents how fast heat diffuses through a material.
• A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat capacity will obviously have
a large thermal diffusivity (see Table 2).
• The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the medium.
• A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material and
a small amount of heat is conducted further.

Table 2: Thermal diffusivities of some materials at room temperature

Material Thermal diffusivity, α (m2/s)

Silver 149×10-6
Gold 127×10-6
Copper 113×10-6
Aluminum 97.5×10-6
Iron 22.8×10-6
Mercury 4.7×10-6
Marble 1.2×10-6
Ice 1.2×10-6
Concrete 0.75×10-6
Brick 0.52×10-6
Heavy soil (dry) 0.52×10-6
Glass 0.34×10-6
Glass wool 0.23×10-6
Water 0.14×10-6
Wood (oak) 0.13×10-6

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
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Example 1: The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15-m-thick fireclay brick
having a thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/m.K. Measurements made during steady state operation
reveal temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. Determine
the rate of heat loss and heat flux through a wall that is 0.5 m by 1.2 m on a side.
Solution:
Assumptions:
1. One-dimensional conduction through the wall.
2. Steady-state conditions.
3. Constant thermal conductivity.
Analysis:
Since the heat transfers through the wall by conduction mode, therefore, the heat transfer rate can
be calculated from Fourier’s law.

H= 0.5 m

T1= 1400 K q

T2= 1150 K

Δ𝑇 Δ𝑇
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘𝐴
Δ𝑥 L
Calculating heat transfer Area
𝐴 =𝑊×𝐻
𝐴 = 1.2 𝑚 × 0.5 𝑚 = 0.6 𝑚2
Calculating heat transfer rate
(1400 − 1150)
𝑞 = 1.7 × 0.6 × = 1700 𝑊
0.15
Calculating heat flux
𝑞 1700
𝑞" = = = 2833.33 𝑊/𝑚2
𝐴 0.6

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Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

1.2. Convection
The mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is
in motion when the two (i.e., solid surface and fluid) are at different temperatures. Consider fluid
flow over the heated surface of Figure 3. A consequence of the fluid surface interaction is the
development of a region in the fluid through which the velocity varies from zero at the surface to
a finite value 𝑢∞ associated with the flow. This region of the fluid is known as the boundary layer.
Moreover, if the surface and flow temperatures differ, there will be a region of the fluid through
which the temperature varies from 𝑇𝑠 at 𝑦 = 0 to 𝑇∞ to in the outer flow. This region called the
thermal boundary layer. The size of the thermal boundary layer could be smaller, larger or the
same size of the hydrodynamic boundary layer.
The convection heat transfer mode is sustained both by random molecular motion and by
the bulk motion of the fluid within the boundary layer. The contribution due to random molecular
motion (diffusion) dominates near the surface where the fluid velocity is low.

Figure 3: Boundary layer development in convection heat transfer

Convection heat transfer can be classified according to the nature of the flow for the fluid as
follows:
1.2.1 Forced convection
This type of convection occurs when the fluid is forced to flow over the heated surface by
external means such as a fan, pump, or wind.

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

1.2.2 Natural convection (free convection)

This kind of convection occurs when the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that
are induced by density differences due to the variation of temperature in the fluid.
Heat transfer processes that involve a change of phase of a fluid are also considered to be
convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process, such as the rise of the vapor
bubbles during boiling (i.e., boiling process) or by the condensation of water vapor on the outer
surface of a cold water pipe (i.e., condensation process). Figure 4 shows the different types of
convection processes.

Steam

Figure 4: Convection heat transfer processes. (a) Forced convection. (b) Natural convection. (c) Boiling. (d)
Condensation

Regardless of the details of the mechanism and types of convection, the rate of heat transfer by
convection between a surface and a fluid (i.e., gas or liquid) can be calculated from the following
equation:
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇∞ ) (4)
where
𝒒: rate of heat transfer by convection, W (Btu/h)
𝒉: heat transfer coefficient over the area A, W/m2 oC , W/m2 .K (Btu/h ft2 °F)
𝑨: surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place, m2 (ft2)
𝑻𝑺 : surface temperature, K (°F)
𝑻∞ : fluid temperature at some specified location (i.e., usually far away from the surface), K (°F)

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Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

The equation expressed by Eq. 4 was originally proposed by the British scientist Isaac
Newton in 1701 and also it is called Newton’s law of cooling. The convection heat transfer
coefficient h is not a property of the fluid. It is an experimentally determined parameter whose
value depends on all the variables influencing convection such as the surface geometry, the nature
of fluid motion, the properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity. Table 3 shows the heat
transfer coefficients for different processes.

Table 3:heat transfer coefficients for different processes

Heat transfer coefficient

Process
𝒉 (𝑾/𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲)
Free convection
Gases 2-25
Liquid 50-1000
Forced convection
Gases 25-250
Liquid 100-20000
Convection with phase change
Boiling or condensation 2500–100,000

Example 2: Calculate the rate of heat transfer by natural convection between a shed roof of area
20 m × 20 m and ambient air, if the roof surface temperature is 27°C, the air temperature -3°C,
and the average convection heat transfer coefficient 10 W/m2 K. See Figure 5
Solution:
Assumptions:
Steady-state conditions.
The rate of heat transfer by convection from the roof to the air is given by Newton’s law as follows:
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑞 = 10 (20 × 20)(27 − (−3))
𝑞 = 120,000 𝑊

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Figure 5: Schematic sketch of shed for analysis of roof temperature

1.3. Radiation
The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result
of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not require the
presence of an intervening medium (i.e., radiation occurs most efficiently in a vacuum).
• Any object above 0 oK/-273 oC emits heat. However, it will also absorb heat radiation.
• All solids, liquids, and gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for solids.
Consider radiation transfer processes for the surface of Figure 6. Radiation that is emitted by an
ideal radiator (i.e., black body) can be expressed by the Stefan–Boltzmann law:

𝐸
𝐺

𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜀, 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝛼,

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑆

Figure 6: Radiation exchange at a surface

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𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎 𝑇𝑆4 (5)
Where
𝑬𝒃 : rate at which energy is released per unit area (W/m2)
𝝈: Stefan–Boltzmann constant (5.670 × 10-8 W/m2 · K4)
𝑻𝑺 : absolute temperature (K) of the surface
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate. However, in the
reality, no objects emit at an ideal radiator. in other words, they emit at a slightly lower value than
that. Therefore, to quantify that emissivity parameter (𝜀) has been used in Stefan–Boltzmann law
as follows:
𝐸 = 𝜀 𝜎 𝑇𝑆4 (6)
Where 𝐸 represents heat flux emitted by a real surface which is less than that of a blackbody at the
same temperature.
Emissivity 𝜺: A measure of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody for which 𝜀 = 1 of
the surface. the range of emissivity for real surfaces lies 0 ≤ 𝜀 ≤ 1 as shown in
Table 4.

Table 4: Emissivity of selected materials at a range of temperature 0 to 250°C

Material Emissivity, ε
Aluminum (Polished) 0.10 - 0.05
Aluminum (Oxidized) 0.10 - 0.40
Aluminum (Rough) 0.10 - 0.30
Brass (Polished) 0.05
Brass (Oxidized) 0.50 - 0.60
Brass (Burnished) 0.30
Ceramic 0.90 - 0.95
Copper (Polished) 0.10
Copper (Oxidized) 0.20 - 0.80
Paper 0.85 - 1.00
Plastic 0.95 - 1.00

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Radiation may also incident on a surface from its surrounding. Therefore, the object may also
absorb radiation and it can be expressed about the absorbed energy as follows:
𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝛼 𝐺 (7)
Where
𝑮𝒂𝒃𝒔 : rate at which radiant energy is absorbed per unit surface area, W/m2
𝑮: incident radiation, W/m2
𝜶: absorptivity
Absorptivity, 𝜶: The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface that is absorbed by the
surface. The range of absorptivity for real surfaces is 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 1.
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it (i.e., 𝛼 = 1).

𝐺
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑓 = (1 − 𝛼) 𝐺

𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝛼 𝐺
A special case that occurs frequently involves radiation exchange between a small surface
at 𝑇𝑆 and a much larger, isothermal surface that completely surrounds the smaller one (Figure 7).
The surroundings could, for example, be the walls of a room or a furnace whose temperature 𝑇sur
differs from that of an enclosed surface.

Surrounding
surfaces at 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟

Air E

G
𝜀, 𝐴𝑆 ,𝑇𝑆

Figure 7: Radiation exchange between surface and large surroundings

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If the surface is assumed to be one for which (a gray surface), the net rate of radiation heat transfer
from the surface can be expressed as follows:

Net radiation heat transfer: The difference between the rates of radiation emitted by the
surface and the radiation absorbed.

𝑞 = 𝐸 − 𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠 (8)
By replacing the 𝐸 and 𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠 , Eq. 8 becomes

𝑞 = 𝜀 𝐴 𝜎 𝑇𝑆4 − 𝛼 𝐴𝜎 𝑇𝑆𝑢𝑟
4
(9)
If the surface is assumed to be one for which 𝜀 = 𝛼 (a gray surface), the above equation becomes
as follows:

𝑞 = 𝜀 𝐴 𝜎 𝑇𝑆4 − 𝜀 𝐴𝜎 𝑇𝑆𝑢𝑟
4
(10)
𝑞 = 𝜀 𝐴 𝜎 ( 𝑇𝑆4 − 𝑇𝑆𝑢𝑟
4
) (11)
This expression provides the difference between thermal energy that is released due to
radiation emission and that which is gained due to radiation absorption.

Radiation is usually significant relative to conduction or natural convection, but negligible

relative to forced convection.

When radiation and convection occur simultaneously between a surface and a gas

𝑞 = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝐴(𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇∞ ) (11)

Combined heat transfer coefficient ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 includes the effects of both convection and
radiation.

𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝐴𝑆 (𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 ) + 𝜀 𝜎𝐴𝑆 (𝑇𝑆4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟

4 )

𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑆 (𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 )

ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝜀 𝜎 (𝑇𝑆 + 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 )(𝑇𝑆2 + 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟
2 )

Example 3: An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at
25°C. The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are
200°C and 0.8, respectively. What are the surface emissive power and irradiation? If the coefficient
associated with free convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is 15 W/m2. K, what is the
rate of heat loss from the surface per unit length of pipe?

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Solution
Assumptions:
• Steady-state conditions.
• Radiation exchange between the pipe and the room is between a small surface and a much
larger enclosure.
• The surface emissivity and absorptivity are equal.
The surface emissive power can be evaluated from the following equation
𝐸 = 𝜀 𝜎 𝑇𝑆4 = 0.8(5.670 × 10−8 )(200 + 273.15)4 = 2273 𝑊/𝑚2
The irradiation can be calculated from the following equation
4
𝐺 = 𝜎 𝑇𝑆𝑢𝑟 = (5.670 × 10−8 )(25 + 273.15)4 = 448 𝑊/𝑚2
Heat loss from the pipe is by convection to the room air and by radiation exchange with the walls.
Hence,
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝐴𝑆 (𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇∞ ) + 𝜀 𝜎𝐴𝑆 (𝑇𝑆4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟
4 )

Since 𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿
𝑞 = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝜋𝐷𝐿(𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇∞ ) + 𝜀 𝜎𝜋𝐷𝐿(𝑇𝑆4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟
4 )

𝑞
𝑞 ′ = = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝜋𝐷(𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇∞ ) + 𝜀 𝜎𝜋𝐷(𝑇𝑆4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟
4 )
𝐿
𝑞
𝑞′ = = 15 × 𝜋 × 0.07(200 − 25) + 0.8(5.670 × 10−8 ) × 𝜋 × 0.07((473.15)4 − (298.15)4 )
𝐿
𝑞
𝑞 ′ = = 998 𝑊/𝑚
𝐿
Comments
• Note that temperature may be expressed in units of °C or K when evaluating the
temperature difference for a convection (or conduction) heat transfer rate. However, the
temperature must be expressed in kelvins (K) when evaluating a radiation transfer rate.
• The net rate of radiation heat transfer from the pipe may be expressed as

𝑞 = 𝐸 − 𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠
Since
𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝛼 𝐺
𝑞=𝐸− 𝛼𝐺
𝑞
𝑞′ =
= 𝐸 − 𝛼 𝐺 = 𝜋𝐷(𝐸 − 𝛼 𝐺)
𝐿
𝑞
𝑞 ′ = = 𝜋𝐷(𝐸 − 𝛼 𝐺) = 𝜋 × 0.07(2273 − 0.8 × 448)
𝐿

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𝑞
𝑞′ = = 421 𝑊/𝑚
𝐿
• In this situation, the radiation and convection heat transfer rates are comparable because Ts
is large compared to Tsur and the coefficient associated with free convection is small. For
more moderate values of Ts and the larger values of h associated with forced convection,
the effect of radiation may often be neglected.

Air q

T∞=25oC
L E
h=15 W/m2. K

TS=200oC
ε=0.8

G
Tsur = 25 oC

1.4 The Conduction Equation (The Heat Diffusion Equation)

The conduction equation is a mathematical expression of the conservation of energy in a
solid substance. In this section, general conduction equation will be derived. A solution of this
equation, subject to given initial and boundary conditions, yields the temperature distribution (i.e.,
the temperature profile) in a solid system. Once the temperature distribution is known, the heat
transfer rate in the conduction mode can be evaluated by applying Fourier’s law.

Assumptions

• Heat transfer in three directions (Cartesian coordinates) .

• Heat transfer only by conduction.
• Conductivity (𝑘), density(𝜌) , and specific heat (𝐶𝑝 ) of the solid are all constant

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𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑞𝑧+𝑑𝑧
𝑞𝑦+𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑧
𝐸𝑔̇
𝑞𝑥 𝑞𝑥+𝑑𝑥

𝐸𝑠𝑡̇
𝑧
𝑦
𝑑𝑦
𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑞𝑦
𝑞𝑧

Figure 8: Differential control volume, dx dy dz, for conduction analysis in Cartesian coordinates

𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

( )+( )
into the control volume 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
=( )+( )
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
(𝑞𝑥 + 𝑞𝑦 + 𝑞𝑧 ) + 𝐸𝑔̇ = (𝑞𝑥+𝑑𝑥 + 𝑞𝑦+𝑑𝑦 + 𝑞𝑧+𝑑𝑧 ) + 𝐸𝑠𝑡̇

Since
𝜕𝑞𝑥
𝑞𝑥+𝑑𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑞𝑦
𝑞𝑦+𝑑𝑦 = 𝑞𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑞𝑧
𝑞𝑧+𝑑𝑧 = 𝑞𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧
𝐸𝑔̇ = 𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝐸𝑠𝑡̇ = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Therefore
𝜕𝑞𝑥 𝜕𝑞𝑦 𝜕𝑞𝑧 𝜕𝑇
(𝑞𝑥 + 𝑞𝑦 + 𝑞𝑧 ) − ((𝑞𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥) + (𝑞𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦) + (𝑞𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧)) + 𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

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𝜕𝑞𝑥 𝜕𝑞𝑦 𝜕𝑞𝑧 𝜕𝑇

− 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
where
𝒒̇ : energy generated per unit volume, W/m3
𝑪𝒑 : specific heat of material, J/kg ◦C

𝝆: density, kg/m3
𝜕𝑇
Since 𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑦 = −𝑘 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑧 = −𝑘 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑞𝑧 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
− (−𝑘 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ) 𝑑𝑥 − (−𝑘 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 )𝑑𝑦 − (−𝑘 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 )𝑑𝑧 + 𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑘 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 2
+ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 2
+ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 2
+ 𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
dividing both side of the equation on 𝑘 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞̇ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝜕𝑇
+ + + =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑘 𝑘 𝜕𝑡
𝑘
Since thermal diffusivity, α = 𝜌𝐶 ,Therefore, the above equation becomes
𝑝

𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞̇ 1 𝜕𝑇
+ + + = (12)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
Additional simplifications of the general form of the heat equation are often possible. For example,
under steady-state conditions, there can be no change in the amount of energy storage; hence above
equation reduces to
𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞̇
+ + + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑘
Moreover, if there is no energy generation, the above equation reduces to
𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇
+ + = ∇2 𝑇 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
Where ∇2 represents the Laplacian operator

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Furthermore, if heat transfer in one direction (e.g., x-direction)

𝜕 2𝑇
=0
𝜕𝑥 2
General conduction equation for cylindrical coordinates
1𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞̇ 1 𝜕𝑇
(𝑟 ) + 2 2 + + = (13)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
General conduction equation for spherical coordinates
1 𝜕 2 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 2𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝑞̇ 1 𝜕𝑇
2
(𝑟 ) + 2 2 2
+ 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 )+ = (14)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

Example 4: An electric current flow along a flat steel plate with a thickness of 1.25 cm and 10 cm
wide. The temperature of one face of the plate is 80 oC, and that of other face is 95 oC. The heat
generated by the current is 88780 KW/m3, and the thermal conductivity of steel is 54 W/m.K. the
heat loss from the short sides of the plate is negligible.

1. Obtain the temperature distribution across the plate.

2. Find the position of the maximum temperature.
3. Calculate the total amount of heat generated per meter length of the plate and the flow of
heat for each surface of the plate.

𝒌𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 =54 W/m. K

𝒒̇ =88780 KW/m3 80 oC

1.25 cm
95 oC

By recalling general equation of conduction

𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞̇ 1 𝜕𝑇
+ + + =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

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Since
• Steady state conditions
• Heat transfer in one direction only (x-direction)
• Constant thermal conductivity
Therefore, the above equation becomes
𝜕 2 𝑇 𝑞̇
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑘
𝜕 2 𝑇 8878000 𝜕 2𝑇
+ = 0 ⇒ = −1644074
𝜕𝑥 2 54 𝜕𝑥 2
By integrating both sides, we obtain
𝜕𝑇
= −1644074 𝑥 + 𝐴 (1)
𝜕𝑥
By integrating both sides
𝑥2
𝑇 = −1644074 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
2
𝑇 = −822037 𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 (2)
To solve above equation, we need two boundary conditions
𝐵. 𝐶. 1 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑇 = 95 𝐶 𝑜
𝐵. 𝐶. 2 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0.0125 𝑚 𝑇 = 80 𝐶 𝑜
By substituting B.C.1 into Eq. 2, we obtain
95 = −822037 (0)2 + 𝐴(0) + 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = 95
Hence Eq. 2 becomes
𝑇 = −822037 𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑥 + 95 (3)
Now, by substituting B.C.2 into Eq. 3, we get
80 = −822037 (0.0125)2 + 𝐴 (0.0125) + 95 ⇒ 𝐴 = 9075
By substituting the values of A and B into Eq. 2, we obtain
𝑇 = −822037 𝑥 2 + 9075 𝑥 + 95 (4)
Eq.4 represents temperature distribution (i.e., temperature profile, T(x))

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0.016

0.014

0.012
Thickness, m
0.01

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.002

0
60 80 100 120 140
Temperature, oC

Figure 9: temperature distribution

𝜕𝑇
To find the position of maximum temperature, that’s mean 𝜕𝑥 = 0

Hence, we need to find the derivative of Eq. 4

𝜕𝑇
= −1644074 𝑥 + 9075 ⇒ 0 = −1644074 𝑥 + 9075 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0.0055 𝑚
𝜕𝑥
To find the Tmax we need to submit the value of x into temperature distribution Eq.4
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0.0055
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −822037 (0.0055)2 + 9075 (0.0055) + 95 ⇒ 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 120 𝐶 𝑜
Heat transfer from the bottom surface of plate
𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑥=0 = −𝑘𝐴 | (5)
𝜕𝑥 𝑥=0
Since
𝜕𝑇
= −1644074 𝑥 + 9075
𝜕𝑥
Hence
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
| = −1644074 (0) + 9075 ⇒ | = 9075
𝜕𝑥 𝑥=0 𝜕𝑥 𝑥=0
𝜕𝑇
Now by substituting the value of 𝜕𝑥 | into Eq.5
𝑥=0

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𝑞𝑥=0 = −(54)(1 × 0.1)(9075) = 49005 𝑊

Heat transfer from the top surface of plate
𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑥=0.0125 = −𝑘𝐴 | (6)
𝜕𝑥 𝑥=0.0125

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
| = −1644074 (0.0125) + 9075 ⇒ | = 11476
𝜕𝑥 𝑥=0.0125 𝜕𝑥 𝑥=0.0125
𝜕𝑇
Now by substituting the value of 𝜕𝑥 | into Eq.6
𝑥=0.0125

𝑞𝑥=0.0125 = −(54)(1 × 0.1)(11476) = 61970 𝑊

total heat flow (top + bottom) = 49005 + 61970 = 110975 𝑊 = 111 𝐾𝑊
the above value of heat transfer should be close to the value of heat generation, let us see
𝑞 = 𝑞̇ × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 88780(1 × 0.1 × 0.0125) = 111 𝐾𝑊

1.5 Steady-State Conduction One Dimension

In this section, we will examine the applications of Fourier’s law of heat conduction to
calculate the of heat flow rate in some simple one-dimensional systems such as a composite wall,
cylinder, and sphere systems.

1.5.1Conduction through a composite wall

To find the heat transfer rate through a composite wall let us consider Figure 10.
Assumptions
• heat transfer in one direction (x-direction)
• steady-state conditions
• constant thermal conductivity

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T1
T2

q q
T3
T4

kA kB kC

ΔxA ΔxB ΔxC

Figure 10: One-dimensional heat transfer through a composite wall

By applying Fourier’s law for each layer, we will obtain

𝑘𝐴 𝐴
𝑞= (𝑇 − 𝑇2 ) (15)
∆𝑥𝐴 1
𝑘𝐵 𝐴
𝑞= (𝑇 − 𝑇3 ) (16)
∆𝑥𝐵 2
𝑘𝐶 𝐴
𝑞= (𝑇 − 𝑇4 ) (17)
∆𝑥𝐶 3
by arranging the above equations (15,16, and 17), we will obtain
∆𝑥𝐴
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = 𝑞 (18)
𝑘𝐴 𝐴
∆𝑥𝐵
(𝑇2 − 𝑇3 ) = 𝑞 (19)
𝑘𝐵 𝐴
∆𝑥𝐶 (20)
(𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) = 𝑞
𝑘𝐶 𝐴
Solving these three equations (18, 19, and 20) simultaneously
∆𝑥𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐵 ∆𝑥𝐶
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 + 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 + 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 = 𝑞+ 𝑞+ 𝑞
𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴
∆𝑥𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐵 ∆𝑥𝐶
𝑇1 − 𝑇4 = 𝑞 [ + + ]
𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴
Hence, the heat flow can be written as follows

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(𝑇1 − 𝑇4 )
𝑞=
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 (21)
[ 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶]
𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴
The heat-transfer rate may be considered as a flow, and the combination of thermal
conductivity, thickness of material, and area as a resistance to this flow. The temperature is the
potential, or driving, function for the heat flow, and the Fourier equation may be written

thermal potential difference

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = (22)
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

The above equation quite like Ohm’s law in electric-circuit theory. In Equation (21) the
thermal resistance is ∆𝑥⁄𝑘𝐴, and in Equation (21) it is the sum of the three terms in the
denominator. The electrical analogy may be used to solve more complex problems involving both
series and parallel thermal resistances. The one-dimensional heat-flow equation for this type of
problem may be written

∆𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑞= (23)
∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ
where the 𝑅𝑡ℎ are the thermal resistances of the various materials. The units for the thermal
resistance are ◦C/W or ◦F h/Btu.

T1 T2 T3 T4
q
∆𝑥𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐵 ∆𝑥𝐶 q
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝐶 =
𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴

Figure 11: One-dimensional heat transfer through a composite wall and electrical analog

1.5.2 Conduction through a cylindrical body

Consider a long cylinder of inside radius 𝑟𝑖 , outside radius 𝑟𝑜 , and length 𝐿, such as the one
shown in Figure 12. We expose this cylinder to a temperature differential 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 and ask what
the heat flow will be.

Assumptions

• Heat transfer in one direction (r-direction)

• Steady-state conditions
• Constant thermal conductivity

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ro r dr
To ri L
Ti

Ti To
q q
𝑙𝑛(𝑟° ⁄𝑟𝑖 )
𝑅=
2𝜋𝑘𝐿

Figure 12: One-dimensional heat flow through a hollow cylinder and electrical analog

Starting for Fourier’s law for cylindrical coordinate

𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴𝑟
𝑑𝑟
Since
𝐴𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿
Therefore
𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −2𝜋𝑘𝑟𝐿
𝑑𝑟
The above differential equation can be solved by separation variables method
𝑞 𝑑𝑟
= −𝑑𝑇
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑟
By integrating both sides
𝑟𝑜 𝑇𝑜
𝑞 𝑑𝑟
∫ = − ∫ 𝑑𝑇
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑟𝑖 𝑟 𝑇𝑖

𝑞
[𝑙𝑛 𝑟]𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑖 = −[𝑇]𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑖
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
𝑞
[ln 𝑟0 − ln 𝑟𝑖 ] = −[𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 ]
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
𝑞 𝑟𝑜
𝑙𝑛 ( ) = −[𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 ]
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑟𝑖

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𝑞 𝑟𝑜
𝑙𝑛 ( ) = +[𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ]
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑟𝑖
2𝜋𝑘𝐿(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑞= 𝑟
𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑟𝑜 )
𝑖

(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑞= 𝑟
𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑟𝑜 )
𝑖
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
By comparing with
∆𝑇
𝑞=
𝑅
Therefore, the thermal resistance is
𝑙𝑛(𝑟° ⁄𝑟𝑖 )
𝑅=
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
1.5.3 Conduction through a sphere body
• Heat transfer in one direction (r-direction)
• Steady-state conditions
• Constant thermal conductivity

ro r dr
To ri
Ti

Ti To

q q
(1⁄𝑟𝑖 ) − (1⁄𝑟𝑖 )
𝑅=
4𝜋𝑘

Figure 13: One-dimensional heat flow through a sphere and electrical analog

Starting for Fourier’s law for cylindrical coordinate

𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴𝑟
𝑑𝑟

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Since
𝐴𝑟 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

Therefore
𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −4𝜋𝑘𝑟 2
𝑑𝑟
𝑞 𝑑𝑟
= −𝑑𝑇
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟 2
By integrating both sides
𝑟𝑜 𝑇𝑜
𝑞
∫ 𝑟 −2 𝑑𝑟 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑇
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟𝑖 𝑇𝑖

𝑟
𝑞 𝑟 −1 𝑜 𝑇
[ ] = −[𝑇] 𝑇𝑜𝑖
4𝜋𝑘 −1 𝑟
𝑖

𝑞 1 𝑟𝑜
− [ ] = −[𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 ]
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟 𝑟𝑖
𝑞 1 1
− [ − ] = +[𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ]
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖
𝑞 1 1
+ 4𝜋𝑘 [𝑟 − 𝑟 ] = +[𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ]
𝑖 𝑜
4𝜋𝑘(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑞=
1 1
(𝑟 − 𝑟 )
𝑖 𝑜

(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑞=
1 1
( − )
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑜
4𝜋𝑘
1 1
( − )
∆𝑇 𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑜
By comparing with 𝑞 = 𝑅
, the thermal resistance is 𝑅 = 4𝜋𝑘

1.6 Convection and Conduction through a Composite Wall

To find the heat transfer rate through a composite wall let us consider Figure 14.
Assumptions
• heat transfer in one direction (x-direction)
• steady-state conditions
• constant thermal conductivity

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

Ti
T1
hi
T2
cold fluid

q q
T3
T4 C
To

kA kB kC ho

hot fluid
ΔxA ΔxB ΔxC

Figure 14: One-dimensional heat transfer through a composite wall

By applying Newton’s law for inner and outer faces as well as Fourier’s law for each layer, we
will obtain
𝑞 = ℎ𝑖 𝐴(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇1 )
𝑘𝐴 𝐴
𝑞= (𝑇 − 𝑇2 )
∆𝑥𝐴 1
𝑘𝐵 𝐴
𝑞= (𝑇 − 𝑇3 )
∆𝑥𝐵 2
𝑘𝐶 𝐴
𝑞= (𝑇 − 𝑇4 )
∆𝑥𝐶 3
𝑞 = ℎ𝑜 𝐴(𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑜 )
by arranging the above equations, we will obtain
1
(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇1 ) = 𝑞
ℎ𝑖 𝐴
∆𝑥𝐴
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = 𝑞
𝑘𝐴 𝐴
∆𝑥𝐵
(𝑇2 − 𝑇3 ) = 𝑞
𝑘𝐵 𝐴
∆𝑥𝐶
(𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) = 𝑞
𝑘𝐶 𝐴

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 Heat Transfer Lectures
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Technology, Iraq

1
(𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑜 ) = 𝑞
ℎ𝑜 𝐴
Solving these three equations simultaneously
1 ∆𝑥𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐵 ∆𝑥𝐶 1
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇1 + 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 + 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 + 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 + 𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑞+ 𝑞+ 𝑞+ 𝑞+ 𝑞
ℎ𝑖 𝐴 𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴 ℎ𝑜 𝐴
1 ∆𝑥𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐵 ∆𝑥𝐶 1
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑞 [ + + + + ]
ℎ𝑖 𝐴 𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴 ℎ𝑜 𝐴
Hence, the heat flow can be written as follows
(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑞=
1 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 1
[ + 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶+ ]
ℎ𝑖 𝐴 𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴 ℎ𝑜 𝐴
Therefore, the thermal resistance is
1 ∆𝑥𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐵 ∆𝑥𝐶 1
𝑅= + + + +
ℎ𝑖 𝐴 𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴 ℎ𝑜 𝐴

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