A.P.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION

UNIT 2

AMERICAN VOICES AND THEIR AUDIENCES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STUDENT PAGES

Table of Contents 1

Activity 1 Review of Logos, Ethos, and Pathos 3

Activity 2 Unpack Assessment 1 5

Summary of Unit 2’s Major Assessments 7

and Explanations of the Purposes of the
Introductions, Language Cues, Glossary
of Terms, and Vocabulary Development in
Unit 2’s 1st Assessment Readings

Reading #1 – “Sinners in the Hands of an 8

Angry God” by Jonathan Edwards

Reading #2 – “Speech to the Virginia Convention” 14

by Patrick Henry

Reading #3 – Chief Red Jacket’s Speech 18

Rejecting a Change of Religion

Reading #4 – “Resistance to Civil Government” 21

by Henry David Thoreau

Reading #5 – “Men of Color, To Arms” 25

by Frederick Douglass

Reading #6 – Carrie Chapman Catt’s Open Address 28

to Congress Concerning Women’s Suffrage

Reading #7 – Will Rogers Skewers Both Sides 33

of the Prohibition Debate

Reading #8 – Inaugural Address by President 36

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Reading #9 – General George S. Patton’s Speech 40

to the 3rd Army on the Eve of the Normandy
Invasion, D-Day

Reading #10 – J.F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address 44

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 Reading #11 – “Letter from Birmingham Jail” 48
by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

Reading #12 – “The Ballot or Bullet” by Malcolm X 52

Reading #13 – Speech by Cesar Chavez at 58

Pacific Lutheran University

Reading #14 – Elizabeth Birch’s Speech to 66

Members of the Christian Coalition

Reading #15 – Letter to Ryan DeVries from 71

Michigan Department of Environmental Quality
and Stephen L. Tvedten’s Response to letter
from the Michigan Department of Environmental
Quality

Glossary of Terms Used in Language Cues 75

Activity 3 “Sinners…” Model for Assessment I 82

Graphic Summary of a Presentation Worksheet 83

Activity 4 Workshop with a Partner to Complete 84

Initial Steps of Unit 2’s Assessment I

Activity 5 Oral Presentations of Unit 2 Readings 85

Activity 6 Unpacking Unit 2’s Assessment II 86

Activity 7 Unit 2, Assessment 2 Model, and Review 93

Activity 8 Constructing the thesis statement and Topic 98

Sentences for an Essay Responding to One of the
Unit 2 Assessment II Writing Prompts

Activity 9 Review the Use of Weaving Structures in Style 100

Analysis

Activity 10 Unit 2 Constructing a Closing Paragraph Avoiding 103

Simple Summary

Activity 11 Unit 2 Assessment II Draft #1 Peer Edit 105

Activity 12 Unit 2 Assessment II Draft #2 Peer Edit 106

Scoring Rubric for Assessment I 109

Scoring Rubric for Assessment II 111

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Unit 2 American Voices and Their Audiences
Student Page Activity 1 Review of Ethos, Logos, Pathos

Unit 2 will focus on reviewing and developing the skills essential in effectively analyzing the
language writers/speakers employ to create logos, ethos, and pathos and aid them in
achieving their varied purposes as they target their audiences.

First, let’s review the definitions of these three Aristotelian appeals (logos, ethos, and
pathos). Know that any argument employs each and all of the three appeals.

 To create LOGOS a writer/speaker would employ language to appeal to an audience’s

interest in a clear, cogent argument (or arguments). The use of logos is central to any
argument and it is present if the text presents a structuring of its argument(s) or
central idea(s) that appears well reasoned. Writers/Speakers who employ syllogisms,
support their claims with factual, authoritative evidence, or lead their audiences
through a logical chain of thinking toward a conclusion demonstrate the use of logos.
Charts, graphs, or any kind of statistical information could also be part of logos in that
this kind of evidence would appeal to an audience’s interest in an argument that is
objective in its presentation. Note that aspects of logos can serve an argument’s ethos
and pathos.

 To create ETHOS a writer/speaker would employ language to establish in the minds of

his/her audience that he/she is a credible, respectable, benevolent, balanced (in
his/her thinking), and/or trustworthy person who has done his/her homework and has
the best interests of the audience in mind. Some examples of how a writer/speaker
may create an ethos are as follows: the writer/speaker establishes him/herself as an
authority; the writer/speaker demonstrates a willingness to recognize other points of
view; the writer/speaker establishes that he/she shares the same values as the
audience.

 To create PATHOS a writer/speaker would employ language that prompts an emotional

reaction in the audience. To create pathos writers/speakers may use language that
prompts an emotional reaction (i.e. language that prompts fear, culpability, outrage,
etc.). Prompting an emotional reaction from an audience can be a powerful
complement to the language in an argument which creates ethos and/or an appeal to
reason.

Now, before we begin to analyze the language of written texts and how that language
creates logos, ethos, and pathos to help writers/speakers achieve their various purposes,
let’s practice applying what we know of these three appeals to some visual texts.

Directions:
With a partner examine the three ads on the other side of this sheet, and on the lines
provided to the right of each ad write a brief statement of the ad’s purpose and an
explanation about how it creates an appeal to reason/common sense (a part of its LOGOS),
an ETHOS, and PATHOS (when pointing out how an ad creates pathos, make sure you
explain how an aspect of an ad prompts a specific emotion – e.g. fear, guilt, etc.) to achieve
its purpose. Then be ready to share your findings with the class.

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American Libraries Association ad:
American Cancer Society ad:
UNICEF child labor ad:
A.L.A. ad (the person in the ad is Bill Gates):
___________________________________________
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___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
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___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
Amer. Cancer Soc. ad:
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
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___________________________________________
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___________________________________________
UNICEF ad:
__________________________________________
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Unit 2 American Voices and Their Audiences
Student Page Activity 2 Unpack Assessment #1

Directions for unpacking Unit 2’s Assessment #1:

1. Before your instructor assigns you and your partner one of the Unit 2 readings to
complete Assessment #1 (which follows these directions for unpacking the 1st
assessment of this unit), read through the following directions and scoring rubric for
Assessment #1, and also read page 5 (“Summary of the 11th Grade’s Unit 2 Major
Assessments”) in these student pages.

2. As you read, underline or highlight any text where it mentions a skill or knowledge
necessary to succeed on this assessment; ask yourself what do you need to know?
What are you going to have to do?

3. You will then be asked by your instructor to share with the class a
summary/paraphrase of what have underlined or highlighted.

Unit 2, Assessment #1:

After being assigned one of the readings in this unit, you will work with a partner to
complete the following:

1. Read the introduction to the text you’re assigned to analyze, then read the text itself.
2. Complete the “Research the author’s life and times” box to the left of the
introduction; in this research always consider the milieu [the political, cultural, social
context] that may have prompted the writer to speak out to an audience about a specific
issue; also consider the audience’s demeanor: i.e. consider the kind of language the
audience needs or wants from the writer /speaker; consider whether or not the audience
is receptive to what the writer/speaker has to say or hostile toward the
writer’s/speaker’s message.
3. Reread the text you’ve been assigned to analyze; as you reread, discuss with your
partner possible responses to each of the “Language Cue” boxes to the left of the text.
4. Agree on an effective response to each “Language Cue” and be ready to share these
responses with the class during an oral presentation of your analysis of the text. Also,
reread the scoring rubric for this assessment to make sure you fulfill its requirements.
5. Besides sharing your responses to each “Language Cue,” you must create an
outline/chart which organizes your responses to each “Language Cue” according to what
they reveal about the how the writer hoped to affect the audience. This outline/chart
could be part of your presentation’s visual aid requirement. The headings of the
outline/chart may look like some of the following:
 Language appealing to the audience’s common sense/reason (logos); note
that the appeal to reason may also lead an audience to an emotional
response (a pathos) or even help in adding to an ethos
 Language appealing to the audience’s fear (a pathos)
 Language appealing to the audience’s culpability (a pathos)
 Language which creates an ethos for the audience

Then give this chart to your instructor after your presentation.

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The rubric your instructor will use to assess your Unit 2 Assessment 1 is as follows (also on
pages 109-110 of this packet):

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Summary of the 11th Grade’s Unit 2 Major Assessments
During Unit 2’s 1st assessment all students will read all fifteen Unit 2 readings, and partner
pairings will be assigned to present their analysis of one the reading’s Language Cues. The
instructor will provide due dates for readings and presentations. Unit 2’s 2nd assessment will
require students to write a process paper analyzing how a writer/speaker employs language
to achieve a purpose. And, finally, Unit 2’s 3rd assessment will require students to construct
a speech employing language to create an ethos, logos, and pathos. The overall objective of
this unit is to develop your abilities to be a more discerning audience when you read or hear
language employed by writers/speakers to persuade and/or influence you.

Explanations of the Purposes of the Introductions, Language Cues, Glossary of

Terms, and Vocabulary Development in Unit 2’s 1st Assessment Readings
 Purpose of the INTRODUCTION to each reading:
Carefully examine the INTRODUCTION to each of the readings. Each one gives you a
description of the speaker’s/writer’s purpose and audience. When you are aware the
speaker’s/writer’s purpose and audience, your analysis will be focused on how specific
language features are employed by speakers/writers to affect an audience and help a
speaker/writer achieve his/her purpose. The INTRODUCTION will also require you to do
some research about a speaker’s/writer’s life and times which will provide a better sense
of why speakers/writers might make certain language choices based on the occasion of
their speeches or written pieces, but you should also activate your own prior knowledge in
terms what you know about certain kinds of audiences and/or speakers, then apply this
knowledge during your analysis of the language used by speakers/writers.

 Purpose of the LANGUAGE CUEs in each reading:

As you read the text, complete the directions in each Language Cue box, noting the
specific language feature it spotlights for you in the text. Use the space provided on the
right side of the page to complete what is required of you by each Language Cue.
Typically a Language Cue will ask you to explain how the speaker/writer uses language
to appeal to the audience or what effect it has on an audience; in other words, this
means you are being asked to analyze how a speaker/writer achieves his/her purpose by
employing language which may (1) work on an audience’s common sense or reason –
logos, or (2) establish the speaker/writer as a balanced thinking individual or a credible,
trustworthy voice – an ethos, or (3) work on an emotion in an audience (a pathos); for
example, you might write a marginal note explaining how a specific language feature is
employed by a speaker/writer as part of his/her attempt to appeal to his/her audience’s
sense of guilt (a pathos) and thus aid the speaker/writer in achieving his/her purpose.
Also note that you are encouraged to analyze any aspect of the text you’re working with
even if it does not have anything to do with a Language Cue box.

 Purpose of Glossary of Terms Used in Language Cues:

At the end of this reading packet is an alphabetized list of terms referred to in the
Language Cues. Each term is defined, and examples are provided for most terms. Refer
to this glossary when a Language Cue uses a term that is unfamiliar to you.

 Vocabulary development and bracketed information for each reading:

All students must know the definitions of the underlined words in each reading for possible
comprehension level quizzes on each reading. The underlined words in the readings are
meant to aid you in developing of your vocabulary. Before reading any of the texts, scan
them for the underlined words and know their synonyms and/or brief definitions before
you read the entire text. The synonyms and/or brief definitions of the words are in
brackets following the words. Also note that sometimes information is bracketed in the
text to explain archaic words, allusions, etc.

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INTRODUCTION to the excerpt from “Sinners in
the Hands of an Angry God” by Jonathan Edwards:
Rev. Jonathan Edwards was part of the religious
revival known as The Great Awakening, which
began in the 1730’s. “Sinners in the Hands of an
Angry God,” perhaps Edwards’ most famous
sermon, was delivered on a visit to the
congregation at Enfield, Connecticut, in 1741.
Research the author’s life and times:
Research what may have triggered The Great
Awakening in the 1730’s, the import of covenants or
contracts in the Puritan society, and what fire-and-
brimstone preaching is, then in the space below, write
down any of this researched data you think might be
relevant to your analysis of how Edwards uses language
to achieve his purpose.

His sermons are often noted for their fire-and-

brimstone imagery. This one is no exception. This
sermon is evidence that Edwards methods
depended on the idea that everything his audience
knew came from tangible experience, like knowing
the difference between reading the word fire and
actually being burned.

Edwards directed his sermon at natural men

(those who have not yet accepted Christ as their
savior or have not yet converted to the faith), and
thus Edwards’ purpose in this sermon was to
awaken and persuade those in the congregation to
accept Christ as their savior or convert them to
Christianity.

[¶ 1]…There is no want of power in God to cast wicked

men into hell at any moment. Men's hands cannot be Language Cue #1:
Identify (by underlining or highlighting) an analogy,
strong when God rises up. The strongest have no power metaphor, or simile Edwards employs in lines 1-20 of this
excerpt and, in the space below, explain the effect of the
to resist him, nor can any deliver out of his hands. He is use of it on his audience.
not only able to cast wicked men into hell, but he can
most easily do it. Sometimes an earthly prince meets
with a great deal of difficulty to subdue a rebel, who has
found means to fortify himself, and has made himself
strong by the numbers of his followers. But it is not so
with God. There is no fortress that is any defense from
the power of God. Though hand join in hand, and vast
multitudes of God's enemies combine and associate
themselves, they are easily broken in pieces. They are
as great heaps of light chaff [the dry coverings of grains
and other grass seeds, which are separated by the
process of threshing] before the whirlwind; or large
quantities of dry stubble before devouring flames. We
find it easy to tread on and crush a worm that we see
crawling on the earth; so it is easy for us to cut or singe Language Cue #2:
a slender thread that any thing hangs by: thus easy is it Edwards uses a rhetorical question at the end of this 1st
paragraph. In the space below, explain what Edwards
for God, when he pleases, to cast his enemies down to appeals to in his audience when he uses this language
feature to urge them to convert.
hell. What are we, that we should think to stand before
him, at whose rebuke [reproval, yell at] the earth
trembles, and before whom the rocks are thrown
down?...

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[¶ 2]But the foolish children of men miserably delude Language Cue #3:
[deceive] themselves in their own schemes, and in In the space below describe the overall effect of this 2nd
paragraph on the audience; consider what the
confidence in their own strength and wisdom; they trust paragraph reveals about what attitude Edwards wants
to diminish in his audience.
to nothing but a shadow. The greater part of those who
heretofore [up until this time] have lived under the
same means of grace, and are now dead, are
undoubtedly gone to hell; and it was not because they
were not as wise as those who are now alive: it was not
because they did not lay out matters as well for
themselves to secure their own escape. If we could
speak with them, and inquire of them, one by one,
whether they expected, when alive, and when they used
to hear about hell ever to be the subjects of that misery:
we doubtless, should hear one and another reply, "No, I
never intended to come here: I had laid out matters
otherwise in my mind; I thought I should contrive [plan]
well for myself: I thought my scheme good. I intended
to take effectual care; but it came upon me unexpected;
I did not look for it at that time, and in that manner; it
came as a thief: Death outwitted me: God's wrath was
too quick for me. Oh, my cursed foolishness! I was Language Cue #4:
flattering myself, and pleasing myself with vain dreams In ¶ 4 and ¶ 11 Edwards will repeat almost exactly what
he’s already said in the last line of ¶ 3. In the space
of what I would do hereafter; and when I was saying, below paraphrase and/or explain what point he wants to
emphasize to his audience; consider how he wants them
Peace and safety, then suddenly destruction came upon to view him – this is a part of the ethos of his argument.
me.”

[¶ 3]God has laid himself under no obligation, by any

promise to keep any natural man out of hell one
moment. God certainly has made no promises either of
eternal life, or of any deliverance or preservation from
eternal death, but what are contained in the covenant
[contract or agreement] of grace, the promises that are
given in Christ, in whom all the promises are yea and
amen. But surely they have no interest in the promises
of the covenant of grace who are not the children of the
covenant, who do not believe in any of the promises,
and have no interest in the Mediator of the covenant….

[¶ 4]So that, thus it is that natural men are held in the
hand of God, over the pit of hell; they have deserved
the fiery pit, and are already sentenced to it; and God is
dreadfully provoked, his anger is as great towards them
as to those that are actually suffering the executions of
Language Cue #5:
Identify (by underlining or highlighting) the use of
repetition and/or emphatic devices such parallelism and
polysyndeton in ¶ 4 and, in the space below, explain the
effect of the use of these devices on his audience; consider
how they might complement the imagery within the same
structure.

the fierceness of his wrath in hell, and they have done

nothing in the least to appease or abate [halt or stop]
that anger, neither is God in the least bound by any
promise to hold them up one moment; the devil is
waiting for them, hell is gaping for them, the flames
gather and flash about them, and would fain lay hold on
them, and swallow them up; the fire pent up in their
own hearts is struggling to break out: and they have no
interest in any Mediator, there are no means within
reach that can be any security to them. In short, they
have no refuge, nothing to take hold of, all that

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preserves them every moment is the mere arbitrary will,
and uncovenanted, unobliged forbearance [leniency;
refraining from a legal right] of an incensed [infuriated]
God.
Language Cue #6:
In last lines of ¶ 4 Edwards uses the phrase
“unconvenanted, unobliged forbearance.” In the space
below, explain the connotative significance of the word
choice in this phrase and the effect it has on his audience;
consider that he speaks to an audience where documents
like the Mayflower Compact are central to their social
fabric.

[¶ 5]The use of this awful subject may be for

awakening unconverted persons in this congregation.
This that you have heard is the case of every one of you
that are out of Christ. That world of misery, that lake of
burning brimstone, is extended abroad under you. There
is the dreadful pit of the glowing flames of the wrath of
God; there is hell's wide gaping mouth open; and you
have nothing to stand upon, nor any thing to take hold
of, there is nothing between you and hell but the air; it Language Cue #7:
Consider why Edwards has switched to the 2nd person
is only the power and mere pleasure of God that holds (“you,” “your”) in ¶ 5 as he addresses his audience, and in
you up. the space below, explain how this change in voice affects
his tone and, in turn, how it affects the audience.

[¶ 6]You probably are not sensible of this; you find you

are kept out of hell, but do not see the hand of God in
it; but look at other things, as the good state of your
bodily constitution [health or general disposition], your
care of your own life, and the means you use for your
own preservation. But indeed these things are nothing;
if God should withdraw his hand, they would avail [help
or benefit] no more to keep you from falling, than the
thin air to hold up a person that is suspended in it.

[¶ 7]Your wickedness makes you as it were heavy as

lead, and to tend downwards with great weight and Language Cue #8:
pressure towards hell; and if God should let you go, you Identify (by underlining or highlighting) an analogy,
metaphor, or simile Edwards employs in ¶s 7-9 and, in the
would immediately sink and swiftly descend and plunge space below, explain the effect of the use of it on his
audience.
into the bottomless gulf, and your healthy constitution,
and your own care and prudence [discretion or caution],
and best contrivance, and all your righteousness, would
have no more influence to uphold you and keep you out
of hell, than a spider's web would have to stop a falling
rock…. There are black clouds of God's wrath now
hanging directly over your heads, full of the dreadful
storm, and big with thunder; and were it not for the
restraining hand of God, it would immediately burst
forth upon you. The sovereign pleasure of God, for the
present, stays his rough wind; otherwise it would come
with fury, and your destruction would come like a
whirlwind, and you would be like the chaff of the
summer threshing floor.

[¶ 8]The wrath of God is like great waters that are

dammed for the present; they increase more and more,
and rise higher and higher, till an outlet is given; and
the longer the stream is stopped, the more rapid and
mighty is its course, when once it is let loose. It is true,
that judgment against your evil works has not been
executed hitherto; the floods of God's vengeance have
been withheld; but your guilt in the meantime is

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constantly increasing, and you are every day treasuring
up more wrath; the waters are constantly rising, and
waxing more and more mighty; and there is nothing but
the mere pleasure of God, that holds the waters back,
that are unwilling to be stopped, and press hard to go
forward. If God should only withdraw his hand from the
flood-gate, it would immediately fly open, and the fiery
floods of the fierceness and wrath of God, would rush
forth with inconceivable fury, and would come upon you
with omnipotent [invincible] power; and if your strength
were ten thousand times greater than it is, yea, ten
thousand times greater than the strength of the
stoutest, sturdiest devil in hell, it would be nothing to
withstand or endure it.

[¶ 9]The bow of God's wrath is bent, and the arrow

made ready on the string, and justice bends the arrow Language Cue #9:
at your heart, and strains the bow, and it is nothing but In the 2nd half of ¶ 9 Edwards uses two complex sentence
structures both starting with subordinate clauses that
the mere pleasure of God, and that of an angry God, begin with “however you may have…” and end with an
independent clause. In the space below explain what he
without any promise or obligation at all, that keeps the addresses in each of these “however…” clauses and what
arrow one moment from being made drunk with your attitude he again wants to diminish in his audience (note
what he says in the independent clause following each
blood. Thus all you that never passed under a great “However…” clause).
change of heart, by the mighty power of the Spirit of
God upon your souls; all you that were never born
again, and made new creatures, and raised from being
dead in sin, to a state of new, and before altogether
unexperienced light and life, are in the hands of an
angry God. However you may have reformed your life in
many things, and may have had religious affections
[feelings], and may keep up a form of religion in your
families and closets, and in the house of God, it is
nothing but his mere pleasure that keeps you from being
this moment swallowed up in everlasting destruction.
However unconvinced you may now be of the truth of
what you hear, by and by you will be fully convinced of
it. Those that are gone from being in the like
circumstances with you, see that it was so with them;
for destruction came suddenly upon most of them; when
they expected nothing of it, and while they were saying, Language Cue #10:
In the 1st half of ¶ 10 identify (by underlining or
Peace and safety: now they see, that those things on highlighting) images that Edwards recalls for his
audience and, in the space below, explain what
which they depended for peace and safety, were nothing emotional response (a pathos) Edwards wants to evoke
but thin air and empty shadows. in his audience yet again.

[¶ 10]The God that holds you over the pit of hell, much
as one holds a spider, or some loathsome insect over
the fire, abhors [strongly dislike] you, and is dreadfully
provoked: his wrath towards you burns like fire; he
looks upon you as worthy of nothing else, but to be cast
into the fire; he is of purer eyes than to bear to have
you in his sight; you are ten thousand times more
abominable [repulsive] in his eyes, than the most
hateful venomous serpent is in ours. You have offended
him infinitely more than ever a stubborn rebel did his
prince; and yet it is nothing but his hand that holds you

11
from falling into the fire every moment. It is to be Language Cue #11:
ascribed to nothing else, that you did not go to hell the Identify (by underlining or highlighting) and label an
anaphora Edwards employs in the 2nd half of ¶ 10, and,
last night; that you was suffered to awake again in this in the space below, paraphrase and explain what point
Edwards wants to emphasize to his audience when he
world, after you closed your eyes to sleep. And there is uses this language device.
no other reason to be given, why you have not dropped
into hell since you arose in the morning, but that God's
hand has held you up. There is no other reason to be
given why you have not gone to hell, since you have sat
here in the house of God, provoking his pure eyes by
your sinful wicked manner of attending his solemn
worship. Yea, there is nothing else that is to be given as
a reason why you do not this very moment drop down
into hell.

[¶ 11]O sinner! Consider the fearful danger you are in:

it is a great furnace of wrath, a wide and bottomless pit,
full of the fire of wrath, that you are held over in the
hand of that God, whose wrath is provoked and incensed
as much against you, as against many of the damned in
hell. You hang by a slender thread, with the flames of
divine wrath flashing about it, and ready every moment
to singe it, and burn it asunder; and you have no
interest in any Mediator, and nothing to lay hold of to
save yourself, nothing to keep off the flames of wrath,
nothing of your own, nothing that you ever have done,
nothing that you can do, to induce God to spare you one Language Cue #12:
In the space below describe the effect of the 1st half of
moment…. ¶ 12 (“If we knew… remember this discourse in hell”) on
the audience; consider what these lines reveal about
what Edwards wants to diminish in his audience.
[¶ 12]It may be they are now at ease, and hear all
these things without much disturbance, and are now
flattering themselves that they are not the persons,
promising themselves that they shall escape. If we knew
that there was one person, and but one, in the whole
congregation, that was to be the subject of this misery,
what an awful thing would it be to think of! If we knew
who it was, what an awful sight would it be to see such
a person! How might all the rest of the congregation lift
up a lamentable [regrettable] and bitter cry over him!
But, alas! instead of one, how many is it likely will
remember this discourse [speech or conversation] in
hell? And it would be a wonder, if some that are now
present should not be in hell in a very short time, even
before this year is out. And it would be no wonder if
some persons, that now sit here, in some seats of this
meeting-house, in health, quiet and secure, should be
there before tomorrow morning. Those of you that
finally continue in a natural condition, that shall keep
out of hell longest will be there in a little time! Your
damnation does not slumber; it will come swiftly, and, in
all probability, very suddenly upon many of you. You
have reason to wonder that you are not already in hell.
It is doubtless the case of some whom you have seen
and known, that never deserved hell more than you, and
that heretofore appeared as likely to have been now

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alive as you. Their case is past all hope; they are crying
in extreme misery and perfect despair; but here you are
in the land of the living and in the house of God, and
have an opportunity to obtain salvation. What would not
those poor damned hopeless souls give for one day's
Language Cue #13:
In the space below paraphrase what Edwards says in
the 2nd half of ¶ 12 (“you have reason… as you now
enjoy”) and clarify what Edwards assumes is his
audience’s perception of their situation, then explain
what this use of language appeals to in his audience to
make them convert.

opportunity such as you now enjoy!

[¶ 13]And now you have an extraordinary opportunity,

a day wherein Christ has thrown the door of mercy wide
open, and stands in calling and crying with a loud voice
to poor sinners; a day wherein many are flocking to him,
and pressing into the kingdom of God. Many are daily
coming from the east, west, north and south; many that
were very lately in the same miserable condition that Language Cue #14:
In the space below explain how Edwards creates a
you are in, are now in a happy state, with their hearts bandwagon appeal in ¶ 13 and how this language
affects his audience.
filled with love to him who has loved them, and washed
them from their sins in his own blood, and rejoicing in
hope of the glory of God. How awful is it to be left
behind at such a day! To see so many others feasting,
while you are pining and perishing! To see so many
rejoicing and singing for joy of heart, while you have
cause to mourn for sorrow of heart, and howl for
vexation [exasperation] of spirit! How can you rest one
moment in such a condition? Are not your souls as
precious as the souls of the people at Suffield [a nearby
town], where they are flocking from day to day to
Christ?...
Language Cue #15:
Research the Bible story of Sodom and Gommorah and
[¶ 14]Therefore, let every one that is out of Christ, now in the space below explain what Edwards hopes to
awake and fly from the wrath to come. The wrath of appeal to yet again in his audience when alluding to it in
¶ 14; hypothesize on the significance of why Edwards
Almighty God is now undoubtedly hanging over a great alludes to this particular anecdote in the Bible and why
he does not allude to the text of the Bible more often
part of this congregation: Let every one fly out of throughout the sermon.
Sodom "Haste and escape for your lives, look not behind
you, escape to the mountain, lest you be consumed."

13
INTRODUCTION to “Speech to the Virginia
Convention” by Patrick Henry, March 23, 1775:
In 1765, a 29 year old lawyer named Patrick Henry
was chosen to represent his region in the Virginia
House of Burgesses. During his term as a
representative he made one of his two famous
speeches; it was a speech against the Stamp Act
[the Stamp Act created a tax on all commercial
and legal documents in the Colonies]. The other is
the “Speech to the Virginia Convention,” which
follows this introduction.
His purpose in the “Speech to the Virginia
Convention” is to urge his fellow Colonial
politicians to commit to an all out revolt against
the British Crown.
[¶ 1]Mr. President: No man thinks more highly than I
do of the patriotism, as well as abilities, of the very
worthy gentlemen who have just addressed the House.
But different men often see the same subject in different
lights; and, therefore, I hope it will not be thought
disrespectful to those gentlemen if, entertaining as I do
opinions of a character very opposite to theirs, I shall
speak forth my sentiments freely and without reserve.
This is no time for ceremony. The question before the
House is one of awful moment to this country. For my
own part, I consider it as nothing less than a question of
freedom or slavery; and in proportion to the magnitude
of the subject ought to be the freedom of the debate. It
is only in this way that we can hope to arrive at truth,
and fulfill the great responsibility which we hold to God
and our country. Should I keep back my opinions at
such a time, through fear of giving offense, I should
consider myself as guilty of treason towards my country,
and of an act of disloyalty toward the Majesty of
Heaven, which I revere above all earthly kings.
[¶ 2]Mr. President: it is natural to man to indulge in the
illusions of hope. We are apt to shut our eyes against a
painful truth, and listen to the song of that siren till she
transforms us into beasts. Is this the part of wise men,
engaged in a great and arduous [difficult, demanding]
14
Research the author’s life and times:
Note that during Henry’s youth, the Great Awakening was
at its height, and young Henry often listened to the
sermons of Great Awakening preachers; Research the
Great Awakening and the style of the sermons of that time
and consider how their style may have influenced Henry’s
oratory later in his life. Then in the space below, write
down any of this researched data you think might be
relevant to your analysis of how Henry uses language to
achieve his purpose.
Language Cue #1:
Note that Henry uses the Americanism “gale” in ¶ 6 (an
Americanism is a word or phrase that originated in the
United States or is peculiar to the U.S.) and even the
word “patriotism” (which Henry uses in opening ¶) took
on a more positive connotation in the United States –
“patriot” was first used in Britain to refer rebellious
colonists. In the space to the left of this box, explain
how employing these Americanisms may have subtly
affected the audience.
Language Cue #2:
Research for what reason the Virginia Convention met
in March of 1775 and “what the worthy gentlemen
who have just addressed the house” (part of 1st
sentence of Henry’s speech) said to those who were
present at the Convention, then, in the space below
describe Henry’s initial tone (focus on the first two
sentences of ¶ 1) and explain the effect of this tone on
his audience, most of whom were probably elder, more
experienced statesmen.
Language Cue #3:
Near the middle of ¶ 1 Henry says, “The question before
the House is… a question of freedom or slavery.” In the
space below, explain what Henry appeals to in his
audience when he uses this either-or fallacy as he
urges his fellows to commit to an all out revolt against
the British Crown.
Language Cue #4:
In the space below, explain how the last sentence of ¶ 1
aids Henry in establishing an ethos.
struggle for liberty? Are we disposed [likely to, inclined,
or willing] to be of the number of those who, having
eyes, see not, and, having ears, hear not, the things
which so nearly concern their temporal [earthly]
salvation? For my part, whatever anguish of spirit it may
Language Cue #5:
Near the beginning of ¶ 2 Henry alludes to Circe in
Homer’s The Odyssey when he mentions “the song of
that siren.” Research this allusion, then, in the space
below, explain the effect of this allusion on his audience
as he urges them to commit to an all out revolt against
the British Crown.

cost, I am willing to know the whole truth; to know the Language Cue #6:
Examine the rest of ¶ 2, and, in the space below, explain
worst, and to provide for it. how the language of these sentences (noting the 2
rhetorical questions) affects the audience.

[¶ 3]I have but one lamp by which my feet are guided,

and that is the lamp of experience. I know of no way of
judging of the future but by the past. And judging by the
past, I wish to know what there has been in the conduct
of the British ministry for the last ten years to justify
those hopes with which gentlemen have been pleased to
Language Cue #7:
solace themselves and the House. Is it that insidious In the space below, explain how the language Henry
uses in the 1st part of ¶ 3 (from “Is that insidious
[sinister, deceptive] smile with which our petition has smile…” through “…to be betrayed by a kiss”) affects
been lately received? Trust it not, sir; it will prove a the audience as he urges them to commit to an all out
revolt against the British Crown; consider the
snare to your feet. Suffer [tolerate, put up with] not significance of how he employs imagery and an allusion
to Judas of the Bible.
yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss [“…betrayed with a
kiss” is an allusion to the Judas figure in the Bible who
betrays the Christ figure with a kiss]. Ask yourselves
how this gracious reception of our petition comports with
those warlike preparations which cover our waters and
darken our land. Are fleets and armies necessary to a
work of love and reconciliation? Have we shown
ourselves so unwilling to be reconciled [submissive] that
force must be called in to win back our love? Let us not Language Cue #8:
deceive ourselves, sir. These are the implements of war Highlight or underline examples of connotatively loaded
imagery and rhetorical questions in the 2nd part of ¶ 3
and subjugation [suppression]; the last arguments to (from “Ask yourselves…” to the end to the ¶) and the
1st part of ¶ 4 (from “I ask gentlemen….” to “What
which kings resort. terms shall we find which have not been exhausted?”),
and, in the space below, point to specific language
features and explain how they affect the audience as
[¶ 4]I ask gentlemen, sir, what means this martial Henry urges them to commit to an all out revolt against
the British Crown.
[military, hostile] array, if its purpose be not to force us
to submission? Can gentlemen assign any other possible
motive for it? Has Great Britain any enemy, in this
quarter of the world, to call for all this accumulation of
navies and armies? No, sir, she has none. They are
meant for us: they can be meant for no other. They are
sent over to bind and rivet upon us those chains which
the British ministry have been so long forging. And what
have we to oppose to them? Shall we try argument? Sir,
we have been trying that for the last ten years. Have we
anything new to offer upon the subject? Nothing. We
have held the subject up in every light of which it is Language Cue #9:
capable; but it has been all in vain. Shall we resort to Highlight or underline examples of parallel structure in the
two sentences in ¶ 4 starting with “We have petitioned…”
entreaty [appeal] and humble supplication [plea, and ending with “…from the foot of the throne!” Then in
begging]? What terms shall we find which have not been the space below, explain what Henry appeals to in his
audience as he employs this language in order to urge
already exhausted? Let us not, I beseech you, sir, them to commit to an all out revolt against the British
Crown; carefully examine the significance of the paralleled
deceive ourselves. Sir, we have done everything that verbs in these structures.
could be done to avert [to prevent or turn away] the
storm which is now coming on. We have petitioned; we
have remonstrated [objected, disputed]; we have
supplicated; we have prostrated [to lie face down]
ourselves before the throne, and have implored its

15
interposition to arrest the tyrannical hands of the
ministry and Parliament. Our petitions have been
slighted [snubbed]; our remonstrances have produced
additional violence and insult; our supplications have
been disregarded; and we have been spurned [rejected
with scorn], with contempt, from the foot of the throne!
Language Cue #10:
Examine the periodic conditional sentence structure near
the end of ¶ 4 (starting with “If we wish to be free…”and
ending with “we must fight!”). Then, in the space below,
explain what effect this language has on Henry’s audience
as he urges them to commit to an all out revolt against the
British Crown; consider how the subordinate clauses (the
“if..” clauses) work together as premises that lead to the
inevitable conclusion in the final independent clause.

In vain, after these things, may we indulge the fond

hope of peace and reconciliation. There is no longer any
room for hope. If we wish to be free-- if we mean to
preserve inviolate [unaltered, keep pure] those
inestimable privileges for which we have been so long
contending--if we mean not basely to abandon the noble
struggle in which we have been so long engaged, and
which we have pledged ourselves never to abandon until
the glorious object of our contest shall be obtained--we
must fight! I repeat it, sir, we must fight! An appeal to
arms and to the God of hosts is all that is left us!
Language Cue #11:
[¶ 5]They tell us, sir, that we are weak; unable to cope In the space below, explain what the language Henry
employs in the 1st six sentences of ¶ 5 appeals to in the
with so formidable an adversary. But when shall we be audience as he urges them to commit to an all out revolt
stronger? Will it be the next week, or the next year? Will against the British Crown.

it be when we are totally disarmed, and when a British

guard shall be stationed in every house? Shall we gather
strength by irresolution [indecision] and inaction? Shall
we acquire the means of effectual resistance by lying
supinely [utterly passive and inactive] on our backs and
hugging the delusive phantom of hope, until our
enemies shall have bound us hand and foot? Sir, we are
not weak if we make a proper use of those means which
the God of nature hath placed in our power. The millions Language Cue #12:
of people, armed in the holy cause of liberty, and in In the space below, explain how the language of what
Henry says in the sentences that start with “Sir, we are not
such a country as that which we possess, are invincible weak…” and ending with “…friend to fight our battles for
us” (in ¶ 5) affects the audience as he urges them to
by any force which our enemy can send against us. commit to an all out revolt against the British Crown.
Besides, sir, we shall not fight our battles alone. There is
a just God who presides over the destinies of nations,
and who will raise up friends to fight our battles for us.
The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone; it is to the
vigilant [observant, watchful], the active, the brave.
Besides, sir, we have no election. If we were base
enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the
contest. There is no retreat but in submission and
slavery! Our chains are forged! Their clanking may be Language Cue #13:
heard on the plains of Boston! The war is inevitable--and Henry employs a quickened narrative pace (via shorter
sentence structures) and connotatively loaded imagery
let it come! I repeat it, sir, let it come. in the last eight sentences of ¶ 5 and into ¶ 6. In the
space below, point out 2-3 examples of the use of these
language devices and explain how this language affects
[¶ 6]It is in vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. the audience as he urges them to commit to an all out
revolt against the British Crown.
Gentlemen may cry, Peace, Peace-- but there is no
peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale [an
Americanism meaning a strong windstorm or a
nor’easter] that sweeps from the north will bring to our
ears the clash of resounding arms! Our brethren are
already in the field! Why stand we here idle? What is it
that gentlemen wish? What would they have? Is life so
dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price

16
of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know
not what course others may take; but as for me, give
me liberty or give me death!
17
Language Cue #14:
In the space below, explain what the last sentence of ¶
6 emphasizes about Henry’s commitment to this cause,
and more importantly what effect it has on his
audience.
INTRODUCTION to Chief Red Jacket’s Speech
Rejecting a Change of Religion, 1805, Buffalo
Grove, New York:
Red Jacket, or Segoyewatha, was a Native
Research the author’s life and times:
Research how Red Jacket got his name and how he and
his people (the Seneca) were initially treated in the late
1700’s and early 1800’s. Then in the space below, write
down any of this researched data you think might be
relevant to your analysis of how Red Jacket uses
language to achieve his purpose.

American chief of the Seneca tribe. The following

speech is evidence that he was the spokesman for
his people during his lifelong efforts to maintain
native traditions, and he often spoke out against
the introduction of white customs, especially the
whites’ religion.

The purpose of the following speech was to

tactfully reject Christian missionaries’ offers to
convert and baptize his people as Christians and
encourage the missionaries see Red Jacket’s
people as equals.
Language Cue #1:
In the space below, point out the language that Red
Jacket employs ¶ 1 to reach out to his somewhat hostile
audience and/or create an ethos, and explain how this
language helps him achieve his purpose.

[¶ 1]Friend and Brother: it was the will of the Great

Spirit that we should meet together this day. He orders
all things and has given us a fine day for our council. He
has taken his garment from before the sun, and caused
it to shine with brightness upon us. Our eyes are
opened, that we see clearly; our ears are unstopped,
that we have been able to hear distinctly the words you
have spoken. For all these favors we thank the Great Language Cue #2:
Spirit; and him only. In ¶ 2 Red Jacket employs significant imagery when he
asserts that “for we now consider that we stand
upright before you.” Consider what the imagery
[¶ 2]Brother: this council fire was kindled by you. It suggests about what position Red Jacket’s people have
been in, then, in the space below, explain what he
was at your request that we came together at this time. hopes to appeal to in his audience in using this imagery.

We have listened with attention to what you have said.

You requested us to speak our minds freely. This gives
us great joy; for we now consider that we stand upright
before you, and can speak what we think. All have heard
your voice, and all speak to you now as one man. Our
minds are agreed.
Language Cue #3:
In ¶s 2 and 3 Red Jacket says, “We have listened with
[¶ 3]Brother: you say you want an answer to your talk attention to what you have said,” and respectively, “It is
right you should have one, as you are a great distance
before you leave this place. It is right you should have from home, and we do not wish to detain you.” In the
one, as you are a great distance from home, and we do space below, explain the effect of this language on his
somewhat hostile audience and/or how he wants his
not wish to detain [control, stop someone/something] audience to initially respond.
you. But we will first look back a little, and tell you what
our fathers have told us, and what we have heard from
the white people.

[¶ 4]Brother: listen to what we say.

[¶ 5]There was a time when our forefathers owned this

great island. Their seats extended from the rising to the
setting sun. The Great Spirit had made it for the use of
Indians. He had created the buffalo, the deer, and other
animals for food. He has made the bear and the beaver.
Their skins served us for clothing. He had scattered
them over the country, and taught us how to take them.
Language Cue #4:
In the space below, explain how the type of sentence
employed in ¶ 4 differs from the type of sentences which
precede it, what it reveals about brief shift in Red Jacket’s
tone, and what effect it has on the audience.

18
He had caused the earth to produce corn for bread. All
this He had done for his red children, because He loved
them. If we had some disputes [arguments] about our
hunting ground, they were generally settled without the
shedding of much blood.
Language Cue #5:
In the space below, paraphrase/summarize what Red
Jacket says in ¶s 5 and 6, then explain how the
language of these paragraphs establishes an ethos or a
sense that the relationship Red Jacket and his people
have had with the audience has always been a
benevolent one.

[¶ 6]But an evil day came upon us. Your forefathers

crossed the great water and landed on this island. Their
numbers were small. They found friends and not
enemies. They told us they had fled from their own
country for fear of wicked men, and had come here to
enjoy their religion. They asked for a small seat. We
took pity on them; granted their request; and they sat
down amongst us. We gave them corn and meat; they
gave us poison in return.

[¶ 7]The white people, brother, had now found our

Language Cue #6:
country. Tidings were carried back, and more came In the space below, point to language in ¶s 7 and 8 that
amongst us. Yet we did not fear them. We took them to plays upon the audience’s sense of shame and/or guilt,
and explain how it does this.
be friends. They called us brothers. We believed them,
and gave them a larger seat. At length their numbers
had greatly increased. They wanted more land; they
wanted our country. Our eyes were opened, and our
minds became uneasy. Wars took place. Indians were
hired to fight against Indians, and many of our people
were destroyed. They also brought strong liquor
amongst us. It was strong and powerful, and has slain
thousands.

[¶ 8]Brother: our seats were once large, and yours

were small. You have now become a great people, and
we have scarcely a place left to spread our blankets. You
have got our country, but are not satisfied; you want to
force your religion upon us.

[¶ 9]Brother: continue to listen. You say that you are

Language Cue #7:
sent to instruct us how to worship the Great Spirit In the space below, describe how the language of much
agreeably to his mind, and, if we do not take hold of the of ¶ 9 affects Red Jacket’s audience, and identify
specific language that reveals that (or those) effect(s).
religion which you white people teach, we shall be
unhappy hereafter. You say that you are right, and we
are lost. How do we know this to be true? We
understand that your religion is written in a book. If it
was intended for us as well as you, why has not the
Great Spirit given to us, and not only to us, but why did
He not give to our forefathers, the knowledge of that
book, with the means of understanding it rightly? We
only know what you tell us about it. How shall we know
when to believe, being so often deceived by the white
people?
Language Cue #8:
Carefully examine how ¶ 10 is organized, and in the
[¶ 10]Brother: you say there is but one way to worship space below, describe how it is organized and the
and serve the Great Spirit. If there is but one religion, effect(s) of this language choice on Red Jacket’s
audience.
why do you white people differ [disagree] so much

19
about it? Why do not all agree, as you can all read the
book?

[¶ 11]Brother: we do not understand these things. We

are told that your religion was given to your forefathers,
and has been handed down from father to son. We also
have a religion, which was given to our forefathers, and
has been handed down to us, their children. We worship Language Cue #9:
In the space below identify the language Red Jacket
in that way. It teaches us to be thankful for all the employs in ¶ 11 to establish a common ground with his
audience and explain how it accomplishes this.
favors we receive; to love each other, and to be united.
We never quarrel about religion.

[¶ 12]Brother: the Great Spirit has made us all, but He

has made a great difference between his white and red
children. He has given us different complexions [skin
tone] and different customs. To you He has given the
arts. To these He has not opened our eyes. We know
these things to be true. Since He has made so great a Language Cue #10:
difference between us in other things, why may we not In the space below point to the language in ¶ 12 which
appeals to the audience’s sense of logic and guilt and
conclude that He has given us a different religion explain how this language does this.

according to our understanding? The Great Spirit does

right. He knows what is best for his children; we are
satisfied. Brother: we do not wish to destroy your
religion, or take it from you. We only want to enjoy our
own.

[¶ 13]Brother: you say you have not come to get our

land or our money, but to enlighten our minds. I will
now tell you that I have been at your meetings, and saw
you collect money from the meeting. I cannot tell what
this money was intended for, but suppose that it was for Language Cue #11:
Carefully examine how ¶ 13 is organized, and in the
your minister, and if we should conform to your way of space below, describe how it is organized and the effect
of this language choice on Red Jacket’s audience.
thinking, perhaps you may want some from us.

[¶ 14]Brother: we are told that you have been

preaching to the white people in this place. These people
are our neighbors. We are acquainted with them. We will
wait a little while, and see what effect your preaching
has upon them. If we find it does them good, makes
them honest, and less disposed [willing to, likely to] to
cheat Indians, we will then consider again of what you
have said. Language Cue #12:
In the space below explain the effect of Red Jacket
having repeatedly addressed his audience as “Brother”
throughout his speech.
[¶ 15]Brother: you have now heard our answer to your
talk, and this is all we have to say at present. As we are
going to part, we will come and take you by the hand,
and hope the Great Spirit will protect you on your
journey, and return you safe to your friends.

20
INTRODUCTION to excerpt from “Resistance to
Civil Government” or “Civil Disobedience” by
Henry David Thoreau, 1846:
Thoreau was part of the American
Transcendentalist movement. He is probably best
Research the author’s life and times:
Research the American Transcendentalist Movement
(scan “Self Reliance” by Ralph Waldo Emerson to
understand one of its founding tenets) and what
changes were going on in America and around the world
during the mid 1800’s, and in the space below, write
down any of this researched information that you think
might be relevant to your analysis of how Thoreau uses
language to achieve his purpose.

known for writing a collection of essays titled,

Walden, or Life in the Woods. When writing this
collection he lived at Walden Pond in
Massachusetts for two years, two months and two
days. However, his stay at the pond was
interrupted by a night in jail; he was arrested for
refusing to pay a poll tax to the state – primarily
because he did not want to support a government
he believed had provoked the Mexican War in
order to expand its slaveholding territory.

This night in jail inspired him to write “Resistance

to Civil Government” or “Civil Disobedience” in
which he addresses his fellow citizens to not
passively accept governmental actions with which
they disagree.
Language Cue #1:
Examine what Thoreau alludes to in the 1st sentence of
¶ 1, and in the space below, explain how he may be
using this language to establish an ethos with his
audience.

[¶ 1]I heartily accept the motto,—"That government is

best which governs least" [this statement, attributed to
Thomas Jefferson, was the motto of the New York
Democratic Review, a magazine which had published
two of Thoreau’s essays]; and I should like to see it
acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried
out, it finally amounts to this, which also I believe—That
government is best which governs not at all; and when
men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of
Language Cue #2:
government which they will have. Government is at best Examine the relationship between the first and second
but an expedient [a means to an end]; but most sentences of ¶ 1, and, in the space below, explain what
Thoreau hopes to appeal to in his audience when using
governments are usually, and all governments are this language.

sometimes, inexpedient. The objections which have

been brought against a standing army, and they are
many and weighty, and deserve to prevail, may also at
last be brought against a standing government. The
standing army is only an arm of the standing
government. The government itself, which is only the
mode which the people have chosen to execute their
will, is equally liable to be abused and perverted before
the people can act through it. Witness the present
Mexican war, the work of comparatively a few Language Cue #3:
individuals using the standing government as their tool; Examine the last sentence of ¶ 1, and, in the space
below, explain what Thoreau hopes to appeal to in his
for in the outset, the people would not have consented audience when using this language.

to this measure.

[¶ 2]This American government—what is it but a

tradition, though a recent one, endeavoring to transmit

21
itself unimpaired [not damaged or changed] to posterity
[all future generations], but each instant losing some of
its integrity? It has not the vitality and force of a single
living man; for a single man can bend it to his will. It is
a sort of wooden gun to the people themselves. But it is
Language Cue #4:
Note the pronoun and verb that make up the anaphora
in sentences 7-9 of ¶ 2. Explain the connotative
significance of this pronoun-verb anaphora; consider
what effect Thoreau wants this language to have on his
audience, especially in terms of how he wants them to
view the government.

not the less necessary for this; for the people must have
some complicated machinery or other, and hear its din,
to satisfy that idea of government which they have…. It
is excellent, we must all allow. Yet this government
never of itself furthered any enterprise, but [except] by
the alacrity [eagerness] with which it got out of its way.
It does not keep the country free. It does not settle the
West. It does not educate. The character inherent in the
American people has done all that has been
accomplished; and it would have done somewhat more,
if the government had not sometimes got in its way. For
government is an expedient, by which men would fain
[archaic for gladly or willingly] succeed in letting one
another alone; and, as has been said, when it is most
expedient, the governed are most let alone by it. Trade
and commerce, if they were not made of India-rubber,
would never manage to bounce over obstacles which
legislators are continually putting in their way; and if
one were to judge these men wholly by the effects of
their actions and not partly by their intentions, they
Language Cue #5:
would deserve to be classed and punished with those Examine the metaphoric language Thoreau employs in
mischievous persons who put obstructions on the the last five lines of ¶ 2 to describe “legislators,” and, in
the space below, describe what effect Thoreau wants
railroads. this language to have on his audience, especially in
terms of how he wants them to view the government.

[¶ 3]But, to speak practically and as a citizen, unlike

those who call themselves no-government men, I ask
for, not at once no government, but at once a better
government. Let every man make known what kind of
government would command his respect, and that will
be one step toward obtaining it.

[¶ 4]After all, the practical reason why, when the power

is once in the hands of the people, a majority are
permitted, and for a long period continue, to rule is not
because they are most likely to be in the right, nor
because this seems fairest to the minority, but because
they are physically the strongest. But government in
Language Cue #6:
which the majority rule in all cases can not be based on In the space below, explain what Thoreau seeks to
justice, even as far as men understand it. Can there not appeal to in his audience when he uses this series of
rhetorical questions in ¶ 4 as he urges his audience to
be a government in which the majorities do not virtually not passively accept governmental actions with which
they disagree.
decide right and wrong, but conscience?—in which
majorities decide only those questions to which the rule
of expediency is applicable? Must the citizen ever for a
moment, or in the least degree, resign his conscience to
the legislator? Why has every man a conscience then? I
think that we should be men first, and subjects
afterward. It is not desirable to cultivate a respect for
the law, so much as for the right. The only obligation

22
which I have a right to assume is to do at any time what Language Cue #7:
I think right.... Research the allusion in the 1st sentence of ¶ 5, then in
the space below, summarize what Thoreau has said in
this paragraph and explain what he hopes to appeal to
in his audience to urge them to not passively accept
[¶ 5]It is not a man's duty, as a matter of course, to governmental actions with which they disagree.
devote himself to the eradication [removing of; purging
of] of any, even to most enormous, wrong; he may still
properly have other concerns to engage him; but it is his
duty, at least, to wash his hands of it [“wash his hands
of it” -- an allusion to the Bible story involving Pontius
Pilate], and, if he gives it no thought longer, not to give
it practically his support. If I devote myself to other
pursuits and contemplations, I must first see, at least,
that I do not pursue them sitting upon another man's
shoulders. I must get off him first, that he may pursue
his contemplations too. See what gross inconsistency is
tolerated. I have heard some of my townsmen say, "I
should like to have them order me out to help put down
an insurrection of the slaves, or to march to Mexico—-
see if I would go"; and yet these very men have each,
directly by their allegiance, and so indirectly, at least, by
Language Cue #8:
their money, furnished a substitute.… Examine the rhetorical questions and allusions to
historical personages Thoreau employs in ¶ 6, and, in
the space below, describe what effect Thoreau wants
[¶ 6]Unjust laws exist: shall we be content to obey this language to have on his audience, especially in
terms of how he wants them to view the government.
them, or shall we endeavor to amend [adjust; fix] them,
and obey them until we have succeeded, or shall we
transgress them at once? Men, generally, under such a
government as this, think that they ought to wait until
they have persuaded the majority to alter them. They
think that, if they should resist, the remedy would be
worse than the evil. But it is the fault of the government
itself that the remedy is worse than the evil. It makes it
worse. Why is it not more apt to anticipate and provide
for reform? Why does it not cherish its wise minority?
Why does it cry and resist before it is hurt?... Why does
it always crucify Christ and excommunicate [exclude ;
throw out] Copernicus and Luther, and pronounce
Washington and Franklin rebels?...
Language Cue #9:
[¶ 7]…I know this well, that if one thousand, if one Research the allusion in the 1st sentence of ¶ 7, then, in
hundred, if ten men whom I could name—-if ten honest the space below, paraphrase the two sentences of this
paragraph and explain what the use of this language
men only—ay, if one HONEST man [an allusion to the appeals to in the audience to urge them to not passively
accept governmental actions with which they disagree.
story of Sodom and Gomorrah in the Bible – Genesis
18:26-32], in this State of Massachusetts, ceasing to
hold slaves, were actually to withdraw from this co-
partnership, and be locked up in the county jail
therefore, it would be the abolition of slavery in
America. For it matters not how small the beginning
may seem to be: what is once well done is done
forever....

[¶ 8]I have paid no poll tax for six years [a fee some
states and localities of the time required from a citizen
before he/she could vote; It is now considered
unconstitutional]. I was put into a jail once on this

23
account, for one night; and, as I stood considering the
walls of solid stone, two or three feet thick, the door of
wood and iron, a foot thick, and the iron grating which
strained the light, I could not help being struck with the
foolishness of that institution which treated me as if I
Language Cue #10:
In the space below, paraphrase/interpret what
Thoreau’s use of simile and metaphor suggest about the
government in the last two sentences of ¶ 8 and,
describe what effect Thoreau wants this language to
have on his audience, especially in terms of how he
wants them to view the government.

were mere flesh and blood and bones, to be locked up. I

wondered that it should have concluded at length that
this was the best use it could put me to, and had never
thought to avail [gain; benefit] itself of my services in
some way. I saw that, if there was a wall of stone
between me and my townsmen, there was a still more
difficult one to climb or break through before they could
get to be as free as I was. I did not for a moment feel
confined, and the walls seemed a great waste of stone
and mortar.... As they could not reach me, they had
resolved to punish my body; just as boys, if they cannot
come at some person against whom they have a spite,
will abuse his dog. I saw that the State was half-witted,
that it was timid as a lone woman with her silver
spoons, and that it did not know its friends from its foes,
and I lost all my remaining respect for it, and pitied it….

[¶ 9]The progress from an absolute to a limited

monarchy, from a limited monarchy to a democracy, is a
progress toward a true respect for the individual…. Is a Language Cue #11:
democracy, such as we know it, the last improvement In the space below, explain what the language of ¶ 9
appeals to in Thoreau’s audience in order to urge them
possible in government? Is it not possible to take a step to not passively accept governmental actions with which
they disagree.
further towards recognizing and organizing the rights of
man? There will never be a really free and enlightened
State until the State comes to recognize the individual
as a higher and independent power, from which all its
own power and authority are derived, and treats him
accordingly.

24

INTRODUCTION to “Men of Color, To Arms” by
Frederick Douglass:
The following excerpt from “Men of Color, To
Arms” first appeared in Frederick Douglass’ own
Douglass’ Monthly in March of 1863.
Research the author’s life and times:
Research aspects of Frederick Douglass’ life and work,
especially about what he regularly spoke to audiences,
and consider what his audience for this piece may have
thought about their role, or lack of one, in the Civil War.
Then, in the space below, write down any of this
researched information that you think might be relevant
to your analysis of how Douglass uses language to
achieve his purpose.

Douglass directed this piece of writing to the free

African American men of the Northern States,
particularly those in New York and Massachusetts,
and his purpose was to urge them to join the
Union forces and take up arms to help liberate the
slave states.

Language Cue #1:

Men of Color, To Arms! In the space below, explain what effect of the first
imperative sentence, “Men of Color, to Arms!”, has on
the audience in terms of helping Douglass achieve his
[¶ 1]When first the rebel cannon shattered the walls of purpose; consider the tone of voice he may want to
establish and how this affects his audience.
Sumter [a Union fort over-run and occupied by
Confederate forces] and drove away its starving
garrison, I predicted that the war then and there
inaugurated [initiated] would not be fought out entirely
by white men. Every month’s experience during these
dreary years has confirmed that opinion. A war
undertaken and brazenly [shamelessly, blatantly]
carried on for the perpetual enslavement of colored
Language Cue #2:
men, calls logically and loudly for colored men to help Examine the imagery in the sentences of the 1st ¶ starting
with “Only a moderate…” up through “…powerful black
suppress it. Only a moderate share of sagacity [wisdom] hand” and in the space below explain the effect it has on
was needed to see that the arm of the slave was the the audience in terms of urging them to help liberate the
slave states.
best defense against the arm of the slaveholder. Hence
with every reverse to the national arms, with every
exulting shout of victory raised by the slaveholding
rebels, I have implored the imperiled [endangered]
nation to unchain against her foes, her powerful black
hand [“black hand” -- Douglass alludes to one of his own
speeches: “Fighting Rebels with Only One Hand”].

[¶ 2]Slowly and reluctantly that appeal is beginning to

be heeded. Stop not now to complain that it was not Language Cue #3:
Notice the verb tense has shifted from past (in the 1st ¶)
heeded sooner. It may or it may not have been best that to present tense (in the 2nd ¶) and that in ¶ 2 Douglass
employs shorter structures: imperatives, declaratives,
it should not. This is not the time to discuss that and conditionals. In the space below, point to two or
question. Leave it to the future. When the war is over, three specific structures and explain the effect it has on
the audience in terms of helping Douglass achieve his
the country is saved, peace is established, and the black purpose; consider the tone of voice he may want to
establish and how this affects his audience.
man’s rights are secured, as they will be, history with an
impartial hand will dispose of that and sundry other
questions. Action! Action! not criticism, is the plain duty
of this hour. Words are now useful only as they
stimulate to blows. The office of speech now is only to
point out when, where, and how to strike to the best
advantage. There is no time to delay. The tide is at its

25

flood that leads on to fortune. From East to West, from
North to South, the sky is written all over, "Now or
never." Liberty won by white men would lose half its
luster [gleam, shine]. "Who would be free themselves
must strike the blow." [Who would be free themselves
must strike the blow -- Douglass alludes to the Byronic
hero of Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage] "Better even die free,
than to live slaves" [Better even die free, than to live
slaves -- attributed to an article published David Ruggles
in 1838]. This is the sentiment of every brave colored
man amongst us.
Language Cue #4:
In the space below explain what Douglass means in
saying, “The tide is at its flood that leads on to fortune”
in ¶ 2, and also explain what effect this language has
on his audience in terms of urging them to help liberate
the slave states.
Language Cues #5:
Douglass uses an either-or fallacy in the 2nd half of ¶ 2
(“Now or never”), and he tells his audience that “Liberty
won by the white men would lose half its luster.” In the
space below, explain what this language appeals to in his
audience as Douglass urges them to help liberate the slave
states.

Language Cue #6:

Research what a Byronic hero is and who David Ruggles
was (allusions to each in ¶ 2), and, in the space below ¶
2, explain why it is appropriate for Douglass to allude to
these figures with this audience and what effect the
language of these quotations has on them in terms of
urging them to help liberate the slave states.

[¶ 3]There are weak and cowardly men in all nations.

We have them amongst us. They tell you this is the
"white man’s war"; and you will be "no better off after
than before the war"; that the getting of you into the
army is to "sacrifice you on the first opportunity."
Believe them not; cowards themselves, they do not wish
Language Cue #7:
Examine the language of the first 3-4 sentences of ¶ 3
and, in the space below, describe the attitude Douglass
hopes to diminish in his audience and explain how the
language he employs does this.

to have their cowardice shamed by your brave example.

Leave them to their timidity, or to whatever motive may
hold them back. I have not thought lightly of the words I
am now addressing you. The counsel I give comes of
close observation of the great struggle now in progress,
and of the deep conviction that this is your hour and
mine. In good earnest then, and after the best
deliberation, I now for the first time during this war feel
at liberty to call and counsel you to arms. By every Language Cue #8:
Examine the periodic sentence structure beginning with
consideration which binds you to your enslaved fellow— “By every…” and going to the end of paragraph ¶ 3,
then, in the space below, describe the effect the
countrymen, and the peace and welfare of your country; language of this structure has on the audience as he
by every aspiration [ambition, goal] which you cherish urges them on to help liberate the slave states.

for the freedom and equality of yourselves and your

children; by all the ties of blood and identity which make
us one with the brave black men now fighting our
battles in Louisiana and in South Caroline, I urge you to
fly to arms, and smite [strike down] with death the
power that would bury the government and your liberty
in the same hopeless grave….

26
[¶ 4]…Go quickly and help fill up the first colored Language Cue #9:
regiment from the North. I am authorized to assure you In the space below, describe how the language
Douglass employs in ¶ 4 helps to create an ethos as he
that you will receive the same wages, the same rations, urges his audience on to help liberate the slave states.

and the same equipments, the same protection, the

same treatment, and the same bounty, secured to the
white soldiers. You will be led by able and skillful
officers, men who will take especial pride in your
efficiency and success. They will be quick to accord to
you all the honor you shall merit by your valor, and see
that your rights and feelings are respected by other
soldiers. I have assured myself on these points, and can
speak with authority. More than twenty years of
unswerving devotion to our common cause may give me
some humble claim to be trusted at this momentous
crisis. I will not argue. To do so implies hesitation and
doubt, and you do not hesitate. You do not doubt. Language Cue #10:
In the space below, explain what effect the imagery of
the first couple of sentences of ¶ 5 has on the audience
[¶ 5]The day dawns; the morning star is bright upon as he urges them on to help liberate the slave states.

the horizon! The iron gate of our prison stands half

open. One gallant [brave] rush from the North will fling
it wide open, while four millions of our brothers and
sisters shall march out into liberty. The chance is now
given you to end in a day the bondage of centuries, and
to rise in one bound from social degradation [dreadful
condition] to the place of common equality with all other
varieties of men. Remember Denmark Vesey of Language Cue #11:
Charleston; remember Nathaniel Turner of Research the following names Douglass alludes to ¶ 5,
and, in the space below, explain how the connotative
Southampton; remember Shields Green and Copeland, significance of the word choices employed to describe
these people affect his audience as he urges them on to
who followed noble John Brown, and fell as glorious help liberate the slave states.
martyrs [sufferers for a cause] for the cause of the
slave. Remember that in a contest with oppression, the
Almighty has no attribute which can take sides with
oppressors. The case is before you. This is our golden
opportunity. Let us accept it, and forever wipe out the
dark reproaches [accusations] unsparingly hurled
against us by our enemies. Let us win for ourselves the
gratitude of our country, and the best blessings of our
posterity through all time. The nucleus of this first Language Cue #12:
regiment is now in camp at Readville, a short distance In the space below, describe how the language
Douglass employs in the sentences beginning with “This
from Boston. I will under take to forward to Boston all is our…” and ending with “…our posterity through all
time” affects his audience.
persons adjudged [deemed] fit to be mustered into the
regiment, who shall apply to me at any time within the
next two weeks.

27
INTRODUCTION to Carrie Chapman Catt’s Open
Address to Congress Concerning Women’s
Suffrage:
Speaking before the National American Woman
Suffrage Association in the winter of 1917,
Chapman Catt gave the following open address to
Congress.
Research the author’s life and times:
Research Carrie Chapman Catt’s defining life
experiences before she became president of the
National American Women Suffrage Association in 1900,
and also find out how many women were elected to the
U.S. House of Representatives or the Senate in 1916
and how many American states granted women the
right to vote by 1918. Then, in the space below, write
down any of this researched information that you think
might be relevant when you analyze how Chapman Catt
uses language to achieve her purpose.

Her purpose in making this address was to urge

politicians of both the Republican and Democratic
parties to pass an amendment to the Constitution
ensuring that all American women would enjoy the
same right to vote that men had.

[¶ 1]Woman suffrage [right to vote] is inevitable. Language Cue #1:

Suffragists knew it before Nov. 14, 1917; opponents Research the significance of Nov. 14, 1917, and, in the
space below, explain how connecting the significance of
afterward. Three distinct causes made it inevitable. this date to women’s suffrage affected Chapman Catt’s
audience.

[¶ 2]First, the history of our country. Ours is a nation

born of revolution, of rebellion against a system of
government so securely entrenched in the customs and
traditions of human society that in 1776 it seemed
impregnable [unconquerable]. From the beginning of
things, nations had been ruled by kings and for kings,
while the people served and paid the cost. The American
Revolutionists boldly proclaimed the heresies [dissent,
rebellion]: "Taxation without representation is tyranny"
[attributed to James Otis, an early advocate of the
American Revolution]. "Governments derive their just Language Cue #2:
Examine what Chapman Catt alludes to in the 2nd ¶ as
powers from the consent of the governed" [a line from “heresies” and as “maxims” at the beginning of the 3rd
the second ¶ of the Declaration of Independence]. The ¶, then, in the space below explain how Chapman Catt
establishes an ethos using these quotes and what effect
colonists won, and the nation which was established as a this has on her audience as she urges them to ensure
all American women enjoy the right to vote.
result of their victory has held unfailingly that these two
fundamental principles of democratic government are
not only the spiritual source of our national existence
but have been our chief historic pride and at all times
the sheer [absolute] anchor of our liberties.

[¶ 3]Eighty years after the Revolution, Abraham Lincoln

welded those two maxims [truism, adage] into a new
one: "Ours is a government of the people, by the
people, and for the people." Fifty years more passed and
the president of the United States, Woodrow Wilson, in a
mighty crisis of the nation, proclaimed to the world: "We
are fighting for the things which we have always carried
nearest to our hearts: for democracy, for the right of
those who submit to authority to have a voice in their
own government."

28
[¶ 4]All the way between these immortal aphorisms
political leaders have declared unabated [enduring,
constant] faith in their truth. Not one American has
arisen to question their logic in the 141 years of our
national existence. However stupidly our country may
have evaded the logical application at times, it has
never swerved from its devotion to the theory of
democracy as expressed by those two axioms….
Language Cue #3:
Examine the last sentence of ¶ 4, and consider when
America did “stupidly” evade “the logical application” of
those “immortal aphorisms” she’s mentioned in ¶s 2-3,
then, in the space below, explain how this language
affects her audience as she urges them to ensure all
American women enjoy the right to vote; consider how
her audience wants to be perceived in history.

[¶ 5]With such a history behind it, how can our nation

escape the logic it has never failed to follow, when its
last unenfranchised [not given the right to vote or have Language Cue #4:
Note the “Uncle Sam” imagery in ¶ 5. If one equates
a say] class calls for the vote? Behold our Uncle Sam “Uncle Sam” with the U.S. government and/or agents of
floating the banner with one hand, "Taxation without that government, what is Chapman Catt trying to say
about those agents, her audience? In the space below,
representation is tyranny," and with the other seizing point to a specific aspect of language in this ¶ and
explain what Chapman Catt appeals to in her audience
the billions of dollars paid in taxes by women to whom in using this language.
he refuses "representation." Behold him again,
welcoming the boys of twenty-one and the newly made
immigrant citizen to "a voice in their own government"
while he denies that fundamental right of democracy to
thousands of women public school teachers from whom
many of these men learn all they know of citizenship
and patriotism, to women college presidents, to women
who preach in our pulpits, interpret law in our courts,
preside over our hospitals, write books and magazines,
and serve in every uplifting moral and social enterprise.
Is there a single man who can justify such inequality of
treatment, such outrageous discrimination? Not one....

[¶ 6]Second, the suffrage for women already Language Cue #5:

In the space below, explain how Chapman Catt employs
established in the United States makes women suffrage the quote from Elihu Root in ¶ 6 to bolster her ethos.
for the nation inevitable. When Elihu Root, as president
of the American Society of International Law, at the
eleventh annual meeting in Washington, April 26, 1917,
said, "The world cannot be half democratic and half
autocratic [dictatorial, tyrannical]. It must be all
democratic or all Prussian [“Prussian” meaning of or
pertaining to a kingdom or duchy]. There can be no
compromise," he voiced a general truth. Precisely the
same intuition has already taught the blindest and most Language Cue #6:
Examine the overall structure of ¶ 6 noting how
hostile foe of woman suffrage that our nation cannot Chapman Catt uses the quote from Elihu Root to
long continue a condition under which government in establish what she terms “a general truth” and then in
cumulative sentence beginning with “Precisely the same
half its territory rests upon the consent of half of the intuition…” she provides a specific application of that
general truth. Then, in the space below, explain what
people and in the other half upon the consent of all the she appeals to in her audience when structuring the
people; a condition which grants representation to the paragraph this way.

taxed in half of its territory and denies it in the other

half; a condition which permits women in some states to
share in the election of the president, senators, and
representatives and denies them that privilege in others.
It is too obvious to require demonstration that woman
suffrage, now covering half our territory, will eventually
be ordained [certain, meant to be] in all the nation. No
one will deny it. The only question left is when and how
will it be completely established.

29
[¶ 7]Third, the leadership of the United States in world
democracy compels [requires, forces] the
enfranchisement of its own women. The maxims of the
Declaration were once called "fundamental principles of
Language Cue #7:
In the space below, summarize what Chapman Catt
states in the 1st five sentences of ¶ 7 and explain what
her language here appeals to in her audience as she
urges them to ensure all American women enjoy the
right to vote.

government." They are now called "American principles"

or even "Americanisms." They have become the slogans
of every movement toward political liberty the world
around, of every effort to widen the suffrage for men or
women in any land. Not a people, race, or class striving
for freedom is there anywhere in the world that has not
Language Cue #8:
made our axioms the chief weapon of the struggle. In the space below, explain what Chapman Catt implies
when she uses the word “farsighted” to describe those
More, all men and women the world around, with who have a “vision into the verities of things” and the
farsighted vision into the verities [truth, the actuality of effect of this word choice on her audience as she urges
them to ensure all American women enjoy the right to
things] of things, know that the world tragedy of our day vote.
is not now being waged over the assassination of an
archduke, nor commercial competition, nor national
ambitions, nor the freedom of the seas.

[¶ 8]It is a death grapple between the forces which

deny and those which uphold the truths of the
Declaration of Independence....
[¶ 9]Do you realize that in no other country in the world
with democratic tendencies is suffrage so completely
denied as in a considerable number of our own states?
There are thirteen black states where no suffrage for
women exists, and fourteen others where suffrage for
women is more limited than in many foreign countries.
Language Cue #9:
Note the anaphora employed at the beginning of ¶s 9-
12 (“Do you realize…”); Consider what someone really
means to say when they use that phrase (especially
when a person repeats the use of it) when addressing
another person, then in the space below, explain how
that language affects her audience as she urges them to
ensure all American women enjoy the right to vote.

[¶ 10]Do you realize that when you ask women to take

their cause to state referendum [submitting a direct
decision of a question at issue to an entire body of
voters] you compel them to do this: that you drive
women of education, refinement, achievement, to beg
men who cannot read for their political freedom?

[¶ 11]Do you realize that such anomalies

[abnormalities, glitches] as a college president asking
her janitor to give her a vote are overstraining the
patience and driving women to desperation?

[¶ 12]Do you realize that women in increasing numbers

indignantly [resentfully] resent the long delay in their
enfranchisement?

[¶ 13]Your party platforms have pledged women

suffrage. Then why not be honest, frank friends of our
cause, adopt it in reality as your own, make it a party
program, and "fight with us"? As a party measure--a
measure of all parties--why not put the amendment
through Congress and the legislatures? We shall all be
better friends, we shall have a happier nation, we

30
women will be free to support loyally the party of our
choice, and we shall be far prouder of our history.
[¶ 14]"There is one thing mightier than kings and
armies"--aye, than Congresses and political parties--"the
Language Cue #10:
Examine the last sentence of ¶ 13, especially the last
two clauses (“we women…” through “of our history”)
then, in the space below, explain how the language of
each of these final clauses affects her audience as she
urges them to ensure all American women enjoy the
right to vote.

power of an idea when its time has come to move." The

time for woman suffrage has come. The woman's hour
has struck. If parties prefer to postpone action longer
and thus do battle with this idea, they challenge the
inevitable. The idea will not perish; the party which
opposes it may. Every delay, every trick, every political
Language Cue #11:
dishonesty from now on will antagonize the women of In the space below, point out syllogistic language in ¶
14, then explain what this language appeals to in her
the land more and more, and when the party or parties audience as she urges them to ensure all American
which have so delayed woman suffrage finally let it women enjoy the right to vote.

come, their sincerity will be doubted and their appeal to

the new voters will be met with suspicion. This is the
psychology of the situation. Can you afford the risk?
Think it over.

[¶ 15]We know you will meet opposition. There are a Language Cue #12:
few "women haters" left, a few "old males of the tribe," Highlight or underline specific connotatively loaded word
choices and/or phrases Chapman Catt employs in ¶ 15,
as Vance Thompson calls them, whose duty they believe and, in the space below, explain how this language
affects her audience (not the “you” in the first sentence;
it to be to keep women in the places they have carefully rather the “old males of the tribe” in the 2nd sentence)
picked out for them…. There are women, too, with as she urges them to ensure all American women enjoy
the right to vote.
"slave souls" and "clinging vines" for backbones. There
are female dolls and male dandies [“dandy”: a term
used to describe a male who is into appearance and
lacks substance]. But the world does not wait for such
as these, nor does liberty pause to heed the plaint
[lament or complaint] of men and women with a grouch.
She does not wait for those who have a special interest
to serve, nor a selfish reason for depriving other people
of freedom. Holding her torch aloft, liberty is pointing Language Cue #13:
the way onward and upward… In the space below, explain how the last sentence of ¶
16 affects Chapman Catt’s audience as she urges them
to ensure all American women enjoy the right to vote.
[¶ 16]Some of you have been too indifferent to give
more than casual attention to this question. It is worthy
of your immediate consideration. A question big enough
to engage the attention of our allies in wartime is too big
a question for you to neglect.

[¶ 17]Some of you have grown old in party service. Are

you willing that those who take your places by and by
shall blame you for having failed to keep pace with the
world and thus having lost for them a party advantage?
Is there any real gain for you, for your party, for your
nation by delay? Do you want to drive the progressive
Language Cue #14:
In the space below, explain how the questions of ¶ 17
affect Chapman Catt’s audience as she urges them to
ensure all American women enjoy the right to vote.

men and women out of your party?

[¶ 18]Some of you hold to the doctrine [dogma, belief]

of states' rights as applying to woman suffrage.
Adherence to that theory will keep the United States far
behind all other democratic nations upon this question.

31
A theory which prevents a nation from keeping up with Language Cue #15:
the trend of world progress cannot be justified. Examine the language of ¶ 18, and, in the space below,
explain what effect it has on Chapman Catt’s audience
as she urges them ensure all American women enjoy
the right to vote.
[¶ 19]Gentlemen, we hereby petition you, our only
designated representatives, to redress our grievances by
the immediate passage of the Federal Suffrage
Amendment and to use your influence to secure its
ratification [approval, endorsement] in your own state,
in order that the women of our nation may be endowed
with political freedom before the next presidential
election, and that our nation may resume its world
leadership in democracy.

[¶ 20]Woman suffrage is coming--you know it. Will you,

Language Cue #16:
Honorable Senators and Members of the House of In the space below explain how Chapman Catt’s final
question affects her audience.
Representatives, help or hinder it?
[Later that winter, on January 10, 1918, the House of
Representatives passed the suffrage amendment, but
the Senate defeated it. The Nineteenth Amendment of
the Constitution, guaranteeing women the right to vote,
would not be ratified until August 26, 1920.]

32
INTRODUCTION to Will Rogers Skewering Both
Sides of the Prohibition Debate:
Will Rogers was the most beloved humorist and
entertainer of his time (late 1920’s-early 1930’s).
The American public came to know and love him
Research the author’s life and times:
Research the Volstead Act and how the people of the
United States reacted to prohibition laws. Also, research
the issues Will Rogers liked to discuss with the
American public and where he often stood on various
issues of his time. Then, in the space below, write down
any of this researched information that you think might
be relevant to your analysis of how Rogers uses
language to achieve his purpose.

through his radio program, syndicated columns,

stage shows, and movies.

In one of his radio broadcasts Rogers offered his

thoughts on Prohibition. His purpose in this
broadcast was not to come down hard on one side
or the other, instead he poked fun at both sides
and hoped to motivate the public to not give
credence to the hard-line voices on either side of
the prohibition debate and to possibly coax the
hard-liners toward a little less zealous
perspective.

Language Cue #1:

[¶ 1]I have received more letters in the last few weeks In the space below, explain how Rogers uses language
to establish an ethos in the first two ¶s.
to talk on Prohibition than on any other subject. I
haven’t said a word about it. I was really ashamed. So
many was talking and arguing over it that I wanted to
be original and just let it alone. Can you name me one
subject in the entire world that there has been as much
time and energy wasted on?...

[¶ 2]I have often said that I wish the wets would

become so soused [drunk] they would be speechless
and couldn’t say anything, and that the drys [the “drys”
Rogers refers to are those who favor prohibition; Language Cue #2:
conversely, the “wets” are those who are against In the space below, describe the connotations behind
words like “wets” and “drys” (used in ¶ 2) and explain
prohibition] would become so perfect that the Lord the effect of this language choice on Rogers’ audiences
urges them to be a little less zealous about their stance
would come down and take them away from here—and on Prohibition.
that would leave the country to the rest of us who are
tired of listening to both of them. So I got to wondering
if it wasn’t possible for a fellow to talk on it without
being a nut on the other side. I think if I could do that I
would be speaking in behalf of practically millions of
people.

[¶ 3]Now it is not so terribly serious, this Prohibition. It

is not a life-or-death problem with us. If it was repealed
[canceled, retracted] tomorrow, the lives and habits and
morals of the whole country they wouldn’t be ruined;
the country would drag along just the same. Taxes and
Language Cue #3:
Under or highlight the conditionals structures in ¶ 3 and
at the beginning of ¶ 4, and, in the space below, explain
what Rogers appeals to in his audience when using this
language as he urges them to be a little less zealous
about their stance on Prohibition.

parking spaces would hit us in the face just the same.

Henry Ford wouldn’t leave the country if it was
repealed—you couldn’t run him out of here.

[¶ 4]Then, on the other hand, if it is never repealed, we

will still drag along. The country won’t go to the dogs.
We lived with the Eighteenth Amendment and we have

33
lived without it, and we are still here under both Language Cue #4:
systems. So you see there is perhaps problems In the space below, paraphrase the phrase which begins
he 3rd sentence of ¶ 4 (“We lived with”), then explain
greater…. America is getting so big—you know, it really how the connotation of this phrase affects the audience;
consider how he wants his audience to feel about the
is, this country is getting so big—that no matter what it 18th Amendment.
is, it don’t bother us anymore. We just struggle along in
spite of ourselves. It takes more than a drink to really
interest us anymore. It is not undermining the moral
fiber of a great nation. That’s a lot of hooey
[nonsense]….

[¶ 5]Some folks on both sides have just kidded

Language Cue #5:
themselves it is our greatest problem. The real wet is In the space below, describe how Rogers employs the
use of a bandwagon fallacy at the end of ¶ 2 and in ¶s
going to drink, I don’t care what your laws are, and a 4-5, then explain its effect on the audiences in terms of
real dry is going to lecture to him while he is drinking, urging them to be a little less zealous in their stance on
Prohibition.
no matter what your laws about it are. You can’t change
human nature. But while those two are fighting it out,
there will be five hundred passing by tending to their
own business, living their own lives, and doing exactly
what they think is best for them....

[¶ 6]We are trying to settle something here that has

been going on since way back in Bible times. Those old
prophets couldn’t even settle it, and you can’t tell me
that Moses of New Hampshire [Republican and
Prohibitionist Senator George Higgins] and his gang of
Language Cue #6:
Note the allusion to “Moses” and the use of the word
“gang” in the 2nd sentence of ¶ 6, then, in the space
below, explain how this language affects on the
audience in terms of how they view Higgins and other
prohibitionists.

senators know any more than Moses of Palestine and his

troop did. Right in the first book of Genesis [first book of
the Bible], you don’t read but just a few pages until
Noah was lit up like a pygmy [“pygmy” meaning
miniature] golf course. Here is just how it started—wait
a minute, I got it right here on paper—I will read it to
you. Right in the start of Genesis, the ninth chapter and
twentieth verse, it says, “And Noah became a
husbandman [a farmer] and planted a vineyard.” The Language Cue #7:
If you know nothing of Rogers’ allusion to the Bible
minute he became a husband he started in raising the story of Noah in ¶s 6 and 7 research it, then
highlight/underline language in ¶s 6 and 7 in which
ingredients that goes with married life. So you can trace Rogers uses this allusion as part of a syllogistic
all drink to marriage, see. What we got to prohibit is reasoning (an example of reductio ad absurdum) and,
in the space below, explain how the coupling of these
marriage. In the very next verse, the twenty—first language elements affects the audiences in terms of
urging them to be a little less zealous about their stance
verse, it says, “And he drank of the wine and was on Prohibition.
drunk.” Now that was Noah himself, our forefather.
Practically all of us can trace our ancestry back to him….

[¶ 7]Now you see Noah drank and he didn’t drink

water, and he was a man that knew more about water
than practically any man of his time. He was the water
commissioner [official, administrator] of his day. Old
Noah was an expert on water, but the Lord is very far-
seeing, and everything He does is for the best. Through
Noah partaking of too much wine and going on his little
spree [binge], that is just why the Lord picked on him to
pick out these animals to take into the Ark—he was the
only man that had even seen all of them. So if Noah
hadn’t drunk, today we would be without circuses and
menageries [collection of animals for exhibition]. Of

34
course, other men since Noah’s time have claimed that
they have seen animals that Noah didn’t put into the
Ark—but they were drinking from a different vineyard….
[¶ 8]Noah lived—you know this wine had such ill effects
on Noah that he only lived to be 950 years old. That is
just nineteen years short of Methuselah, who held the
longevity [durability, prolonged existence] record of his
and all times. So Prohibition is not a new problem by
any means. There is no need for this generation to feel
conceited enough to think that they can settle it. It is
like stopping war. We are always going to want to do
something that no other generation had ever been able
to do. If you could take politics out of Prohibition, it
would be more beneficial to this country than if you took
the alcohol out of our drinks.
Language Cue #8:
In the space below summarize what Rogers says in the
¶ 8 sentences beginning with “So Prohibition is…” and
ending with “…had ever been able to do.” Then explain
what the language of these sentences appeals to in
Rogers’ audiences in order to urge them to be a little
less zealous about their stance on Prohibition.
Language Cue 9:
In the space below, explain what Rogers suggests about
politicians involvement in Prohibition (examine the last
sentence of ¶ 8, and then explain what might be the
intended effect of this suggestion on his audience as he
urges them to be less zealous about their stance on
Prohibition.

[¶ 9]America ain’t as bad off as it might seem. The

young are not drinking themselves to death and the old
are not worrying themselves to death over the condition
of whether the young are drinking or not. Chain stores
are worrying this country a lot more than chain saloons
are. Turkey is the only other Prohibition country in the
world, us and Turkey. There’s a fine gang to be linked
up with, ain’t it? If we enjoyed some of the other
privileges, things wouldn’t be so bad. We enjoy them, Language Cue #10:
In the space below, explain what Rogers appeals to in
but they are not legal. his audience when he says, “Let’s not all get excited
about it and break friendships with our neighbors and
fall out with our brother over this Prohibition” (in ¶ 9)
[¶ 10]Now listen here, folks—honest, this is what I as he urges them to be less zealous in their stance on
Prohibition.
want to get over to you tonight. Let’s not all get excited
about it and break friendships with our neighbors and
fall out with our brother over this Prohibition. Nothing is
going to be done about it during our lifetime. There ain’t
anybody hearing me tonight who will live to see the time
when anything is done about it, so don’t let’s all worry
and get all het’ up [heated up] about it, get all hot and Language Cue #11:
bothered. Don’t let’s take it so serious. The drys and In ¶ 10 Rogers says, “The drys and the wets both
combined can’t hurt this country.” Consider how this
wets both combined can’t hurt this country. Talking statement adds to the bandwagon fallacy he employs
earlier, and, in the space below, explain its effect on the
about Prohibition is like whittling used to be: It passes audiences in terms of urging them to be a little less
away the time but don’t settle anything. zealous in their stance on Prohibition.

[¶ 11] Now go to bed and forget about it, and let’s hope
that some day our country will be as dry as the
speeches made by both the wets and the drys....

[Prohibition was repealed on December 5, 1933.]

Language Cue #12:
Highlight or underline informal, idiomatic language
(colloquialisms, slang, etc.) of ¶s 10 and 11, and, in the
space to the left, list other similar phrasings and/or
word choices he employs throughout his address. Then
define the overall tone of the address created by the
use of this language and explain how this tone affects
his audience as he urges them to be less zealous in
their stance on Prohibition.

35
Introduction to the Inaugural Address by Newly Research the author’s life and times:
Elected President Franklin D. Roosevelt: Research what was going on in America during the last
years of President Hoover’s term in office and the early
years of President F.D. Roosevelt’s term (the early
1930’s). Then, in the space below, write down any of
While incumbent President Herbert Hoover this researched information that you think might be
seemed, by many Americans, to be dull and aloof, relevant to your analysis of how Roosevelt uses
language to achieve his purpose.
candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt emanated charm
and charisma. While President Hoover lacked the
ability to uplift a nation mired in economic and
social depression, candidate Roosevelt manifested
a more passionate desire to renew Americans’
spirits.

On November 4, 1932, the American people

elected Roosevelt in a popular landslide. Well
aware of the daunting task before him, and
addressing a nation overwhelmed by poverty and
tired of false promises, President Roosevelt’s
purpose in the following inaugural address was to
give Americans courage to work at putting the Language Cue #1:
In the 1st sentence of ¶ 1 Roosevelt use the word
nation back on track and to inspire them to have “consecration.” In the space below, describe the
connotations in using such a word as this to describe his
confidence in him, their newly elected leader. inauguration day, then explain how this word choice
affects an audience which he hopes to inspire with new
courage and confidence.
[¶ 1]This is a day of national consecration [dedication
or devotion to some purpose or pursuit], and I am
certain that my fellow Americans expect that on my
induction into the presidency I will address them with a
candor [frankness, honesty] and a decision which the
present situation of our nation impels [requires,
demands]. This is preeminently [paramount, most
critically] the time to speak the truth, the whole truth,
frankly and boldly. Nor need we shrink from honestly
Language Cue #2:
facing conditions in our country today. This great nation Highlight or underline language in the 1st ¶ which
will endure as it has endured, will revive, and will communicates Roosevelt’s self assured tone, and in the
space below, explain the effect of this language on his
prosper. So, first of all, let me assert my firm belief that audience.

the only thing we have to fear is fear itself—nameless,

unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed
efforts to convert retreat into advance. In every dark
hour of our national life a leadership of frankness and
vigor has met with that understanding and support of
the people themselves which is essential to victory. I am
convinced that you will again give that support to
leadership in these critical days.
Language Cue #3:
[¶ 2]In such a spirit on my part and on yours we face In the space below, explain the significance of the word
“only” in the 2nd sentence of ¶ 2 and how the use of
our common difficulties. They concern, thank God, only that one adjective affects the audience which he hopes
material things. Values have shrunken to fantastic to inspire with new courage and confidence.

levels. Taxes have risen. Our ability to pay has fallen.

Government of all kinds is faced by serious curtailment
[restriction] of income. The means of exchange are
frozen in the currents of trade. The withered leaves of
industrial enterprise lie on every side. Farmers find no
markets for their produce. The savings of many years in
thousands of families are gone. More important, a host
of unemployed citizens face the grim problem of

36
existence and an equally great number toil with little Language Cue #4:
return. Only a foolish optimist can deny the dark In the space below explain the relationship of ¶ 2 to ¶
3, and how the language of these ¶s affects the
realities of the moment. audience.

[¶ 3]Yet our distress comes from no failure of

substance. We are stricken by no plague of locusts.
Compared with the perils which our forefathers
conquered because they believed and were not afraid,
we have still much to be thankful for. Nature still offers
her bounty and human efforts have multiplied it. Plenty
is at our doorstep, but a generous use of it languishes
[plods, gets weaker] in the very sight of the supply.

[¶ 4]Primarily this is because the rulers of the exchange

of mankind’s goods have failed, through their own Language Cue #5:
In the space below identify the allusion Roosevelt
stubbornness and their own incompetence, have employs in ¶s 4-5 and explain how affects the
admitted their failure, and abdicated [given up]. audience; Consider how it may help Roosevelt establish
an ethos with his audience.
Practices of the unscrupulous [dishonest, corrupt]
money changers [an allusion to Christian mythology’s
story of how the Christ figure threw “money changers”
or money lenders out of a temple because they defiled it
with their greed] stand indicted in the court of public
opinion, rejected by the hearts and minds of men. True,
they have tried, but their efforts have been cast in the
pattern of an outworn tradition. Faced by failure of
credit, they have proposed only the lending of more
money. Stripped of the lure of profit by which to induce
our people to follow their false leadership, they have
resorted to exhortations [catchphrases], pleading
tearfully for restored confidence. They know only the
rules of a generation of self-seekers. They have no
vision, and when there is no vision the people perish.

[¶ 5]The money changers have fled from their high

seats in the temple of our civilization. We may now
restore that temple to the ancient truths. The measure
of the restoration lies in the extent to which we apply
social values more noble than mere monetary profit.
Language Cue #6:
[¶ 6]Happiness lies not in the mere possession of Carefully examine the balancing and/or parallelisms of
the sentence structures and the connotatively loaded
money. It lies in the joy of achievement, in the thrill of diction of ¶ 6, then in the space below, explain how
creative effort. The joy and moral stimulation of work no these language moves encourage the audience to work
at putting the nation back on track.
longer must be forgotten in the mad chase of
evanescent [fleeting, temporary] profits. These dark
days will be worth all they cost us if they teach us that
our true destiny is not to be ministered unto [looked
after] but to minister to ourselves and to our fellow
men.

[¶ 7]Recognition of the falsity of material wealth as the

standard of success goes hand in hand with the
abandonment of the false belief that public office and
high political position are to be valued only by the
standards of pride of place and personal profit. And

37
there must be an end to a conduct in banking and in Language Cue #7:
business which too often has given to a sacred trust the In the space below, paraphrase what Roosevelt says in
the first sentence of ¶ 7 and then explain how he works
likeness of callous [insensitive] and selfish wrongdoing. to develop an ethos in this sentence and the rest of this
¶.
Small wonder that confidence languishes [gets weaker],
for it thrives only on honesty on honor, on the
sacredness of obligations, on faithful protection, on
unselfish performance. Without them it cannot live.

[¶ 8]Restoration calls, however, not for changes in

ethics alone. This nation asks for action, and action now.
Our greatest primary task is to put people to work. This
is no unsolvable problem, if we face it wisely and
courageously. It can be accomplished in part by direct
recruiting by the government itself, treating the task as
we would treat the emergency of a war, but at the same
time, through this employment, accomplishing greatly
needed projects to stimulate and reorganize the use of
Language Cue #8:
In the space below identify where Roosevelt employs 1st
person plural pronouns in ¶ 8 and at the beginning of 9,
then explain the effect of this language on the
audience; consider why he chose not to use the second
person pronouns “you” and “your.”

our natural resources.

[¶ 9]Hand in hand with this we must frankly recognize

the overbalance of population in our industrial centers
and, by engaging on a national scale in a redistribution,
endeavor to provide a better use of the land for those
best fitted for the land. The task can be helped by
definite efforts to raise the values of agricultural
products and with this the power to purchase the output
of our cities. It can be helped by preventing realistically
the tragedy of the growing loss through foreclosure [a
proceeding to bar the right of redeeming property] of Language Cue #9:
Much like a periodic sentence, the last six sentences of
our small homes and our farms. It can be helped by ¶ 9 create a periodic effect. In the space below, explain
the ways in which this language affects the audience.
insistence that the federal, state, and local governments
act forthwith on the demand that their cost be
drastically reduced. It can be helped by the unifying of
relief activities which today are often scattered,
uneconomical, and unequal. It can be helped by national
planning for and supervision of all forms of
transportation and of communications and other utilities
which have a definitely public character. There are many
ways in which it can be helped, but it can never be
helped merely by talking about it. We must act and act
quickly.
Language Cue #10:
In the space below, explain with what Roosevelt
[¶ 10]Finally, in our progress toward a resumption of equates himself and his vision for America when in the
work we require two safeguards against a return of the 10th ¶ he says “our progress” must safeguard “against a
return of the evils of the old order,” and also explain
evils of the old order. There must be a strict supervision how he adds to an ethos he had sought to establish
earlier in his address.
of all banking and credits and investments. There must
be an end to speculation with other people’s money. And
there must be provision for an adequate but sound
currency.

[¶ 11]There are the lines of attack. I shall presently

urge upon a new Congress in special session detailed
measures for their fulfillment, and I shall seek the
immediate assistance of the several states….

38
[¶ 12]I am prepared under my constitutional duty to
recommend the measures that a stricken nation in the
midst of a stricken world may require. These measures,
or such other measures as the Congress may build out
Language Cue #11:
Note that within the first two sentences of ¶ 12
Roosevelt says, “under my constitutional duty” and
“within my constitutional authority.” In the space below,
explain how this language bolsters his ethos.

of its experience and wisdom, I shall seek, within my

constitutional authority to bring to speedy adoption. But
in the event that the Congress shall fail to take one of
these two courses and in the event that the national
emergency is still critical, I shall not evade the clear
course of duty that will then confront me. I shall ask the
Congress for the one remaining instrument to meet the
crisis: broad executive power to wage a war against the
emergency, as great as the power that would be given
to me if we were in fact invaded by a foreign foe. For
the trust reposed in me I will return the courage and the Language Cue #12:
Carefully examine the connotative power “wage a war”
devotion that befit the time. I can do no less. and “invaded by a foreign foe” near the end of ¶ 12,
then in the space below, explain how this language
affects his audience, especially in terms of how they
[¶ 13]We face the arduous [difficult, demanding] days view him as a leader.

that lie before us in the warm courage of the national

unity, with the clear consciousness of seeking old and
precious moral values, with the clean satisfaction that
comes from the stern performance of duty by old and
young alike. We aim at the assurance of a rounded and
permanent national life. We do not distrust the future of
essential democracy. The people of the United States
have not failed. In their need they have registered a
mandate [a directive, a command] that they want
direct, vigorous action. They have asked for discipline
and direction under leadership. They have made me the Language Cue #13:
In the space below explain the connotative significance
present instrument of their wishes. In the spirit of the of Roosevelt asserting that he is the “present
gift I take it. instrument” of the people’s wishes and how this
language affects his audience.

[¶ 14]In this dedication of a nation we humbly ask the

blessing of God. May He protect each and every one of
us. May He guide me in the days to come.

39
Introduction to the excerpt of General George S.
Patton’s Speech to the 3rd Army on the Eve of the
Normandy Invasion, D-Day, June 5, 1944:
General George S. Patton was the commander of
the Third Army during the World War II D-Day
invasion of Nazi occupied France.
Research the author’s life and times:
Research the kind of commander/person Gen. Patton
was known to be, and also what the men of the 3rd
Army knew they would face once they reached the
beaches of Normandy, France. Then, in the space
below, write down any of this researched information
that you think might be relevant to your analysis of how
Patton uses language to achieve his purpose.

Patton’s purpose in this speech was to rally and

inspire confidence in his American troops before
they encountered the enemy (And unlike the actor
George C. Scott, who gave a more sanitized
version of the speech in the 1970 classic film,
Patton, the real Patton did not have a husky
baritone but, rather surprisingly, a voice that was
described as a “high-pitched, womanish squeak”). Language Cue #1:
Evident in the 1st sentence is Patton’s use of profanity
which he amply employs throughout the speech. In the
space below, explain why this language is appropriate
for his audience, what effect it has on them (especially
[¶ 1]Men, this stuff that some sources sling around in terms of how they view him as a leader), and how it
aids Patton in achieving his purpose.
about America wanting out of this war, not wanting to
fight, is a crock of bullshit. Americans love to fight,
traditionally. All real Americans love the sting and clash
of battle. You are here today for three reasons. First,
because you are here to defend your homes and your
loved ones. Second, you are here for your own self-
respect, because you would not want to be anywhere
else. Third, you are here because you are real men, and
all real men like to fight. When you here—every one of
you—were kids, you all admired the champion marble
player, the fastest runner, the big-league ballplayers, Language Cue #2:
In the space below, point out the language Patton
and the all-American football players. Americans love a employs in the 1st ¶ that creates a pathos, identify the
winner. Americans will not tolerate a loser. Americans specific emotional effect that language has on his
audience, and explain how that language creates that
despise [loathe or scorn] cowards. Americans play to effect and aids Patton in achieving his purpose; consider
how Patton’s language in this ¶ works with a
win all the time. I wouldn’t give a hoot in hell for a man bandwagon appeal.
who lost and laughed. That’s why Americans have never
lost nor will ever lose a war, for the very thought of
losing is hateful to an American.

[¶ 2]You are not all going to die. Only 2 percent of you

right here today would die in a major battle. Death must
not be feared. Death, in time, comes to all men. Yes,
every man is scared in his first battle. If he says he’s
not, he’s a liar! Some men are cowards but they fight
just the same as the brave men, or they get the hell Language Cue #3:
In the space below, define Patton’s tone in the 2nd ¶,
slammed out of them watching men fight who are just analyze the language that creates that tone, and
as scared as they are. The real hero is the man who explain how that tone helps him address the fear that is
probably pervasive in his audience, thus helping him
fights even though he is scared. Some men get over achieve his purpose. Consider his use of language tools
like imperative and declarative structures, and
their fright in a minute under fire. For some, it takes an especiallyabsolutes.
hour. For some, it takes days. But a real man will never
let his fear of death overpower his honor, his sense of
duty to his country; and his innate [inherent, instinctive]
manhood. Battle is the most magnificent competition in
which a human being can indulge. It brings out all that
is best and it removes all that is base. Americans pride

40
themselves on being he-men, and they are he-men.
Remember that the enemy is just as frightened as you
are, and probably more so. They are not supermen.

[¶ 3]All through your army careers, you men have Language Cue #4:
bitched about what you call “chickenshit drilling.” That, In the space below, identify the humor of ¶ 3 and
explain how this language affects the audience and aids
like everything else in this army, has a definite purpose. Patton in achieving his purpose.
That purpose is alertness. Alertness must be bred into
every soldier. I don’t give a fuck for a man who is not
always on his toes. You men are veterans or you
wouldn’t be here. You are ready for what’s to come. A
man must be alert at all times if he expects to stay
alive. If you’re not alert, some time a German son of an
asshole bitch is going to sneak up behind you and beat
you to death with a sockful of shit! There are four
hundred neatly marked graves somewhere in Sicily, all
because one man went to sleep on the job. But they are
German graves, because we caught the bastard asleep
before they did…. Language Cue #5:
In the space below, identify Patton’s use of an
anecdote/exemplum in ¶ 4, explain its effect on his
[¶ 4]My men don’t surrender. I don’t want to hear of audience and how it aids Patton in achieving his
any soldier under my command being captured unless purpose.

he has been hit. Even if you are hit, you can still fight
back. That’s not just bullshit either. The kind of a man
that I want in my command is just like the lieutenant in
Libya who, with a Luger [German pistol] against his
chest, jerked off his helmet, swept the gun aside with
one hand, and busted the hell out of the Kraut with his
helmet. Then he jumped on the gun and went out and
killed another German before they knew what the hell
was coming off. And all of that time, this man had a
bullet through a lung. There was a real man!

[¶ 5]All the real heroes are not storybook combat
fighters, either. Every single man in this army plays a
vital role. Don’t ever let up. Don’t ever think that your
job is unimportant. Every man has a job to do and he
must do it. Every man is a vital link in the great chain.
Language Cue #6:
Carefully examine the sentences in ¶ 5 beginning with
“What if every truck driver…” and ending with “What
would our country, our loved ones, our homes, even the
world, be like?” Then, in the space below explain what
this language appeals to in his audience and how it aids
Patton in achieving his purpose.

What if every truck driver suddenly decided that he

didn’t like the whine of those shells overhead, turned
yellow, and jumped headlong into a ditch? The cowardly
bastard could say, “Hell, they won’t miss me, just one
guy in thousands?’ But, what if every man thought that
way? Where in the hell would we be now? What would
our country, our loved ones, our homes, even the world,
be like? No, goddamnit, Americans don’t think like that.
Every man does his job. Every man serves the whole.
Every department, every unit, is important to the vast
scheme of this war. The ordnance [armaments,
weaponry] men are needed to supply the guns and
machinery of war to keep us rolling. The quartermaster
is needed to bring up food and clothes for us because
where we are going there isn’t a hell of a lot to steal.

41
Every last man on KP has a job to do, even the one who Language Cue #7:
heats our water to keep us from getting the “G.I. shits.” In the space below, identify the humor of the last part
of ¶ 5 and explain how this language affects the
audience and aids Patton in achieving his purpose.

[¶ 6]Each man must not only think of himself, but also

of his buddy fighting beside him. We don’t want yellow
cowards in this army. They should be killed off like rats.
If not, they will go home after this war and breed more
cowards. The brave men will breed more brave men.
One of the bravest men that I ever saw was a fellow on
top of a telegraph pole in the midst of a furious fire-
fight in Tunisia. I stopped and asked what the hell he
was doing up there at a time like that. He answered,
“Fixing the wire, Sir.” I asked, “Isn’t that a little
unhealthy right about now?” He answered, “Yes, Sir, but Language Cue #8:
In the space below, identify where Patton uses
the goddamned wire has to be fixed.” I asked, “Don’t anecdote(s) in ¶ 6 yet again, then explain its effect on
his audience and how it aids Patton in achieving his
those planes strafing [to attack fiercely] the road bother purpose.
you?” And he answered, “No, Sir, but you sure as hell
do!” Now, there was a real man, a real soldier. There
was a man who devoted all he had to his duty no matter
how seemingly insignificant his duty might appear at the
time, no matter how great the odds. And you should
have seen those trucks on the road to Tunisia. Those
drivers were magnificent. All day and all night they
rolled over those son-of-a-bitching roads, never
stopping, never faltering from their course, with shells
bursting all around them all of the time. We got through
on good old American guts. Many of those men drove for
over forty consecutive hours. Those men weren’t combat
men, but they were all soldiers with a job to do. They
did it, and in one hell of a way they did it. They were
part of a team. Without team effort, without them, the
fight would have been lost. All of the links in the chain Language Cue #9:
pulled together, and the chain became unbreakable…. The language of ¶ 7 is not unlike the language of much
of this speech in that Patton rarely uses qualifiers, and
instead tends to prefer the use of imperative and
declarative structures and absolute adjectives. In the
[¶ 7]When a man is lying in a shell hole, if he just stays space below, point to examples of these language
there all the day, a German will get to him eventually. features, describe the tone they create, and explain
how this language affects Patton’s audience and helps
The hell with that idea. The hell with taking it. My men him achieve his purpose.

don’t dig foxholes. I don’t want them to. Foxholes only

slow up an offensive. Keep moving. And don’t give the
enemy time to dig one either. We’ll win this war, but
we’ll win it only by fighting and by showing the Germans
that we’ve got more guts than they have, or ever will
have. We’re not going to just shoot the sons of bitches,
we’re going to rip out their living goddamned guts and
use them to grease the treads of our tanks. We’re going
to murder those lousy Hun cocksuckers by the bushel-
fucking-basket. War is a bloody, killing business. You’ve
got to spill their blood, or they will spill yours. Rip them Language Cue #10:
In the space below, explain how the imagery of the last
up the belly. Shoot them in the guts. When shells are sentence of ¶ 7 affects the audience and helps Patton
achieve his purpose.
hitting all around you and you wipe the dirt off your face
and realize that instead of dirt it’s the blood and guts of
what once was your best friend beside you, you’ll know
what to do!

42
[¶ 8]I don’t want to get any messages saying, “I am
holding my position.” We are not holding a goddamned
thing. Let the Germans do that. We are advancing
constantly and we are not interested in holding on to
anything except the enemy’s balls. We are going to twist
his balls and kick the living shit out of him all the time.
Our basic plan of operation is to advance and to keep on
advancing regardless of whether we have to go over,
Language Cue #11:
Besides the obvious vulgar language in ¶ 8, a majority
of its sentences begin with “We are…” and “We are
not…..” In the space below, define the tone created in
the coupling of these language elements and explain
how this tone affects the audience.

under, or through the enemy. We are going to go

through him like crap through a goose—like shit through
a tin horn!

[¶ 9]From time to time there will be some complaints

that we are pushing our people too hard. I don’t give a
goddamn about such complaints. I believe in the old and
sound rule that an ounce of sweat will save a gallon of
blood. The harder we push, the more Germans we will
kill. The more Germans we kill, the fewer of our men
will be killed. Pushing means fewer casualties. I want
you all to remember that. Language Cue #12:
In the space below, identify a syllogism employed in ¶ 9
and explain what Patton appeals to in his audience
[¶ 10]There is one great thing that you men will all be when using this language.
able to say after this war is over and you are home once
again. You may be thankful that twenty years from now
when you are sitting by the fireplace with your grandson
on your knee and he asks you what you did in the great
World War II, you won’t have to cough, shift him to the
other knee, and say, “Well, your granddaddy shoveled
shit in Louisiana.” No, sir, you can look him straight in
the eye and say, “Son, your granddaddy rode with the
great Third Army and a son-of-a-goddamned-bitch
named Georgie Patton!”

Language Cue #13:

Consider the psychological and/or emotional state that
probably preexisted in Patton’s audience before he
began speaking, and in the space below, explain in
what way(s) the language Patton employs in the final ¶
affects the audience, especially in terms of how it
helped them overcome that preexisting state.

43
INTRODUCTION to John F. Kennedy’s Presidential
Inaugural Address:
On Friday, January 20, 1961, John F. Kennedy
became the youngest person ever to be elected as
President of the United States. He succeeded
President Dwight D. Eisenhower, a former general
during World War II, who represented an older
generation of Americans.
Research the author’s life and times:
Research America’s foreign relationships during the late
1950’s and early 1960’s and how Americans of that
time felt about those relationships. Also, research the
political events and cultural movements in America at
that time, especially in terms of what they reveal about
what weighed upon the minds of the American people.
Then, in the space below, explain how this researched
information is pertinent to better understanding
Kennedy’s purpose in this speech.

Kennedy was the young American President who

represented a new generation of Americans, and
his purpose was to ignite the energies of that new
generation of Americans to be active citizens and
serve a greater good in their nation. He also asked
the nations of the world to join together to fight
common enemies: poverty, disease, tyranny and
war. Kennedy asked for all people of the world to
demonstrate actions of strength, courage and
sacrifice.

[¶ 1] Vice President Johnson, Mr. Speaker, Mr. Chief

Justice, President Eisenhower, Vice President Nixon,
President Truman, reverend clergy, fellow citizens: we
observe today not a victory of party, but a celebration of
Language Cue #1
In the 1st ¶ Kennedy uses juxtaposition of contrasting
words. Highlight those word choices, and then explain
the effect of this antithetical language on his audience
of Americans.

freedom—symbolizing an end, as well as a beginning—

signifying renewal, as well as change. For I have sworn
before you and Almighty God the same solemn oath our
forebears [ancestors] prescribed nearly a century and
three quarters ago.

[¶ 2] The world is very different now. For man holds in

his mortal hands the power to abolish all forms of
human poverty and all forms of human life. And yet the
same revolutionary beliefs for which our forebears
fought are still at issue around the globe—the belief that
the rights of man come not from the generosity of the
state, but from the hand of God.
Language Cue #2:
¶s 3 and 4 use cumulative parallel structures to
emphasize the qualities of “a new generation of
[¶ 3] We dare not forget today that we are the heirs of Americans.” Highlight or underline the parallel elements
that first revolution. Let the word go forth from this time in these ¶s, and then, in the space below, explain what
this language appeals to in his audience.
and place, to friend and foe alike, that the torch has
been passed to a new generation of Americans—born in
this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and
bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage—and
unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those
human rights to which this Nation has always been
committed, and to which we are committed today at
home and around the world.

[¶ 4] Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well

or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet

44
any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in
order to assure the survival and the success of liberty.
[¶ 5] This much we pledge—and more.
[¶ 6] To those old allies whose cultural and spiritual
Language Cue #3:
In the space below, paraphrase ¶ 7, noting in particular
the allusion to “riding the tiger…” (You should research
this Chinese idiom), and then explain how the language
in this ¶ affects Kennedy’s audience.

origins we share, we pledge the loyalty of faithful

friends. United, there is little we cannot do in a host of
cooperative ventures. Divided, there is little we can do—
for we dare not meet a powerful challenge at odds and
split asunder [divide, break apart].

[¶ 7] To those new States whom we welcome to the

ranks of the free, we pledge our word that one form of
colonial control shall not have passed away merely to be
replaced by a far more iron tyranny. We shall not always
expect to find them supporting our view. But we shall
always hope to find them strongly supporting their own
freedom—and to remember that, in the past, those who
Language Cue #4:
foolishly sought power by riding the back of the tiger In the space below, explain how Kennedy creates an
ended up inside. ethos, a pathos, and/or a logos through the use of
careful word choice, antithesis, and a conditional
sentence in ¶ 8.
[¶ 8] To those peoples in the huts and villages across
the globe struggling to break the bonds of mass misery,
we pledge our best efforts to help them help
themselves, for whatever period is required—not
because the Communists may be doing it, not because
we seek their votes, but because it is right. If a free
society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot
save the few who are rich.

[¶ 9] To our sister republics south of our border, we

offer a special pledge—to convert our good words into
good deeds—in a new alliance for progress—to assist Language Cue #5:
In the space below, describe Kennedy’s tone in ¶ 9,
free men and free governments in casting off the chains then point out the language Kennedy employs to create
this tone, and explain how this tone affected his
of poverty. But this peaceful revolution of hope cannot audience of the early 60’s.
become the prey of hostile powers. Let all our neighbors
know that we shall join with them to oppose aggression
or subversion [rebellion] anywhere in the Americas. And
let every other power know that this Hemisphere intends
to remain the master of its own house.

[¶ 10] To that world assembly of sovereign

[independent, autonomous] states, the United Nations,
our last best hope in an age where the instruments of
war have far outpaced the instruments of peace, we Language Cue #6:
In the space below, explain how the language of ¶s 10
renew our pledge of support—to prevent it from and 11 creates an ethos.
becoming merely a forum for invective [criticism,
attacks]—to strengthen its shield of the new and the
weak—and to enlarge the area in which its writ may run.

[¶ 11] Finally, to those nations who would make

themselves our adversary [enemy, foe], we offer not a
pledge but a request: that both sides begin anew the

45
quest for peace, before the dark powers of destruction
unleashed by science engulf all humanity in planned or
accidental self-destruction.
[¶ 12] We dare not tempt them with weakness. For
only when our arms are sufficient beyond doubt can we
be certain beyond doubt that they will never be
employed.
[¶ 13] But neither can two great and powerful groups of
nations take comfort from our present course—both
sides overburdened by the cost of modern weapons,
both rightly alarmed by the steady spread of the deadly
atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of
terror that stays the hand of mankind's final war.
Language Cue #7:
The language of ¶s 12-19 creates an interesting mix of
pathos and ethos; he first seems to play on an emotion
and then reinforces an ethos.
1. Highlight or underline language in these ¶s where
Kennedy plays on his audience’s emotions (pathos)
and explain how that language evokes that (or
those) emotion(s); Make sure to describe the specific
emotion the language evokes in the audience.
2. Highlight or underline language in these ¶s where
Kennedy creates an ethos and explain how that
language creates that ethos (his use of antimetabole
in ¶ 14 is part of this).

[¶ 14] So let us begin anew—remembering on both

sides that civility is not a sign of weakness, and sincerity
is always subject to proof. Let us never negotiate out of
fear. But let us never fear to negotiate.

[¶ 15] Let both sides explore what problems unite us

instead of belaboring those problems which divide us.

[¶ 16] Let both sides, for the first time, formulate

serious and precise proposals for the inspection and
control of arms—and bring the absolute power to
destroy other nations under the absolute control of all
nations.

[¶ 17] Let both sides seek to invoke the wonders of

science instead of its terrors. Together let us explore the
stars, conquer the deserts, eradicate [eliminate]
disease, tap the ocean depths, and encourage the arts
and commerce.
Language Cue #8:
Determine the part of speech that Kennedy emphasizes
in the 2nd sentence of ¶ 17,and in the space below
explain the effect of this language move on the
audience and how it helps Kennedy achieve his
purpose.

[¶ 18] Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the

earth the command of Isaiah—to "undo the heavy
burdens ... and to let the oppressed go free."

[¶ 19] And if a beachhead of cooperation may push

back the jungle of suspicion, let both sides join in
creating a new endeavor, not a new balance of power,
but a new world of law, where the strong are just and
the weak secure and the peace preserved.

[¶ 20] All this will not be finished in the first 100 days.
Nor will it be finished in the first 1,000 days, nor in the
life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our
lifetime on this planet. But let us begin.
Language Cue #9:
Research the Bible story of Isaiah, and, in the space
below, explain how this allusion in ¶ 18 develops
Kennedy’s purpose.

[¶ 21] In your hands, my fellow citizens, more than in

mine, will rest the final success or failure of our course.
Since this country was founded, each generation of

46
Americans has been summoned to give testimony to its Language Cue #10:
national loyalty. The graves of young Americans who In the space below, explain what the language of the
last sentence of ¶ 21 appeals to in Kennedy’s audience.
answered the call to service surround the globe.

[¶ 22] Now the trumpet summons us again—not as a

call to bear arms, though arms we need; not as a call to
battle, though embattled [tormented, besieged] we
are—but a call to bear the burden of a long twilight
struggle, year in and year out, "rejoicing in hope,
patient in tribulation"—a struggle against the common
enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war Language Cue #11:
In the space below, explain how the language of ¶ 23
itself. affects Kennedy’s audience.

[¶ 23] Can we forge against these enemies a grand and

global alliance, North and South, East and West, that
can assure a more fruitful life for all mankind? Will you
join in that historic effort?

[¶ 24] In the long history of the world, only a few

generations have been granted the role of defending
freedom in its hour of maximum danger. I do not shrink
from this responsibility—I welcome it. I do not believe
that any of us would exchange places with any other Language Cue #12:
Highlight or underline the antimetabole Kennedy
people or any other generation. The energy, the faith, employs in ¶ 25, then in the space below, explain what
he appeals to in his audience when he uses this
the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light language.
our country and all who serve it—and the glow from that
fire can truly light the world.

[¶ 25] And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your

country can do for you—ask what you can do for your
country.

[¶ 26] My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what

America will do for you, but what together we can do for
the freedom of man. Language Cue #13:
In the space below, explain how the 1st sentence of the
final ¶ adds to an ethos Kennedy established earlier in
the address.
[¶ 27] Finally, whether you are citizens of America or
citizens of the world, ask of us the same high standards
of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you. With a
good conscience our only sure reward, with history the
final judge of our deeds, let us go forth to lead the land
we love, asking His blessing and His help, but knowing
that here on earth God's work must truly be our own.
Language Cue #14:
Throughout much of the address Kennedy uses the first
person plural pronouns, but in the last paragraphs he
begins to use 2nd person pronouns. In the space below
explain how these language choices affect the audience
and point to specific examples of both in your
explanation.

47
 Research the author’s life and times:
INTRODUCTION to “Letter from Birmingham Jail” Research the Civil Rights Movement events leading up
to King Jr.’s incarceration on April 16, 1963. Then, in
by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.: the space below, explain how this researched
information is pertinent to better understanding King
Jr.’s purpose in this letter.
On April 16, 1963, reverend Dr. Martin Luther King
Jr. wrote a letter to his fellow clergymen (who
were mostly white) while serving a sentence for
participating in a civil rights demonstration. His
purpose in this letter is to explain to his fellow
clergymen the need for “direct action” and to
encourage them to join his civil rights movement.

My Dear Fellow Clergymen: Language Cue #1:

In the space below, explain how the language of Dr.
King Jr.’s salutation and some of the first sentences of ¶
[¶ 1]…You may well ask: "Why direct action? Why sit- 1 affect the audience; Consider how they establish an
ethos.
ins, marches, and so forth? Isn't negotiation a better
path?" You are quite right in calling for negotiation.
Indeed, this is the very purpose of direct action.
Nonviolent direct action seeks to create such a crisis and
foster such a tension that a community which has
constantly refused to negotiate is forced to confront the
issue. It seeks so to dramatize the issue that it can no
longer be ignored. My citing the creation of tension as
part of the work of the nonviolent-resister may sound
Language Cue #2:
rather shocking. But I must confess that I am not afraid In the space below, explain how Dr. King Jr.’s allusion
of the word "tension." I have earnestly opposed violent in the last sentence of ¶ 1 affects the audience;
consider whether or not it is appropriate for Dr. King to
tension, but there is a type of constructive, nonviolent allude to this when addressing this audience and who or
what he suggests his audience would be like if they join
tension which is necessary for growth. Just as Socrates him in his movement.
felt that it was necessary to create a tension in the mind
so that individuals could rise from the bondage of myths
and half truths to the unfettered [free, unbounded]
realm of creative analysis and objective appraisal [an
allusion to the “Parable of the Cave”], so must we see
the need for nonviolent gadflies [an allusion to a
metaphor Socrates used to explain one of the roles a
teacher takes when instructing a student; he asserted
that sometimes a teacher has to metaphorically sting or
provoke a student’s thinking] to create the kind of
tension in society that will help men rise from the dark
depths of prejudice and racism to the majestic heights
of understanding and brotherhood…

[¶ 2]We know through painful experience that freedom
is never voluntarily given by the oppressor, it must be
demanded by the oppressed. Frankly, I have yet to
engage in a direct-action campaign [crusade,
movement] that was "well timed" in view of those who
Language Cue #3:
Dr. King asserts in ¶ 2 that for years he has been ask to
“wait.” Consider what other word Dr. King equates
“wait” with in this ¶, and then, in the space below,
explain how his definition of “wait” affects his audience;
also, consider who has been asking him and his people
to “wait.”

have not suffered unduly [disproportionately,

undeservedly] from the disease of segregation. For
years now I have heard the word "wait!" It rings in the
ear of every Negro with piercing familiarity. This "Wait"
has almost always meant "Never." We must come to
see, with one of our distinguished jurists [legal expert],
that "justice too long delayed is justice denied."

48
[¶ 3]We have waited for more that 340 years for our Language Cue #4:
constitutional and God given rights. The nations of Asia Note in 2nd sentence of ¶ 3 what word choices are used
when comparing “the nations of Asia and Africa” to
and Africa are moving with jet like speed toward gaining America, and, in the space below, explain the affect of
this comparison on the audience.
political independence, but we still creep at horse-and-
buggy pace toward gaining a cup of coffee at a lunch
counter. Perhaps it is easy for those who have never felt
the stinging darts of segregation to say, "Wait." But
when you have seen vicious mobs lynch your mothers
and fathers at will and drown your sisters and brothers
at whim; when you have seen hate-filled policemen
curse, kick, and even kill your black brothers and
sisters; when you see the vast majority of your twenty
million Negro brothers smothering in an airtight cage of
poverty in the midst of an affluent [wealthy, Language Cue #5:
Much of ¶ 3 is a periodic sentence structure. In the
comfortable] society; when you suddenly find your space below identify where it starts and stops and
explain what affect its structure and content have on
tongue twisted and your speech stammering as you seek the audience and how it helps Dr. King achieve his
to explain to your six-year-old daughter why she can't purpose.

go to the public amusement park that has just been

advertised on television, and see tears welling up in her
eyes when she is told that Funtown is closed to colored
children, and see ominous [foreboding, threatening]
clouds of inferiority beginning to form in her little mental
sky, and see her beginning to distort her personality by
developing an unconscious bitterness toward white
people; when you have to concoct an answer for a five-
year-old son who is asking, "Daddy, why do white
people treat colored people so mean?"; when you take a
cross-country drive and find it necessary to sleep night
after night in the uncomfortable corners of your
automobile because no motel will accept you; when you
are humiliated day in and day out by nagging signs
reading "white" and "colored" when your first name
becomes "Nigger," your middle name becomes "boy"
Language Cue #6:
(however old you are) and your last name becomes In the 2nd to last sentence of ¶ 3 Dr. King alludes to a
"John," and your wife and mother are never given the passage in Psalm 23 of the Christian Bible – “my cup
shall runneth over” suggesting God provides well for his
respected title "Mrs."; when you are harried [harassed, followers, but Dr. King twists this when he asserts that
his people’s “cup of endurance runs over.” In the space
hassled] by day and haunted by night by the fact that below, explain how the use of this allusion affects his
you are a Negro, living constantly at tiptoe stance, never audience and help Dr. King achieve his purpose.

quite knowing what to expect next, and are plagued with

inner fears and outer resentments; when you are
forever fighting a degenerating sense of "nobodiness"
then you will understand why we find it difficult to wait.
There comes a time when the cup of endurance runs
over, and men are no longer willing to be plunged into
the abyss [chasm, void] of despair. I hope, sirs, you can
understand our legitimate and unavoidable impatience. Language Cue #7:
In the space below, explain how the language of ¶s 4
and 5 help Dr. King develop an ethos and help him
[¶ 4]…One may ask: "How can you advocate breaking achieve his purpose.

some laws and obeying others?" The answer lies in the

fact that there are two types of laws: just and unjust. I
would be the first to advocate obeying just laws. One
has not only a legal but a moral responsibility to obey
just laws. Conversely, one has a moral responsibility to
disobey unjust laws.

49
[¶ 5]Now, what is the difference between the two? How
does one determine whether a law is just or unjust? A
Language Cue #8:
just law is a man-made code that squares with the In the space below, explain how the language employed
moral law or the law of God. An unjust law is a code that in ¶ 6 also helps Dr. King add to an ethos and help him
achieve his purpose..
is out of Harmony with the moral law…

[¶ 6]I hope you are able to see the distinction I am

trying to point out. In no sense do I advocate [support]
evading or defying the law, as would the rabid
segregationist. That would lead to anarchy [disorder,
chaos]. One who breaks an unjust law must do so
openly, lovingly, and with a willingness to accept the
penalty. I submit that an individual who breaks a law
that conscience tells him is unjust, and who willingly
accepts the penalty of imprisonment in order to arouse
the conscience of the community over its injustice, is in Language Cue #9:
In the space below, explain how the allusions Dr. King
reality expressing the highest respect for law. employs in ¶ 7 affect his audience and help him achieve
his purpose.

[¶ 7]Of course, there is nothing new about this kind of

civil disobedience… It was practiced superbly by the
early Christians, who were willing to face hungry lions
and the excruciating pain of chopping blocks rather than
submit to certain unjust laws of the Roman Empire. To a
degree, academic freedom is a reality today because
Socrates practiced civil disobedience. In our own nation,
the Boston Tea Party represented a massive act of civil
disobedience.
Language Cue #10:
In the space below, explain what the analogy-like
questions posed in ¶ 8 appeal to in Dr. King’s audience
[¶ 8]In your statement you assert that our actions, and how they help him achieve his purpose.
even though peaceful, must be condemned because
they precipitate violence. But is this a logical assertion?
Isn't this like condemning a robbed man because his
possession of money precipitated the evil act of
robbery? Isn't this like condemning Socrates because his
unswerving commitment to truth and his philosophical
inquiries precipitated the act by the misguided populace
[population of people] in which they made him drink
hemlock? Isn't this like condemning Jesus because his
unique God-consciousness and never-ceasing devotion
to God's will precipitated the evil act of crucifixion? We Language Cue #11:
In the space below, explain what the metaphor used in
must come to see that, as the federal courts have the final sentence of ¶ 8 appeals to in the audience and
consistently affirmed, it is wrong to urge an individual to how it helps him achieve his purpose.

cease his efforts to gain his basic constitutional rights

because the quest may precipitate [bring on, caused]
violence. Society must protect the robbed and punish
the robber…

[¶ 9]…though I was initially disappointed at being

categorized as an extremist, as I continued to think
about the matter I gradually gained a measure of
satisfaction from the label. Was not Jesus an extremist
for love: "Love your enemies, bless them that curse you,
do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which

50
despitefully use you, and persecute you." …And
Language Cue #12:
Abraham Lincoln: "This nation cannot survive half slave In the space below, explain what the allusions to
and half free." And Thomas Jefferson: "We hold these historic figures in ¶ 9 appeal to in the audience and how
it helps Dr. King achieve his purpose.
truths to be self-evident, that all men are created
equal..." So the question is not whether we will be
extremists, but what kind of extremists we will be. Will
we be extremists for hate or for love? Will we be
extremists for the preservation of injustice or for the
extension of justice? In that dramatic scene on Calvary's
hill three men were crucified. We must never forget that
all three were crucified for the same crime – the crime
of extremism. Two were extremists for immorality, and
thus fell below their environment. The other, Jesus
Christ, was an extremist for love, truth and goodness,
and thereby rose above his environment. Perhaps the
South, the nation and the world are in dire need of
creative extremists…

[¶ 10]Yours for the cause of Peace and Brotherhood,

Martin Luther King, Jr.

51
INTRODUCTION to “The Ballot or the Bullet” by
Malcolm X:
He was born Malcolm Little but later dropped his
“slave name” and replaced it with an X,
representing the unknown surname of his African
ancestors.
Research the author’s life and times:
Research the events in Malcolm X’s life that formed his
thinking and the Black Nationalist movement. Then, in
the space below, explain how this researched
information is pertinent to better understanding X’s
purpose in this speech.

In 1964 (a year after Dr. King’s March on

Washington, which Malcolm X dismissed as a
“farce”) Malcolm X delivered the following speech
in Detroit, Michigan where he hoped to unite the
African Americans and ignite them to take back
control of their communities.

[¶ 1]…This afternoon we want to talk about "the ballot

or the bullet." The ballot or the bullet explains itself. But
before we get into it, since this is the year of the ballot
or the bullet, I would like to clarify some things that
refer to me personally – concerning my own personal
Language Cue #1:
In the space below, explain how the language X
employs in the opening 3 ¶s establishes an ethos to
help him achieve his purpose.

position….

[¶ 2]I’m a Muslim minister. …And I don’t believe in

fighting today in any one front, but on all fronts. In fact,
I’m a "Black Nationalist Freedom Fighter." Islam is my
religion, but I believe my religion is my personal
business. It governs my personal life, my personal
morals. And my religious philosophy is personal between
me and the God in whom I believe; just as the religious
philosophy of these others [earlier in the speech X had
referred to the religious beliefs of Christian ministers like
Dr. King Jr.] is between them and the God in whom they
believe.

[¶ 3]And this is best this way. Were we to come out

here discussing religion, we’d have too many differences
from the outstart and we could never get together. So
today, though Islam is my religious philosophy, my
political, economic, and social philosophy is Black
Nationalism. You and I – As I say, if we bring up religion
we’ll have differences; we’ll have arguments; and we’ll
never be able to get together… Language Cue #2:
The 2nd and 3rd sentences of ¶ 4 use anaphora and
epistrophe to emphasize a point and draw the
[¶ 4]The political philosophy of Black Nationalism only audience’s attention to what is said. In the space below,
identify where these two repetition tools are used in
means that the black man should control the politics and these sentences, and then explain how what X
emphasizes in these structures affects his audience.
the politicians in his own community. …The time when
white people can come in our community and get us to
vote for them so that they can be our political leaders
and tell us what to do and what not to do is long gone.
By the same token, the time when that same white
man, knowing that your eyes are too far open, can send
another negro into the community and get you and me

52
to support him so he can use him to lead us astray [off
course] – those days are long gone too.

[¶ 5]The political philosophy of Black Nationalism only Language Cue #3:

means that if you and I are going to live in a Black Examine the word choice, especially the verbs, in the
2nd sentence of ¶ 5, then, in the space below, explain
community, …we must know what part politics play in what X hopes to provoke in his audience when using
this language and how it helps him achieve his purpose.
our lives. And until we become politically mature we will
always be mislead, lead astray, or deceived or
maneuvered into supporting someone politically who
doesn’t have the good of our community at heart. So
the political philosophy of Black Nationalism only means
that we will have to carry on a program, a political
program, of re-education to open our people's eyes,
make us become more politically conscious, politically
mature, and then we will – whenever we get ready to
cast our ballot, that ballot will be cast for a man of the
community who has the good of the community at
heart.

[¶ 6]The economic philosophy of Black Nationalism only

means that we should own and operate and control the
economy of our community. You would never – You
can’t open up a black store in a white community. White
men won’t even patronize [shop at, support] you. And
he’s not wrong. He’s got sense enough to look out for
himself. You the one who don’t have sense enough to Language Cue #4:
Examine sentences #6 and #8 of ¶ 6 and the last two
look out for yourself. The white man is too intelligent to of ¶ 7, and in the space below, define X’s tone in these
sentences, and explain how this tone affects his
let someone else come and gain control of the economy audience. Consider also how the hypothetical situations
of his community. But you will let anybody come in and he presents in these ¶s add to the effect on the
audience.
take control of the economy of your community, control
the housing, control the education, control the jobs,
control the businesses, under the pretext [alleged
reason, excuse] that you want to integrate. No, you're
out of your mind.

[¶ 7]…The economic philosophy of Black Nationalism

only means that we have to become involved in a
program of reeducation to educate our people into the
importance of knowing that when you spend your dollar
out of the community in which you live, the community
in which you spend your money becomes richer and
richer; the community out which you take your money
becomes poorer and poorer. And because these
negroes, who have been mislead, misguided, are
breaking their necks to take their money and spend it
with The Man, The Man is becoming richer and richer,
and you’re becoming poorer and poorer. And then what
happens? The community in which you live becomes a
slum. It becomes a ghetto. The conditions become run
down. And then you have the audacity [impudence,
overconfidence] to complain about poor housing in a
run-down community. Why, you run it down yourself
when you take your dollar out.

53
[¶ 8]And you and I are in a double-track, because not Language Cue #5:
only do we lose by taking our money someplace else In the space below, explain how the hypothetical
situation of ¶ 8 affects the audience and how it
and spending it, when we try and spend it in our own continues what the language of previous paragraphs
has tried to do.
community we’re trapped because we haven’t had sense
enough to set up stores and control the businesses of
our community. The man who’s controlling the stores in
our community is a man who doesn’t look like we do.
He’s a man who doesn’t even live in the community. So
you and I, even when we try and spend our money in
the block where we live or the area where we live, we’re
spending it with a man who, when the sun goes down,
takes that basket full of money in another part of the
town.
Language Cue #6:
In the space below, explain how the arrangement of the
[¶ 9]So we’re trapped, trapped, double-trapped, triple- first three sentences of ¶ 9 affect the audience;
consider the significance of the repetition of the word
trapped. Anywhere we go we find that we’re trapped. “trapped” in the first sentences of ¶ 9 emphasizes about
And every kind of solution that someone comes up with his audience’s situation, and what X offers in sentence
3.
is just another trap. But the political and economic
philosophy of Black Nationalism – the economic
philosophy of Black Nationalism shows our people the
importance of setting up these little stores and
developing them and expanding them into larger
operations. Woolworth didn’t start out big like they are
today. They started out with a dime store and expanded
and expanded and then expanded until today, they are
all over the country and all over the world, and they get
to some of everybody’s money. …General Motors [is] the
same way. …It started out just a little rat race type Language Cue #7:
In the space below, explain how the analogies in ¶ 9 to
operation. And it expanded and it expanded until today Woolworth and General Motors affect the audience.
it's where it is right now. And you and I have to make a
start and the best place to start is right in the
community where we live.

[¶ 10]So our people not only have to be reeducated to

the importance of supporting black business, but the
black man himself has to be made aware of the
importance of going into business. And once you and I
go into business, we own and operate at least the Language Cue #8:
businesses in our community. What we will be doing is In the space below, explain the significance of X
suggesting in ¶ 10 that his audience has acted
developing a situation wherein we will actually be able to “ignorantly and disgracefully” and how he hopes this
create employment for the people in the community. language will affect his audience and help him achieve
his purpose.
And once you can create some employment in the
community where you live, it will eliminate the necessity
of you and me having to act ignorantly and
disgracefully, boycotting and picketing some practice
some place else trying to beg him for a job.

[¶ 11]…So as you can see brothers and sisters, today –

this afternoon, it's not our intention to discuss religion.

[¶ 12]…Whether you are a Christian, or a Muslim, or a

Nationalist, we all have the same problem. They don’t
hang you because you’re a Baptist; they hang you
'cause you’re black. They don’t attack me because I’m a

54
Muslim; they attack me 'cause I’m black. They attack all
of us for the same reason; all of us catch hell from the
same enemy. We’re all in the same bag, in the same
boat. We suffer political oppression, economic
Language Cue #9:
In the space below, describe how X uses language in ¶
12 to establish a common ground with his audience;
also, consider how this language is part of X’s ethos.

exploitation, and social degradation [humiliation] – all of

them from the same enemy. The government has failed
us; you can’t deny that… and you walkin' around here
singing “We Shall Overcome” – the government has
failed us.

[¶ 13]This is part of what’s wrong with you – you do

too much singing. Today it’s time to stop singing and
start swinging. You can’t sing up on freedom, but you Language Cue #10:
In a light moment in ¶ 13 X plays on the words “sings”
can swing up on some freedom. Cassius Clay can sing, and “swings.” In the space below, explain what he
but singing didn’t help him to become the heavyweight wants the audience to equate with these words and also
explain how this language affects them.
champion of the world; swinging helped him become the
heavyweight champion. This government has failed us;
the government itself has failed us, and the white
liberals who have been posing as our friends have failed
us.

[¶ 14]And once we see that all these other sources to

which we’ve turned have failed, we stop turning to them
and turn to ourselves. We need a self help program, a-
do-it-yourself philosophy, a do-it-right-now philosophy,
a it’s-already-too-late philosophy. This is what you and I
need to get with, and the only time – the only way we're
going to solve our problem is with a self-help program.
Before we can get a self-help program started we have
to have a self-help philosophy….
Language Cue #11:
In the space below, explain how the language of ¶ 15
[¶ 15]Once you change your philosophy, you change uses the connotations that go along with the images of
your thought pattern. Once you change your thought “sitting” and being castrated to help him achieve his
purpose.
pattern, you change your attitude. Once you change
your attitude, it changes your behavior pattern and then
you go on into some action. As long as you gotta sit-
down philosophy, you’ll have a sit-down thought
pattern, and as long as you think that old sit-down
thought you’ll be in some kind of sit-down action. They’ll
have you sitting in everywhere. It’s not so good to refer
to what you’re going to do as a "sit-in." That right there
castrates you. Right there it brings you down. …An old
woman can sit. An old man can sit. A chump can sit. A
coward can sit. Anything can sit. Well you and I been
sitting long enough, and it’s time today for us to start
doing some standing, and some fighting to back that up.

[¶ 16]…And 1964 looks like it might be the year of the

ballot or the bullet.

[¶ 17]Why does it look like it might be the year of the

ballot or the bullet? Because Negroes have listened to
the trickery, and the lies, and the false promises of the
white man now for too long. And they’re fed up. They’ve

55
become disenchanted [let down]. They’ve become Language Cue #12:
In the space below, explain how the imagery (“atomic
disillusioned. They’ve become dissatisfied, and all of this bomb” vs. “racial powder keg”) of ¶ 17 affects the
has built up frustrations in the black community that audience.

makes the black community throughout America today

more explosive than all of the atomic bombs the
Russians can ever invent. Whenever you got a racial
powder keg sitting in your lap, you’re in more trouble
than if you had an atomic powder keg sitting in your lap.
When a racial powder keg goes off, it doesn’t care who it
knocks out the way. Understand this, it’s dangerous.

[¶ 18]And in 1964 this seems to be the year, because

what can the white man use now to fool us after he put Language Cue #13:
In the space below, describe how the relationship
down that march on Washington? And you see all between the “white man” and the audience is portrayed
by the language of ¶ 18, then explain how this language
through that now. He tricked you, had you marching affects the audience.
down to Washington. Yes, had you marching back and
forth between the feet of a dead man named Lincoln and
another dead man named George Washington singing,
“We Shall Overcome.” He made a chump out of you. He
made a fool out of you. He made you think you were
going somewhere and you end up going nowhere but
between Lincoln and Washington.

[¶ 19]…And in 1964 you’ll see this young black man,

this new generation asking for the ballot or the bullet.
That old Uncle Tom action is outdated. The young
generation don’t want to hear anything about the odds
are against us. What do we care about odds?
Language Cue #14:
Research what X means in ¶ 19 when he suggests the
“action” of the younger generation of African American
men is not that of an “Uncle Tom,” and in the space
below, explain how the use of this allusion affects his
audience.

[¶ 20]When this country here was first being founded

there were 13 colonies…. They were fed up with this
taxation without representation, so some of them stood
up and said “liberty or death.” Though I went to a white
school over here in Mason, Michigan, the white man
made the mistake of letting me read his history books.
He made the mistake of teaching me that Patrick Henry
was a patriot, and George Washington, wasn’t nothing
non-violent about old Pat or George Washington.
Language Cue #15:
[¶ 21]Liberty or death was what brought about the In the space below, explain how X hoped to affect his
audience as he recalls some of the storied history of
freedom of whites in this country from the English. They America’s revolutionaries in ¶s 20-22.

didn’t care about the odds. Why they faced the wrath of
the entire British Empire. And in those days they used to
say that the British Empire was so vast and so powerful
…the sun would never set on it. This is how big it was,
yet these 13 little scrawny states, tired of taxation
without representation, tired of being exploited and
oppressed and degraded, told that big British Empire
“liberty or death.”

[¶ 22]And here you have 22 million Afro-American

black people today catching more hell than Patrick
Henry ever saw. And I’m – I’m here to tell you in case
you don’t know it – that you got a new – you got a new

56
generation of black people in this country who don’t care
Language Cue #16:
anything whatsoever about odds…. In the space below, describe how the imagery of ¶ 24
portrays “Uncle Sam”/the government, then explain
how this language affects the audience.
[¶ 23]…This is why I say it’s the ballot or the bullet. It’s
liberty or it’s death. It’s freedom for everybody or
freedom for nobody…

[¶ 24]...[Uncle Sam] …still has the audacity or the

nerve to stand up and represent himself as the leader of
the free world. Not only is he a crook, he’s a hypocrite.
There he is standing up in front of other people, Uncle
Sam, with the blood of your and mine mothers and
fathers on his hands, with the blood dripping down his
jaws like a bloody-jawed wolf, and still got the nerve to
point his finger at other countries. You can’t even get
civil rights legislation. And this man has got the nerve to
stand up and talk about South Africa, or talk about Nazi
Germany, or talk about [unclear]. Nah, no more days
Language Cue #17:
like those. Explain how X uses language in ¶ 25 to encourage his
audience to unite under Black Nationalism. Consider his
use of absolute language.
[¶ 25]So, I say in my conclusion the only way we're
going to solve it – we gotta unite in unity and harmony,
and Black Nationalism is the key. How we gonna
overcome the tendency to be at each other's throats
that always exists in our neighborhoods? And the reason
this tendency exists, the strategy of the white man has
always been divide and conquer. He keeps us divided in
order to conquer us. He tells you I’m for separation and
you're for integration to keep us fighting with each
other. No, I’m not for separation and you’re not for
integration. What you and I is for is freedom. Only you
think that integration will get you freedom, I think
separation will get me freedom. We both got the same
objective. We just got different ways of getting at it.
Language Cue #18:
[¶ 26]…It’ll be – It’ll be the ballot or it’ll be the bullet. In the space below, explain how the allusion in final ¶
affects the audience and helps X achieve his purpose.
It’ll be liberty or it’ll be death. And if you’re not ready to
pay that price don’t use the word freedom in your
vocabulary….

57
INTRODUCTION to the Pacific Lutheran University
address by Cesar Chavez, President of the
United Farm Workers of America, AFL-CIO,
March 1989-Tacoma, Washington:
Research the author’s life and times:
Research how migrant workers, especially Latinos, have
been viewed and treated in the United States in recent
years and the events in Cesar Chavez’s life that formed
his thinking. Then, in the space below, explain how this
researched information is pertinent to better
understanding Chavez’s purpose in this speech.

In a broad sense Chavez’s purpose in the following

address was to rally support for America’s Latino
migrant farm workers, but, more specifically, he
sought to encourage the American consumers to
not buy grapes and to boycott the stores that sell
them.

Language Cue #1:

[¶ 1] What is the worth of a man or a woman? What is
the worth of a farm worker? How do you measure the
value of a life?
Consider why Chavez follows his first question of ¶ 1,
“What is the worth of a man or woman?” with “What is
the worth of a farm worker?” In the space below,
explain the difference between these two questions,
especially in terms of how average American might
honestly respond to them, and then explain how this
language affects his audience. Consider what Chavez
wants to point out about how farm workers are typically
viewed.

[¶ 2] Ask the parents of Johnnie Rodriguez. Johnnie

Rodriguez was not even a man; Johnnie was a five year
old boy when he died after a painful two year battle
against cancer. His parents, Juan and Elia, are farm
workers. Like all grape workers, they are exposed to
pesticides and other agricultural chemicals. Elia worked
in the table grapes around Delano, California until she
was eight months pregnant with Johnnie. Juan and Elia
cannot say for certain if pesticides caused their son's
cancer. But neuroblastoma is one of the cancers found Language Cue #2:
in McFarland, a small farm town only a few miles from In the space below, explain how the anecdotal material
of ¶s 2-5 affects his audience and how it helps Chavez
Delano, where the Rodriguezes live. achieve his purpose.

[¶ 3] "Pesticides are always in the fields and around the

towns," Johnnie's father told us. "The children get the
chemicals when they play outside, drink the water or
when they hug you after you come home from working
in fields that are sprayed. "Once your son has cancer,
it's pretty hard to take," Juan Rodriguez says. "You hope
it's a mistake, you pray. He was a real nice boy. He took
it strong and lived as long as he could."

[¶ 4] I keep a picture of Johnnie Rodriguez. He is sitting

on his bed, hugging his Teddy bears. His sad eyes and
cherubic [angelic] face stare out at you. The photo was
taken four days before he died.

[¶ 5]Johnnie Rodriguez was one of 13 McFarland

children diagnosed with cancer in recent years; and one
of six who have died from the disease. With only 6,000
residents, the rate of cancer in McFarland is 400 percent
above normal….

58
[¶ 6] Last year, as support for our cause grew,
Governor Deukmejian used a statewide radio broadcast
to attack the grape boycott. There is no evidence to
prove that pesticides on grapes and other produce
endanger farm workers or consumers, Deukmejian
Language Cue #3:
In the space below, explain how the anecdotal material
of ¶s 7-9 affects his audience and how it helps Chavez
achieve his purpose.

claimed.

[¶ 7] Ask the family of Felipe Franco. Felipe is a bright

seven year old who is learning to read and write. Like
other children, Felipe will some day need to be
independent. But Felipe is not like other children: he
was born without arms and legs. Felipe's mother,
Ramona, worked in the grapes near Delano until she
was in her eighth month of pregnancy. She was exposed
to Captan, known to cause birth defects and one of the
pesticides our grape boycott seeks to ban.

[¶ 8] "Every morning when I began working I could

smell and see pesticides on the grape leaves," Ramona
said. Like many farm workers, she was assured by
growers and their foremen how the pesticides that
surrounded her were safe, that they were harmless
"medicine" for the plants. Only after Ramona took her
son to specialists in Los Angeles was she told that the
pesticides she was exposed to in the vineyards caused
Felipe's deformity. The deep sadness she feels has
subsided, but not the anger.

[¶ 9] Felipe feels neither anger nor sadness. He is

lavished with the care and love he will always need. And
he dreams of what only a child can hope for: Felipe
wants to grow arms and legs. "He believes he will have
his limbs someday," his mother says. "His great dream
is to be able to move around, to walk, to take care of
himself."

[¶ 10] Our critics sometimes ask, “Why should the Language Cue #4:
United Farm Workers worry about pesticides when farm Note that ¶ 11 employs a periodic effect. In the space
below, explain what the language of this ¶ appeals to in
workers have so many other more obvious problems?” Chavez’s audience and how it helps him achieve his
purpose.
The wealth and plenty of California agribusiness are built
atop the suffering of generations of California farm
workers. Farm labor history across America is one
shameful tale after another of hardship and exploitation.

[¶ 11] Malnutrition among migrant children.

Tuberculosis, pneumonia and respiratory infections.
Average life expectancy more than twenty years below
the U.S. norm. Savage living conditions. Miserable
wages and working conditions. Sexual harassment of
women workers. Widespread child labor. Inferior schools
or no school at all. When farm workers organize against
these injustices they are met with brutality and coercion
and death.

59
[¶ 12] …For 100 years succeeding waves of immigrants
have sweated and sacrificed to make this industry rich.
And for their sweat and for their sacrifice, farm workers
have been repaid with humiliation and contempt
[disrespect, scorn].
Language Cue #5:
In the space below, explain how the language of ¶s 13
[¶ 13] With all these problems, why, then, do we dwell and 14 creates an ethos; consider what Chavez says
so on the perils of pesticides? Because there is that makes his audience realize he is not just interested
in helping farm workers.
something even more important to farm workers than
the benefits unionization brings. Because there is
something more important to the farm workers' union
than winning better wages and working conditions. That
is protecting farm workers and consumers from
systematic poisoning through the reckless use of
agricultural toxics.

[¶ 14] There is nothing we care more about than the

lives and safety of our families. There is nothing we
share more deeply in common with the consumers of
North America than the safety of the food all of us reply
upon….

[¶ 15] “Don't worry,” the growers say.

[¶ 16] “The U.F.W. misleads the public about dangers

pesticides pose to farm workers,” the Table Grape
Commission says. “Governor Deukmejian's pesticide
safety system protects workers,” the Farm Bureau
proclaims.
Language Cue #6:
[¶ 17] Ask the family of Juan Chabolla. Juan Chabolla In the space below, explain how the anecdotal material
collapsed after working in a field sprayed only an hour of ¶ 17 affects his audience and how it helps Chavez
achieve his purpose.
before with Monitor, a deadly pesticide. But instead of
rushing Juan to a nearby hospital, the grower drove him
45 miles across the U.S.-Mexico border and left him in a
Tijuana clinic. He was dead on arrival. Juan, 32, left his
wife and four young children in their impoverished
[poor, inferior] clapboard shack in Maneadero, Mexico.
Just after Juan Chabolla died, Governor Deukmejian
vetoed a modest bill, strongly opposed by agribusiness,
that would have required growers to post warning signs
in fields where dangerous pesticides are applied.

[¶ 18] One billion pounds of pesticides are applied each

year in the United States-79 percent of them in
agriculture; 250 million pounds go on crops in California;
in 1986, 10 million pounds went on grapes. And that 10
million pounds on grapes only covers restricted use
pesticides, where permits are required and use is
reported. Many other potentially dangerous chemicals
are used that don't have to be disclosed.

[¶ 19] Grapes is the largest fruit crop in California. It

60
receives more restricted use pesticides than any fresh
food crop. About one-third of grape pesticides are Language Cue #7:
In the space below, explain what the facts and statistics
known carcinogens-like the chemicals that may have of ¶s 18-25 appeal to in Chavez’s audience and how
they help him achieve his purpose.
afflicted Johnnie Rodriguez; others are teratogens –
birth defect producing pesticides – that doctors think
deformed Felipe Franco. Pesticides cause acute
[heightened, severe] poisoning of the kind that killed
Juan Chabolla and chronic, long-term effects such as
we're seeing in communities like McFarland.

[¶ 20] More than half of all acute pesticide-related

illnesses reported in California involve grape
production….

[¶ 21] Use of pesticides are governed by strict laws,

agribusiness says. Growers argue reported poisonings
involved only one (1) percent of California farm workers
in 1986.

[¶ 22] True.

[¶ 23] But experts estimate that only one (1) percent of

California pesticide illness or injury is reported. The
underreporting of pesticide poisoning is flagrant
[deliberate, obvious] and it is epidemic.

[¶ 24] A World Resources Institute study says 300,000

farm workers are poisoned each year by pesticides in
the United States.

[¶ 25] Even the state Department of Food and
Agriculture reported total pesticide poisoning of farm
workers rose by 41 percent in 1987….
Language Cue #8:
In the space below, explain what the language of ¶s 26-
30 appeals to in the audience. Consider how he might
play on an emotion in the audience, especially in the
light that they would not want to be part of the list who
“won’t do it.”

[¶ 26] Who will protect farm workers from poisoning if

it isn't the farm workers' union?

[¶ 27] The Environmental Protection Agency won't do

it. They're in bed with the same agricultural and
chemical interests they are supposed to regulate. It was
an accident of history that E.P.A. got stuck with
regulating pesticides. It happened after the federal
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, which is
supposed to safeguard all American working people,
refused to protect farm workers.

[¶ 28] The law won't do it. Agribusiness lobbied

mightily to exclude farm workers from federal job safety
and health laws. And they won…. Now will agribusiness
protect farm workers from pesticides? The agrichemical
industry won't do it. It's out to maximize profits. Using
smaller amounts of safer chemicals more wisely is not in
the interest of chemical companies and agribusiness
groups like the Farm Bureau that have heavy financial

61
stakes in maintaining pesticide use. There is nothing
wrong with pesticides, they claim; the blame rests with
abuse and misuse of pesticides. It's like the N.R.A.
saying, “guns don't kill people, people kill people.”
Language Cue #9:
In the space below, identify the use of an analogy in ¶
28 and explain why it is significant in aiding Chavez
achieve his purpose. Consider what Chavez wants the
audience to think about the logic of agribusiness

[¶ 29] Universities won't do it…. The University of

California, and other land grant colleges spend millions
of dollars developing agricultural mechanization and
farm chemicals. Although we're all affected in the end,
researchers won't deal with the inherent [built in,
intrinsic] toxicity or chronic effects of their creations.
Protecting farm workers and consumers is not their
concern.

[¶ 30] Doctors won't do it. Most physicians farm

workers see won't even admit their patients' problems
are caused by pesticides. They usually blame symptoms
on skin rashes and heat stroke. Doctors don't know
much about pesticides; the signs and symptoms of acute
pesticide poisoning are similar to other illnesses. Doctors
who work for growers or physicians with close ties to
rural communities won't take a stand. Two years ago in
Tulare County, California 120 orange grove workers at
LaBue ranch suffered the largest skin poisoning every
reported. The grower had changed the formulation of a
pesticide, Omite CR, to make it stick to the leaves
Language Cue 10:
better. It did. It also stuck better to the workers. Later In the space below, explain how the metaphor in ¶ 31
they discovered the reentry delay had to be extended affects the audience and helps Chavez achieve his
purpose.
from seven to 42 days. After the poisoning, the
company doctor said workers should just change clothes
and return to work. When we demanded the workers be
removed from exposure, the doctor replied, "Do you
know how much that would cost?"…

[¶ 31] In the old days, miners would carry birds with

them to warn against poison gas. Hopefully, the birds
would die before the miners. Farm workers are society's
canaries. Farm workers-and their children-demonstrate
the effects of pesticide poisoning before anyone else.
Language Cue #11:
In the space below, explain how the simile in ¶ 32
[¶ 32] But the unrestrained use of agricultural affects the audience and helps Chavez achieve his
chemicals is like playing Russian Roulette with the purpose.

health of both farm workers and consumers. So much of

so many pesticides are used and so little is known about
them….

[¶ 33] A recent report by the National Academy of

Sciences concludes that pesticides in 15 commonly
eaten foods, including grapes, pose the greatest
pesticide-caused dietary cancer risk to people….

[¶ 34] The chemical companies have convinced the

growers – and they want you to believe – that if it
wasn't for them, the whole world would be dead of

62
malaria and starvation.
Language Cue #12:
In the space below, explain what the facts of ¶ 35-36
[¶ 35] But, brothers and sisters, pesticides haven't appeal to in Chavez’s audience and how they help him
achieve his purpose
worked. Crop loss to pests is as great or greater than it
was 40 years ago. The pesticides haven't changed
anything. Because Darwinian evolution has favored
pests of all kinds with this enormous ability to resist and
survive.

[¶ 36] It's why antibiotics stop working after awhile. If

you don't kill everything, the organisms that survive are
tougher and more resistant; and they're the ones that
breed. There are mosquitoes in parts of the world that
can survive any combination of pesticides delivered in
any dose. There is a startling resurgence of malaria
around the world. And it's much worse now because 40
years ago we relied entirely on a chemical solution. So Language Cue #13:
we ignored alternatives: draining ponds, dredging Note how ¶ 37 draws a parallel between the chemical
companies and the Vietnam War. In the space below,
ditches, observing sound crop practices, encouraging explain how the language here affects the audience and
use of natural predators. In the long run, more lives will helps Chavez achieve his purpose.

be lost because for 30 years we also stopped developing Also, again consider what Chavez wants the audience to
think about the logic of agribusiness and chemical
malaria vaccines. You can't fool Mother Nature. Insects companies. Consider how this parallel in ¶ 37 is much
can outfox anything we throw at them. In time, they will like the language that ended ¶ 28.

overcome….

[¶ 37] The chemical companies believe in the Domino

Theory: if any chemical is attacked then all chemicals
are threatened. No matter how dangerous it is. It's a lot
like that saying from the Vietnam War: we had to
destroy the village in order to save it. They have to
poison us in order to save us.
Language Cue #14:
In the space below, explain how the language of ¶ 38
[¶ 38] But at what cost? The lives of farm workers and affects the audience and helps Chavez achieve his
purpose.
their children who are suffering? The lives of consumers
who could reap the harvest of pesticides ten, twenty
years from now? The contamination of our ground
water? The loss of our reverence for the soil? The raping
of the land?

[¶ 39] We see these insane practices reflected in the

buy-outs and takeovers on Wall Street. It's the same
thing: exchanging long term security for short-term
gain. You sacrifice a company for the immediate
rewards. But you destroy what produces jobs and
livelihoods and economic health. If you eat the seed
corn, you won't have a crop to plant….
Language Cue #15:
Note that the final sentence of ¶ 39 is a conditional
structure that is somewhat metaphoric, then in the
space below, explain what this use of language appeals
to in Chavez audience and how it helps him achieve his
purpose.

[¶ 40] People forget that the soil is our sustenance

[nourishment]. It is a sacred trust. It is what has
worked for us for centuries. It is what we pass on to
future generations. If we continue in this thoughtless
submission to pesticides, if we ruin the top soil, then
there will not be an abundance of food to bequeath
[give, bestow] our children….
Language Cue #16:
Note that the final sentence of ¶ 40 is a conditional
structure with some connotatively loaded diction, then
in the space below, explain what this use of language
appeals to in Chavez audience and how it helps him
achieve his purpose.

63
[¶ 41] So they don't ban the worst of these poisons Language Cue #17:
In the space below, explain what the language of ¶ 41
because some farm worker might give birth to a appeals to in Chavez audience and how it helps him
achieve his purpose.
deformed child. So they don't imperil [risk, put in
danger] millions of dollars in profits today because,
some day, some consumer might get cancer. So they
allow all of us, who place our faith in the safety of the
food supply, to consume grapes and other produce
which contain residues from pesticides that cause cancer
and birth defects. So we accept decades of
environmental damage these poisons have brought upon
the land.
Language Cue #18:
In the space below, explain what the language of ¶ 42
[¶ 42] The growers, the chemical companies and the appeals to in Chavez audience and how it helps him
bureaucrats say these are acceptable levels of exposure. achieve his purpose.

Acceptable to whom? Acceptable to Johnnie Rodriguez's

parents? Acceptable to Felipe Franco? Acceptable to the
widow of Juan Chabolla and her children? Acceptable to
all the other farm workers-and their sons and daughters
who have known tragedy from pesticides?... Do we carry
in our hearts the sufferings of farm workers and their
children? Do we feel their pain deeply enough?

[¶ 43] I didn't. And I was ashamed. I studied this Language Cue #19:
In the space below, explain how the language of ¶s 43-
wanton abuse of nature. I read the literature, heard 44 create an ethos and how it helps Chavez achieve his
from the experts about what pesticides do to our land purpose.

and our food. I talked with farm workers, listened to

their families, and shared their anguish and their fears. I
spoke out against the cycle of death. But sometimes
words come too cheaply. And their meaning is lost in the
clutter that so often fills our lives.

[¶ 44] That is why, in July and August of last year, I

embarked on a 36-day unconditional, water-only fast.
The fast was first and foremost directed at myself. It
was something I felt compelled to do to purify my own
body, mind and soul. The fast was an act of penance for
our own members who, out of ignorance or need,
cooperate with those who grow and sell food treated
with toxics. The fast was also for those who know what
is right and just. It pains me that we continue to shop
without protest at stores that offer grapes; that we eat
in restaurants that display them; that we are too patient
and understanding with those who serve them to us.
The fast, then, was for those who know that they could
or should do more-for those who, by not acting, become
bystanders in the poisoning of our food and the people
who produce it. The fast was, finally, a declaration of
non-cooperation with supermarkets that promote, sell,
and profit from California table grapes. They are as
culpable [blameworthy, responsible for] as those who
manufacture the poisons and those who use them. It is
my hope that our friends everywhere will resist in many
nonviolent ways the presence of grapes in the stores

64
where they shop….

[¶ 45] The times we face truly call for all of us to do

more to stop this evil in our midst. The answer lies with
you and me. It is with all men and women who share
the suffering and yearn with us for a better world.
Language Cue #20:
In the space below, explain how the quote from the
prophet Micah in ¶ 46 affects the audience and how it
helps Chavez achieve his purpose.

[¶ 46] Our cause goes on in hundreds of distant places.

It multiplies among thousands and then millions of
caring people who heed through a multitude of simple
deeds the commandment set out in the book of the
Prophet Micah, in the Old Testament: "What does the
Lord require of you, but to do justice, to love kindness,
and to walk humbly with your God."

[¶ 47] Thank you. And boycott [refuse, reject] grapes.

65
INTRODUCTION to Elizabeth Birch’s Speech to Research the author’s life and times:
Members of the Christian Coalition, Sept, 1995. Research Elizabeth Birch and the relationship between
the Christian Coalition and the HRC (Human Rights
Campaign) during the 1990’s. Then, in the space below,
explain how this researched information is pertinent to
In September 1995 the Christian Coalition, which better understanding Birch’s purpose in this speech.
describes itself as “the largest and most effective Also, consider how a person might tailor language to
reach a very hostile audience.
grassroots political movement of Christian
activists in the [nation’s] history,” held a
conference in the Hilton hotel in Washington, D.C.
The coalition’s executive director, Ralph Reed, was
asked by Elizabeth Birch, director of a national
nonprofit organization called the Human Rights
Campaign (HRC), if she could speak before the
coalition’s members. Reed’s office promptly denied
the request, which came as no surprise to Birch.
Birch nevertheless went to the Hilton, reserved
one of the banquet rooms, and proceeded to give a
speech (attended mostly by the media and a
handful of curious Christian Coalition members) in
which she sought not to attack Reed, but to
establish the common ground Birch believed
existed between their two organizations.

Dear Members of the Christian Coalition:

[¶ 1] [This occasion] was not my first choice as a way

of reaching you. I would have preferred speaking to all
of you directly, and in a setting where you would be
most comfortable.

[¶ 2] That was my motivation some weeks ago when I

asked your executive director, Ralph Reed, for the
opportunity to address the Christian Coalition’s “Road to
Victory” conference. It is still my motivation today. And
it is supported by a single, strong belief that the time
has come for us to speak to each other rather than past
each other.
Language Cue #1:
In the space below, explain how the language Birch
employs in ¶s 3-4 helps her create an ethos and thus
helps her achieve her purpose. Consider the tone(s) of
voice she could have taken with this audience who have
been quite hostile in their interactions with her and the
people of her camp (especially consider the tone of the
language employed in the last sentence of ¶ 4).

[¶ 3] It took Mr. Reed very little time to reject my

request. Perhaps he misunderstood my motivation. But I
can assure you that what has driven my request is this:
I believe in the power of the word, and the value of
honest communication. During my years of work as a
litigator at a major corporation, I was often amazed at
what simple, fresh, and truthful conversation could
accomplish. And what is true in the corporate setting is
also true, I’m convinced, in our communities. If we could
learn to speak and listen to each other with integrity,
the consequences might shock us.

[¶ 4] Although your podium was not available to me, I

am grateful for those who have come today and will give
me the benefit of the doubt and be willing to consider
what I have to say. I will be pleased if you are able to
hear me without prejudging either the message or the

66
messenger. And I will be hopeful, most of all, if you
respond by joining me in finding new ways to speak with
honesty not only about one another, but also to one
another.
[¶ 5] If I am confident in anything at all, it is this: Our
communities have more in common than we care to
Language Cue #2:
Consider the significance of Birch’s use of chiasmus-like
structures ¶ 5 (look at sentences 4-9). In the space
below, explain the significance of these structures in
this ¶ especially in terms of how this language affects
the audience and helps her achieve her purpose.

imagine. This is not to deny the many differences. But

out of our sheer humanity comes some common ground.
Although the stereotype would have us believe
otherwise, there are many conservative Americans
within the nation’s gay and lesbian communities. What’s
more, there are hundreds of thousands of Christians
among us—Christians of all traditions, including those
represented in the Christian Coalition. And, like it or not,
we are part of your family. And you are part of our
community. We are neighbors and colleagues, business
associates and friends. More intimately still, you are
fathers of sons who are gay and mothers of daughters
who are lesbians. I know many of your children very,
very well. I work with them. I worry with them. And I
rejoice that they are part of our community.
Language Cue #3:
In the space below, identify the word choices Birch uses
[¶ 6] Part of what I want you to know is that many of to describe the sons and daughters of her audience,
your children who are gay and lesbian are gifted and then explain how this language affects her audience and
helps her achieve her purpose.
strong. Some are famous. Most of them are not. But
many are heroic in the way they have conquered
barriers to their own self-respect and the courage with
which they’ve set out to serve a higher good. All were
created by God. And you have every right to be proud of
each of them.

[¶ 7] I begin by noting the worthiness of the gays and

lesbians in your family and our community for a reason:
It’s hard to communicate with people we do not respect.
And the character of prejudice, of stereotype, of
demagoguery [appealing to people’s emotions and
prejudices rather than rationality], is to tear down the
respect others might otherwise enjoy in public, even the
respect they would hold for themselves in private. By
taking away respectability, rhetorically as well as legally,
Language Cue #4:
In the space below identify the group of people Birch
refers to as “they” in ¶ 7 (the antecedent is near the
beginning of the paragraph), then explain how this is
meant to affect her audience and helps her achieve her
purpose.

we justify the belief that they are not quite human, not
quite worthy, not quite deserving of our time, of our
attention, of our concern.

[¶ 8] And that is, sadly, what many of your children and

colleagues and neighbors who are gay and lesbian have
Language Cue #5:
feared is the intent of the Christian Coalition. If it were In the space below, analyze how the language
true, of course, it would be not only regrettable, but employed in the last two sentences of ¶ 8 affects Birch’s
audience and helps her achieve her purpose.
terribly hypocritical. It would not be worthy of the true
ideals and values based in love at the core of what we
call Christian.

67
[¶ 9] The reason I have launched this conversation is to
ask you to join me in a common demonstration that this
is not true. I make my appeal as an individual, Elizabeth
Birch, and also as the executive director of the Human
Rights Campaign Fund, America’s largest policy
organization for gay men and lesbian women.

[¶ 10] This is such a basic appeal to human

communication and common decency that I do not even
know how to distinguish between what is personal and
what is professional. But my appeal is sincere. I am
convinced that if we cannot find ways to respect one
another as human beings, and therefore to respect one
another’s rights, we will do great damage not only to
each other, but also to those we say we represent.
Language Cue #6:
In the space below, explain the significance of the shift
in tone from the language employed in ¶ 10 (focus on
the 2nd to last sentence in the paragraph) to ¶ 11 (focus
on the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th sentences) especially in terms
of how it affects the audience.

[¶ 11] I recognize that it is not easy for us to speak

charitably to each other. I have read fundraising letters
in which people like me are assigned labels which
summon up the ugliest of dehumanizing stereotypes.
Anonymous writers have hidden under the title of
“Concerned Christian” to condemn me with the fires of
God and to call on all of you to deny me an equal
opportunity to participate in the whole range of
American life. I have heard of political agendas calling
not merely for the defeat of those I represent, but for
our eradication [annihilation].

[¶ 12] Such expressions of hatred do not—cannot—

beget [cause, lead to] a spirit of trust. Nor do they pass
the test of either truthfulness or courage. They bear
false witness in boldface type. And I believe that they
must embarrass those who, like me, heard of another
gospel—even the simple Gospel taught me as a child in
Sunday School.
Language Cue #7:
In the space below, explain the significance of the
allusion to the Christian 10 Commandments in the 3rd
sentence of ¶ 12 and comment on how it affects the
audience and helps Birch achieve her purpose.

[¶ 13] I would not ask that you, as members of a

Christian group, or as supporters of a conservative
political cause, to set aside either your basic beliefs or
your historic commitments. The churches which many of
you represent— Baptist, for example, and Pentecostal— Language Cue #8:
In the space below, explain how the language of ¶s 13
were also the churches I attended as a young woman. In & 14 helps Birch develop a tone and helps her maintain
an ethos.
those days, I heard sermons about justice and sang
songs about forgiveness. My greatest hope is not that
you will give up your faith, but that it will work among
all of us.

[¶ 14] Neither of us should forsake [abandon] our

fundamental convictions. But we could hold those
convictions with a humility that allows room for the lives
of others. Neither of us may be the sole possessors of
truth on every given issue. And we could express our
convictions in words that are—if not affectionate, and if
not even kind—then at least decent, civil, humane. We

68
need not demonize each other simply because we Language Cue #9:
disagree. In the space below, explain how the language Birch
employs in ¶ 15 affects her audience and helps her
achieve her purpose.
[¶ 15] I came to my task in the campaign for human
rights with this conviction: If we, in the name of civil
rights, slander [insult, vilify] you, we have failed our
own ideals as surely as any Christian who slanders us in
the name of God has failed the ideals of Scripture…

[¶ 16] Many of us in this community have a long history

with the church. Gay men I have loved deeply and
lesbians I’ve known well have talked long into the night
about their love for God and for God’s church. For some
of them, the church had provided the one message of
hope they knew as children. The promise of good news
was seized gladly by adolescents who did not
understand why they were different, or what that
Language Cue #10:
difference would mean. In the space below, explain how the language Birch
employs in ¶s 17 and 18 affects her audience and helps
her achieve her purpose; note the subtle yet significant
[¶ 17] For some, the deepest agony of life is not that Biblical allusion at the end of ¶ 17, and note the subtle
yet significant imagery at the end of ¶ 18 suggesting
they risk physical abuse or that they will never gain their that the family members of gays suffer unwarrantedly
civil rights, but that they have felt the judgment of an and “bear a burden.”

institution on which they have staked their lives: the

church. What they long for most is what they once
believed was theirs as a birthright: the knowledge that
they are God’s children, and that they can come home.

[¶ 18] And it is not only those of us who are gay or

lesbian who have suffered on the doorstep of some
congregations. Parents, fearing what others at church
might whisper, choose to deny the reality that their son
is gay or their daughter is a lesbian. Brothers and sisters
suffer an unhealthy, and unwarranted [unnecessary,
uncalled for], and un-Christian shame. They bear a
burden that cripples their faith, based on a fear that
cripples us all.
Language Cue #11:
In the space below, explain why it is significant that
[¶ 19] This means, I think, that we are still a long way Birch uses 1st person plural pronouns (“we” and “us”) in
from realizing the ideal of America as a land of hope and ¶ 19 and how this language choice affects her audience.
Consider how her audience may have reacted to what
promise, from achieving the goal of religion as a healing she says in this ¶ if she had used 2nd person pronouns
(“you” or “your”).
force that unites us, from discovering that human beings
are, simply by virtue of being human beings, deserving
of respect and common decency.

[¶ 20] And so, I have come today—in person, bearing

this letter, and in writing, to those who will only receive
it—to make three simple, sincere appeals to those of
you who are members of the Christian Coalition.

[¶ 21] The first appeal is this: Please make integrity

[honesty, veracity, honor] a watchword for the
campaigns you launch. We all struggle to be people of
integrity especially when we campaign for funds. But the

69
fact that we are tempted by money is no excuse. We Language Cue #12:
need to commit ourselves to a higher moral ground. In the space below, explain how the language of ¶s 21
and 22 creates a pathos.

[¶ 22] I do not know when the first direct-mail letter

was issued in your name that defamed gay men and
abused gay women, that described us as less than
human and certainly unworthy of trust. Neither do I
know when people discovered that the richest return
came from letters that depicted gays and lesbians with
intentionally dishonest images. But I do know—and I
must believe that you know too—that this is dishonest,
Language Cue #13:
this is wrong. In the space below, explain the significance of Birch
asking her audience in ¶ 23 to not give in to the
“temptation” to avoid or rant at her and the people she
[¶ 23] I can hardly imagine that a money machine is represents; explain why “temptation” is a loaded word
for her audience and how it affects them (you may want
being operated in your name, spinning your to research the Christian “Our Father” prayer).
exaggerations as if they were truths, and that you do
not see it. But perhaps you do not. In which case, I ask
that you hear my second appeal: I ask that as
individuals you talk to those of us who are gay or lesbian
rather than succumb [give way to, submit to] to the
temptation to either avoid us at all cost, as if we are not
a part of your community, or to rant at us, as if we are
not worthy of quiet conversation.

[¶ 24] We are, all of us and those we represent, human

beings. As Americans, you will have your political
candidates, we will have ours. But we could, both of us,
ask that our candidates speak the truth to establish their
right to leadership, rather than abuse the truth in the
Language Cue #14:
In the space below, explain why it is important that
Birch uses “could” in the 3rd sentence and “can” in the
final sentence of ¶ 24 and how this language choice
affects her audience; consider that she could have
instead used words like “should” or must.”

interest of one evening’s headline. We may work for

different outcomes in the elections, but we can engage
in an ethic of basic respect and decency.

[¶ 25] Finally, I appeal to you as people who

passionately uphold the value of the family. You have
brothers and sons who have not heard a word of family
affection since the day they summoned the courage to
tell the simple truth. You have sisters and daughters
who have given up believing that you mean it when you
say, “The family is the basic unit of society,” or even
“God loves you, and so do I.”
Language Cue #15:
In the space below, explain what the exemplum of ¶s
25 and 26 appeal to in Birch’s audience (consider how
this language recalls the earlier Biblical allusion that is a
focus of language cue #10).

[¶ 26] Above all the other hopes with which I’ve come
to you hovers this one: that some member of the
Christian Coalition will call some member of the Human
Rights Campaign Fund and say, “It’s been a long time,
son” or “I’m missing you, my daughter,” and before the
conversation ends, someone will hear the heartfelt
words, “Come home. Let’s talk to each other.”

[¶ 27] In that hope, l appeal to each of you.

70
INTRODUCTION to the letter to Ryan DeVries from
Michigan Department of Environmental Quality
and Stephen L. Tvedten’s Response to the letter
from the Michigan Department of Environmental
Quality:
In July of 1997, one of Stephen Tvedten’s
neighbors noticed flooding on his property which
was being contracted/rented out to Ryan DeVries.
The neighbor complained to the Michigan
Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) on
July 28. The DEQ sent a letter to the person they
thought was the landowner (Ryan DeVries); the
purpose of the DEQ letter was to intractably clarify
the consequences for the landowner and compel
the landowner to remedy the situation.
Speculating on the speaker and audience
relationship:
Doing research on the situation these letters refer to is
not a necessity, instead speculate on what kind of
demeanor you would have to have if you were a
government official and what kind of language you
would use if you had to interact with a citizen and follow
the letter of law, and also speculate on what kind of
language you would use if you were that citizen who is
frustrated with governmental bureaucracy. Then, in the
space below, write down any of these speculations that
you think might be relevant to your analysis of how
each letter uses language to achieve its purpose.

When Stephen Tvedten finally received the DEQ

letter, he sent a letter in response; its purpose
was to encourage the DEQ to see the humor of the
situation and to not so subtly lampoon the
bureaucratic language of the DEQ letter.

What follows is the letter sent to Ryan DeVries,

from the Michigan Department of Environmental
Quality, State of Michigan.

Mr. Ryan DeVries

2088 Dagget Language Cue #1:
Pierson, MI 49339 Though it may seem insignificant, the DEQ
representative includes the file number just before the
letter’s salutation; in the space below, explain how this
might affect this audience (no matter whether it is
Subject: DEQ File No. 97-59-0023; intentional or not).
T11N; R10W, Sec. 2
Site Location: Montcalm County

Dear Mr. DeVries:

[¶ 1] It has come to the attention of the Department of

Environmental Quality that there has been recent
unauthorized activity on the above referenced parcel of
property. You have been certified as the legal landowner
and/or contractor who did the following unauthorized
Language Cue #2:
In the space below, explain how the use “unauthorized”
in ¶ 1 affects the audience and aids the writer in
achieving his purpose; consider the connotations of this
word and why the writer does not use other words like
“inappropriate,” “improper,” or “frowned upon.”

activity: Construction and maintenance of two wood

debris dams across the outlet stream of Spring Pond.

[¶ 2] A permit must be issued prior to the start of this

type of activity. A review of the Department's files
shows that no permits have been issued.
Language Cue #3:
[¶ 3] Therefore, the Department has determined that In ¶ 3 the writer cites the specific regulation/law that
has been supposedly breached. In the space below,
this activity is in violation of Part 301, Inland Lakes and explain how this affects the audience and aids the writer
in achieving his purpose.
Streams, of the Natural Resource and Environmental
Protection Act, Act 451 of the Public Acts of 1994, being

71
sections 324.30101 to 324.30113 of the Michigan
Compiled Laws annotated.
[¶ 4] The Department has been informed that one or
both of the dams partially failed during a recent rain
event, causing debris and flooding at downstream
locations. We find that dams of this nature are
inherently hazardous and cannot be permitted.
[¶ 5] The Department therefore orders you to cease
and desist all activities at this location, and to restore
the stream to a free-flow condition by removing all wood
and brush forming the dams from the stream channel.
All restoration work shall be completed no later than
January 31, 2002.
[¶ 6] Please notify this office when the restoration has
been completed so that a follow-up site inspection may
be scheduled by our staff. Failure to comply [obey, abide
by] with this request or any further unauthorized activity
on the site may result in this case being referred for
elevated enforcement action.
[¶ 7] We anticipate and would appreciate your full
cooperation in this matter. Please feel free to contact me
at this office if you have any questions.
Sincerely,
David L. Price
District Representative
Land and Water Management Division
What follows is Stephen L. Tvedten’s Response to
letter from the Michigan Department of
Environmental Quality:
Dear Mr. Price,
[¶ 1] Re: DEQ File No. 97-59-0023; T11N; R10W, Sec.
20; Montcalm County
[¶ 2] Reference your certified letter dated 12/17/2000
has been referred to me to respond to.
72
Language Cue #4:
In ¶ 4 the writer does not give a specific DEQ official’s
name, rather he uses “The Department” (note the
capitalized “D”) and “We. In the space below, explain
how this affects the audience and aids the writer in
achieving his purpose.
“
Language Cue #5:
¶ 4 serves as the premises supporting the unavoidable
conclusion reached in ¶ 5 forming, in all, a syllogism.
In the space below, explain what this language reveals
about the tone this writer wants to convey and how it
helps him achieve his purpose.
Language Cue #6:
In ¶ 5 the writer “orders” the audience “to cease and
desist” then asserts that the work “shall” be finished by
a certain date. In the space below, explain how these
word choices affect the audience and aids the writer in
achieving his purpose. Consider the connotations of
these words (e.g. how is “shall” different that “should”).
Language Cue #7:
In ¶ 6 the writer asserts there may be “elevated
enforcement action.” In the space below, explain how
these word choices affect the audience and aids the
writer in achieving his purpose. Consider the
connotations of these words, especially the word
“enforcement.”
Language Cue #8:
Note that in ¶ 1, right after the salutation, the writer
refers to the same DEQ file number given to his case by
the DEQ representative. In the space below, explain
how this language is different in its intent, even though
it mirrors the start of the DEQ letter.
[¶ 3] First of all, Mr. Ryan DeVries is not the legal
landowner and/or contractor at 2088 Dagget, Pierson,
Michigan.
[¶ 4] I am the legal owner and a couple of beavers are
in the (State unauthorized) process of constructing and
maintaining two wood "debris" dams across the outlet
stream of my Spring Pond.
Language Cue #9:
In ¶ 4 the writer makes it a point to use the word
“unauthorized” in describing the beavers’ actions, and
again mirrors/parodies the language of the DEQ letter.
In the space below, explain the intent of this word
choice and how it helps the writer achieve his purpose.

[¶ 5] While I did not pay for, authorize, nor supervise

their dam project, I think they would be highly offended
that you call their skillful use of natural building Language Cue #10:
In ¶ 5 the writer employs a pun on the word “dam” and
materials "debris." I would like to challenge your will continue to use it through the letter. In the space
department to attempt to emulate [try to be like] their below, explain the intent of this language and how it
helps the writer achieve his purpose.
dam project any time and/or any place you choose. I
believe I can safely state there is no way you could ever
match their dam skills, their dam resourcefulness, their
dam ingenuity, their dam persistence, their dam
determination and/or their dam work ethic.

[¶ 6] As to your request, I do not think the beavers are

aware that they must first fill out a dam permit prior to
the start of this type of dam activity. My first dam
question to you is:

(1) Are you trying to discriminate against my Spring

Pond Beavers? or,
(2) Do you require all beavers throughout this State
to conform to said dam request?
Language Cue #11:
In ¶ 7 the writer references the same specific
regulation/law that the DEQ letter referred to in ¶ 3 of
its letter. In the space below, explain the intent of this
and how it aids the writer in achieving his purpose.

[¶ 7] If you are not discriminating against these

particular beavers, through the Freedom of Information
Act, I request completed copies of all those other
applicable beaver dam permits that have been issued.
Perhaps we will see if there really is a dam violation of
Part 301, Inland Lakes and Streams, of the Natural
Resource and Environmental Protection Act, Act 451 of
the Public Acts of 1994, being sections 324.3010,1 to
Language Cue #12:
324.30113 of the Michigan Compiled Laws, annotated. I ¶ 8 employs a sort of hyperbolized personification of the
have several concerns. My first concern is aren't the beavers’ situation. In the space below, explain how this
language is meant to affect the audience.
beavers entitled to legal representation?

[¶ 8] The Spring Pond Beavers are financially destitute

[poor, needy] and are unable to pay for said
representation - so the State will have to provide them
with a lawyer.

[¶ 9] The Department's dam concern that either one or

both of the dams failed during a recent rain event Language Cue #13:
The 1st sentences of ¶ 9 offer a syllogism of sorts. In
causing flooding is proof that this is a natural the space below, explain what the writer appeals to in
occurrence, which the Department is required to protect. the audience when employing this language.

In other words, we should leave the Spring Pond

Beavers alone rather than harass them and call their
dam names. If you want the stream "restored" to a dam

73
free-flow condition - please contact the beavers - but if
you are going to arrest them they obviously did not pay
any attention to your dam letter (being unable to read Language Cue #14:
Note the conditional sentence at the end of ¶ 10. In the
English). space below, explain the intended effect of this
language as it mirrors/parodies an aspect of the DEQ
letter (consider Language Cue 5) and/or how it aids the
[¶ 10] In my humble opinion, the Spring Pond Beavers writer in achieving his purpose.
have a right to build their unauthorized dams as long as
the sky is blue, the grass is green and water flows
downstream. They have more dam right than I do to live
and enjoy Spring Pond. If the Department of Natural
Resources and Environmental Protection lives up to its
name, it should protect the natural resources (Beavers)
and the environment (Beavers' Dams).

[¶ 11] So, as far as the beavers and I are concerned,

this dam case can be referred for more elevated
enforcement action right now. Why wait
until 1/31/2002. The Spring Pond Beavers may be under
the dam ice then, and there will be no way for you or
your dam staff to contact/harass them then.
Language Cue #15:
Note how the writer equates the words “contact” and
“harass” in ¶ 11. In the space below, explain the intent
of this language and how it aids the writer in achieving
his purpose; consider the kind of language the DEQ
representative typically employs in his letter.

[¶ 12] In conclusion, I would like to bring to your

attention a real environmental quality (health) problem
in the area. It is the bears. Bears are actually defecating
[making scat or poop] in our woods. I definitely believe
you should be persecuting the defecating bears and
leave the beavers alone.

[¶ 13] If you are going to investigate the beaver dam,

watch your step! (The bears are not careful where they
dump!)
[¶ 14] Being unable to comply with your dam request,
and being unable to contact you on your answering
machine, I am sending this response to your office via
another government organization - the USPS [United
States Post Office]. Maybe, someday, it will get there.
Language Cue #16:
In ¶ 14 the writer alludes to the performance (or lack of
performance) record of the USPS. In the space below,
explain the intent of this language and how it helps the
writer achieve his purpose; consider how he uses the
allusion as a comparative tool.

Sincerely,
Stephen L. Tvedten
The University of Texas at Austin
Office Community Relations/Accounting unit
P.O. Box 7367
Austin, TX 78713

74
Glossary of Terms Used in Language Cues:

Absolute language:
This kind of language describes someone or something as having a quality that lacks
degrees; absolutes express the idea someone or something possesses a quality that cannot
be more or less. As a rhetorical device, absolutes may help a speaker convey a tone that is
confident, self assured, or strong.

Examples:
unique, always, never, perfect, etc.; It has always been that way (the “it” cannot be
more or less “always.”

Ad hominem fallacy:
Literally meaning “against the person,” an ad hominem fallacy is a part of argumentation,
and it does not address the soundness of another side’s argument, instead it attacks the
character of a person who conveys that other side of the argument.

Example:
Congressman Smithers supports the tax break for the rich, because he is a greedy jerk,
and it will put money in his pocket.

Allusion:
A figure of speech making an indirect reference to something which is presumably
commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be
historical (like referring to Hitler) or literary (like referring to the Romeo figure in Romeo &
Juliet, or like referring to the Noah figure in the Bible story of the flood, or like referring to
the Atlas figure of Greek mythology). As a rhetorical tool, a speaker or writer may use an
allusion as comparative tool which could appeal to an audience’s emotions; For example, a
speaker who wants to discourage her audience from taking to great a risk, might remind
them to live their lives like Daedalus rather than Icarus (an allusion to the Greek myth of
the father, Daedalus, who warned his son, Icarus, to fly a middle course like him and not to
fly to close to the sun; Icarus did not heed his father’s warning – he flew hazardously close
to the sun and his wax wings melted).

Anadiplosis:
The repetition of the last word (or phrase) from the previous line, clause, or sentence at the
beginning of the next.

Example:
...a man could stand and see the whole wide reach of blue Atlantic, but he stayed
ashore. He stayed ashore and plowed…

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Analogy:
A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them.
An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its
similarity so something more familiar. Analogies can make writing more vivid, imaginative
or intellectually engaging.

Example:
Finding a cure for cancer is much like finding a cure for inflation. The exact causes of the
diseases are shrouded in mystery, medication carries the risk of unpredictable side
effects, but without medication the illnesses grow beyond control; cures are increasingly
difficult the longer they are delayed; and the experts always-but always-disagree.

Anaphora:
The rhetorical device of repeating a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or
sentences for emphasis and rhythm. As a rhetorical device, it is often used to place an
emphasis on or draw attention to what is said.

Example:
We’ve lost our sense of decency, we’ve lost our credibility in the eyes of other
nations, and we’ve lost our way as a nation.

Anecdote:
A brief narrative offered in a text to capture the audience’s attention or to support a
generalization or claim. As a rhetorical device, it could serve as evidence in an argument.

Antimetabole:
The repetition of words in successive clauses in reverse grammatical order. As a rhetorical
device, it is often used to place an emphasis on or draw attention to what is said.

Example:
You can take the boy out of the country, but you cannot take the country out of the boy.

Antithesis:
The juxtaposition of contrasting words or ideas, often in parallel structure. It’s used to show
a contrast or opposition of thoughts.

Examples:
Place your virtues on a pedestal; put your vices under a rock.
You are going: I am staying.

Aphorism:
A concise statement of a principle of precept; e.g. “Life is short,…opportunity fleeting.”

Asyndeton (uh-SIN-dud-ton):
The practice of leaving out the usual conjunctions between coordinate sentence elements. It
is used to emphasize or to create a specific rhythm or pace. You rush a series of clauses
together without conjunctions, as if tumbled together by emotional haste; e.g. “I came, I
saw, I conquered.”

76
Bandwagon appeal/fallacy:
An argumentative fallacy where language is used to appeal to everyone’s sense of wanting
to belong or be accepted. It suggests that a person should act or think like everyone else
because everyone else acts or thinks a certain way; e.g. Everyone at school wears high
tops. You should too.

Chiasmus:
A crossing parallelism, where the second part of a grammatical construction is balanced or
paralleled by the first part, only in reverse order. Instead of an A,B structure (e.g., "learned
unwillingly") paralleled by another A,B structure ("forgotten gladly"), the A,B will be
followed by B,A ("gladly forgotten"). So instead of writing "What is learned unwillingly is
forgotten gladly," you could write, "What is learned unwillingly is gladly forgotten. ... It is
used to intensify the contrast. As a rhetorical device, it is often used to place an emphasis
on or draw attention to what is said.

Colloquial language:
The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal
writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone; e.g. in a bind, take a
snooze.

Complex sentence:
A sentence with an independent clause and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses.

Examples:
(independent clause in bold; subordinate clause in italics):
You said that you would tell the truth.
After he cleaned the kitchen, he went to bed.

Conditional sentence:
A sentence that focuses on a question of truth or fact, introduced by if or its equivalent. As
a rhetorical device, it often works as a vehicle for a writer/speaker to appeal to an
audience’s logic or common sense; e.g. If we married, our parents would be happy.

Cumulative sentence (or sometimes called the loose sentence):

They begin with the independent clause and then finish with a series of modifying
constructions (phrases and/or clauses).

Example:
Sarah waited, anxious and concerned that the class had been canceled.

Declarative sentence:
A sentence that makes a statement. As a rhetorical device, it could communicate or
emphasize that the speaker/writer is confident; e.g. There is nothing to fear.

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Either-Or Fallacy:
An fallacy in argumentation in which language is used to suggest there are only two sides or
perspectives in viewing an issue; it is a fallacy, because more often than not an issue is
more complex than just seeing it from two sides or perspectives.

Epistrophe (e-PIS-truh-fee):
The repetition of a group of words at the end of successive clauses; As a rhetorical device, it
is often used to place an emphasis on what is said; e.g.: They saw no evil; they spoke no
evil; they heard no evil.

Ethos:
Language employed in a text to establish that a writer/speaker is a credible, respectable,
benevolent, balanced (in his/her thinking), and/or trustworthy person who has done his/her
homework and has the best interests of the audience in mind. A writer/speaker may create
an ethos by citing an authority or demonstrating a willingness to recognize other
viewpoints.

Exemplum:
Figure of amplification using an example, brief or extended, real or fictitious, to illustrate a
point; in other words, a speaker/writer may provide a concrete example to make a concept
more real for audience.

Hyperbole:
An exaggeration or embellishment for effect or to make a point; e.g. I could eat a horse.

Imagery:
Language that evokes particular sensations or emotionally rich experiences in a reader.
Imagery calls up sensations of sight, taste, smell, touch, heat, pressure. Images help to
make abstracts and/or feelings concrete. Imagery often carries rich connotative meanings.

Imperative sentence: An imperative sentence gives a direct command to someone; its

subject can sometimes be and implied “You.” For example… Sit! or Read this book for
tomorrow.

Independent clause:
A word group containing a subject and a predicate that can stand alone as a sentence.

Example:
The car hit the tree when it went out of control.

Juxtaposition:
Placing two ideas, words, or pictures side by side so that their closeness creates a new,
sometimes ironic meaning. For example… in The Scarlet Letter the reader learns that one of
the first buildings erected by the pilgrims who first came to the new world (America) was a
prison; the prison represents the old oppression they sought to escape in the new world.

78
Logos:
Language used in a text to appeal to an audience’s interest in a clear, cogent argument (or
arguments). The use of logos is central to any argument and it is present if the text
presents a structuring of its argument(s) or central idea(s) that appears well reasoned.
Writers/Speakers who employ syllogisms, support their claims with factual evidence, or lead
their audiences through a logical chain of events toward a conclusion demonstrate the use
of logos. Note: aspects of logos can serve an argument’s ethos and pathos.

Metaphor:
An implied comparison between two unlike things that does not use the word like, as, so, or
than. It is the most important of all the tropes; e.g. His voice was a cascade of emotion.

Metonymy (muh-TAH-nuh-mee):
A figure of speech where a thing associated with a person, place, or thing stands in for it;
e.g. The White House made the decision.

Narrative pace:
The pace of the writing is how quickly it moves from one event or action to another. It can
aid in creating a mood, tone, attitude and significance of information. For example, the
narrative pace could be speeded up in a piece of writing through the use of short, even
fragmented sentence structures, and thus would convey a sense of urgency to the audience.

Parallelism:
A set of similarly structured words, phrases, or clauses that appears in a sentence or
paragraph. It involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so
that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased. As a
rhetorical tool, speakers/writers may use this rhythmic technique as a subtle repetition
device emphasizing what is said and making the content of what is said more memorable.
Examples:
 We will stand, fight, and die for our freedom.
 He was a loyal friend, an honest politician, and a compassionate citizen.
 In an ideal democracy the elected official abides by the Constitution, the
soldier serves the nation, and the citizen questions the government.

Parody:
In literary composition, it is a spoofing or exaggerated version of another writer’s style.

Pathos:
An appeal to the emotions or interests of the audience so that they will be sympathetically
inclined to accept a writer’s/speaker’s argument. Writers/Speakers may typically
connotatively loaded diction and/or figurative language, as well as imagery to appeal to
human emotions. The effect of the emotional appeal often eclipses those of the other
appeals, and so if writers want their audience to act, not just reason, they often appeal to
emotions (e.g. fear, guilt, outrage, etc.)

79
Periodic sentence:
A sentence beginning with a series of subordinate modifying phrases and clauses, often
creating a crescendo effect, and then ending with a forceful independent clause (underlined
below). The periodic sentence makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached.

Example:
If, instead of listening to the war-mongers of the military-industrial establishment, the
politicians had only listened to what people had been writing in their letters and in the
newspaper columns, if they had only listened to what the demonstrators had been
shouting in the streets and on the campuses, if they had only listened to what was in
their hearts, the war would have ended long ago.

Personification:
Figurative language which gives human qualities and characteristics to non-human entities;
e.g. Father Time.

Polysyndeton:
Polysyndenton is the use of many conjunctions to separate clauses and phrases; it often
serves as tool to manipulate the narrative pace of the writing; while it tends to be used to
slow the pace, it can also create a sense of build-up or crescendo.

Example:
I kept remembering everything, lying in bed in the mornings-the small steamboat that
had a long rounded stern like the lip of a Ubangi, and how quietly she ran on the
moonlight sails, when the older boys played their mandolins and the girls sang and we
ate doughnuts dipped in sugar and how…

Pun:
A play on words based on the similarity of sound between two words of different meaning.
It is often seen as a simple form of humor; e.g. The spoiled turkey was fowl (a pun on
foul).

Qualifier/Qualifying language:
A word or sentence element limiting (or qualifying) another word, phrase, or clause.

Examples:
The adjective inconsistent in the phrase inconsitent performance modifies or qualifies
and thus limits the meaning of the noun, performance; other examples of qualifiers
which are more common in rhetoric would be words and phrases like sometimes,
occasionally, and more often than not.

Reductio ad absurdum:
(i.e. reducing to the absurd) An argumentative fallacy in which a proposition is disproven by
following its implications logically to an absurd consequence.

Example: If all cats have four legs, and all dogs have four legs, then all cats must be
dogs.

Rhetorical question:
A question posed by the speaker or writer not to seek an answer but instead to affirm or
deny a point simply by asking a question about it. It is used to draw attention to a point and
is generally stronger than a direct statement. As a rhetorical tool, it could be used to appeal
to an audience’s common sense or logic; e.g. Do you want to lose?
80
Simile:
An explicit comparison between two unlike things signaled by use of like, as, so, or than.
e.g. A writer, like an acrobat, must occasionally try new tricks, or he had little chance to
stop the train, no more than a pig would of flying

Slippery slope fallacy:

This is an argument that assumes that one action will lead to another similar action that in
turn will lead to another and to another, ultimately resulting in something quite undesirable.

Example:
In the beginning, only people with incurable, painful illnesses will request to die. Then
others with less dramatic conditions will request it. Before you know it, people with even
minor illnesses will begin thinking of assisted death as a viable option. Doctor-assisted
euthanasia will ultimately lead to mass suicide.

Subordinate clause:
A group of words including a subject and verb or actor and action but cannot stand on its
own as a sentence; also called dependent clause. It is linked to an independent clause by a
subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun. A subordinate clause can function as an
adjective, an adverb, or a noun; e.g. The car hit the tree that stood at the edge of the
road. or When it went out of control, the car hit the tree

Syllogism:
A series of statements in which a logical conclusion is drawn from inarguable premises.

Example:
If A equals B, and B equals C, then A equals C.

Synecdoche (suh-NEK-duh-kee):
A figure of speech in which part of something is used to refer to its whole; e.g. 50 head of
cattle (meaning the 50 whole, complete animals) and All hands on deck.

Tone:
The phrasing or words that express the attitude or feeling of the speaker or writer. The tone
of a statement ranges from the angry, exasperated, and sarcastic, to the wondering or
approving. An ironic tone suggests that the speaker or writer means more than the words
actually state.

Understatement (a.k.a litotes):

A common figure of speech in which the literal sense of what is said falls detectably short of
(or “under”) the magnitude of what is being talked about; e.g. someone says he/she has a
few pennies when he/she is actually quite wealthy.

Voice:
The textual features, such as diction and sentence structure that convey a writer’s or
speaker’s persona. A piece with voice invites the reader to understand, to participate, to be
convinced. The reader of a piece of no-voice writing doesn’t sense a person behind the
words or anybody interesting.

Zeugma:
A figure of speech in which one word, usually a preposition or a verb, yokes together two
other elements that are unrelated; e.g. He maintained his composure with [“with” -
preposition] grace and sedatives and He wrecked [“wrecked” – verb] his car and his life.

81
A.P. English Language and Composition
American Voices and Their Audiences
Unit 2 American Voices and Their Audiences
Student Page Activity 3 “Sinners…” Model for Assessment #1

Directions:
1. Now that you have read “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” your instructor will
model how to give the oral presentation analyzing the reading to which you and your
partner(s) are assigned.

2. Write down notes in the left margin next to the text in your Unit 2 packet as your
instructor provides you with responses to various Language Cues of the “Sinners in
the Hands of an Angry God” reading.

3. Then during the last 10-15 minutes of class, you will complete the graphic summary
of an analysis presentation for the instructor’s presentation; the graphic summary of
an analysis presentation is a worksheet your instructor will pass out to you which
organizes the information in the Language Cues according to whether it creates an
ethos, logos, and/or pathos. Before completing the graphic summary of an analysis
presentation for “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” carefully examine the
example of a completed graphic summary worksheet following the Additional
Information below.

Additional Information:
During the oral presentations segment of Unit 2 you will complete a graphic summary
worksheet to organize the Language Cue information given during each of the oral
presentations on each class day and to assess your comprehension of the information
provided during your classmates’ presentations.

Completing these graphic summary worksheets provides you with practice in how to
organize an essay analyzing the language that helps a writer/speaker achieve his/her
purpose. Essentially, when you write this kind of essay, each of your body paragraphs will
focus on analyzing the language that creates one of the appeals; e.g. one body paragraph
may analyze language that creates an ethos, another may analyze language that is part of
the speech’s or letter’s logos, another may analyze language that creates pathos (the
pathos analysis should be broken down into separate paragraphs which analyze the
language that evokes a specific emotion – fear, guilt, etc. – in the audience).

82
 Unit 2: Graphic Summary of an Analysis Presentation

The speaker begins her letter to The speaker appeals to school administrators’
school administrators by quoting and fiscal concerns by pointing out that “last year
agreeing with a school administrator who the school accrued over $31,000.00 in costs that
said, “there must be consequences to student included handling of detention paperwork and
behaviors which put students’ well beings at paying after-school/Saturday detention
risk or are not in the best interests of helping monitors” and that “70% of those detention
students perform to their best potential;” this sessions were solely populated by students who
makes her seem less at odds with her had simply been tardy to class 2-5 times.” She
audience. To further put her audience at then calculates “about $22,000 could have been
ease she also states she knows they “are saved by not assigning students to detention for
burdened with a weighty task,” and that she this reason.” She then concludes her syllogism by
“and the student council are willing to aid again recognizing there are students who
school administrators in any way” to consistently do not observe school
make their high school “a positive policies, and that these students
While establishing herself as a fair
and safe experience for all should “suffer consequences,”
minded person, the president of the
students.” In essence, she uses but “too many suffer because of
student council seeks to appeal to school
her audience’s language. detention for 2-5 tardies.”
administrators’ fiscal concerns and their
NOTE: Each of the bubbles surrounding culpability as educators, as she hopes to NOTE: The Statement defining the
the Statement defining the make them see the sense in changing writer’s/speaker’s PURPOSE should
writer’s/speaker’s PURPOSE should include the strategies the writer/speaker
school policy concerning what behaviors
include concrete details (in bold) employs as well as an identification of
explicated in terms of how they support warrant issuing a detention to a student his/her audience; in essence, it is a thesis
a claim in the statement of purpose. statement making claims about how the
writer/speaker achieves his/her purpose.
The speaker appeals to the school administrators’ senses of culpability
when she suggests that “the current school policies regarding the issuing of
detentions for 2-5 tardies to class is eating up funds that could support NOTE: Overall, when
weakened funding of school arts, or a library sorely in need of new you complete the
technology, or a large chunk of an additional teacher’s salary which would graphic summary, you
create a rough analysis
aid in reducing class size in English, or science, or math classes;” here her of a speech or an
listing of the “too many” who “suffer because of detention for 2-5 tardies” plays audience centered piece
upon her audience sense of needing to make responsible decisions which serve of writing. Complete
your analysis so that it
a greater good in the school community. She amplifies this for her audience
still makes sense to
when she metaphorically suggests that her audience is “the architect whose someone who has not
decisions will affect the lives of those who inhabit the building she designs.” read the speech, letter,
etc.

83
A.P. English Language and Composition
Unit 2 American Voices and Their Audiences
Student Page Activity 4 – Workshop with a Partner to Complete Initial Steps of
Unit 2’s Assessment 1

Directions:
1. If you have completed a first reading of your assigned Unit 2 reading, begin the
process of completing all the steps of Unit 2’s Assessment #1 with your partner,
except for the final oral presentation to the class (the instructor will schedule your
presentation and inform you of the day your presentation is due).

2. You will have at least three class days (class day=50 minute period) to workshop
with your partner to complete the steps for your presentation day. If you cannot
finish the work in class during these three days, you are expected to complete it
outside of class in time for your presentation.

3. During this workshop time, your instructor will circulate among the partner pairings
to assist you with your responses to the Language Cues.

84
A.P. English Language and Composition
American Voices and Their Audiences
Unit 2 American Voices and Their Audiences
Student Page Activity 5 – Oral Presentations of Unit 2 Readings

Directions:
1. After the class has completed the reading/vocabulary quiz on the Unit 2 readings
assigned for a given class day, the partners responsible for the presenting their
responses to their reading’s Language Cues will be called upon to deliver their oral
presentations.

2. During the oral presentations by each partner pairing, all other students should take
notes in their Unit 2 packets in the space provided below each of the Language Cues
in the readings assigned for that day. Students taking notes on the presentations
may ask the presenters to clarify any of the information the presenters provide, but
they students taking notes should wait to make additional commentary about the
information the presenters provide until the presenters have finished.

3. During the last 10—15 minutes of class all students must complete graphic
summaries for each one of the presentations given that class day.

85
A.P. English Language and Composition
Unit 2 American Voices and Their Audiences
Student Page Activity 6 – Unpacking Unit 2’s Assessment #2

Directions for unpacking Unit 2’s Assessment #2:

1. Read the following directions, the three writing prompts’ introductions and
assignments (no need to read the actual passages to be analyzed), and scoring
rubric for Assessment #2 in the Unit 2 student pages (on page 109-110 of this Unit 2
packet).

2. As you read underline or highlight any text where it mentions a skill or knowledge
necessary to succeed on this assessment; ask yourself what do you need to know?
What are you going to have to do?

3. You will then be asked by your instructor to share with the class what you have
underlined or highlighted.

Carefully read the following three writing prompts and the texts which accompany
them. Choose one and then write an effective response to that writing prompt.

PROMPT #1 INTRODUCTION:
After a furious quarrel had broken out at Hingham over the election of a militia
leader, Gov. John Winthrop had agitators arrested. His foes brought impeachment
charges against him, but they instead were fined. After his exoneration*,
Winthrop delivered his famous speech to the general court (made up of mostly
landholding males). The following passage is taken from John Winthrop’s “Speech
to the General Court”, July, 3, 1645.

ASSIGNMENT:
Carefully read the passage, noting the complexity of his purpose, then write a well
organized essay in which you identify his purpose and analyze the language
strategies he employs to achieve that purpose.

There is a twofold liberty: natural (I mean as our nature is now corrupt)

and civil or federal. The first is common to man with beasts and other
creatures. By this, man, as he stands in relation to man simply, hath
liberty to do what he lists. It is a liberty to evil as well as to good. This
liberty is incompatible and inconsistent with authority, and cannot
endure the least restraint of the most just authority. The exercise and
maintaining of this liberty makes men grow more evil, and in time to be
worse than brute beasts… This is that great enemy of truth and peace,
that wild beast, [page 238 ends; page 239 begins] which all the
ordinances* of God are bent against, to restrain and subdue it.

The other kind of liberty I call civil or federal. It may also be termed
moral, in reference to the covenant between God and man in the moral
law; and the political covenants and constitutions amongst men
themselves. This liberty is the property and object of authority, and
cannot subsist without it; and it is a liberty that only which is good,

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 just, and honest. This liberty you are to stand for, with the hazard (not
only of your goods, but) of your lives, if need be. Whatsoever crosseth
this, is not authority, but a distemper* thereof. This liberty is
maintained and exercised in a way of subjection to authority. It is of
the same kind of liberty wherewith Christ hath made us free.

The woman’s own choice makes such a man her husband; yet being so
chosen, he is her lord, and she is to be subject to him, yet in a way of
liberty, not of bondage. And a true wife accounts her subjection her
honor and freedom, and would not think her condition safe and free,
but in her subjection to her husband’s authority.

Such is the liberty of the church under the authority of Christ, her king
and husband. His yoke* is so easy and sweet to her as a bride’s
ornaments; and if through frowardness* or wantonness, etc., she
shake it off at any time, she is at no rest in her spirit until she take it
up again. And whether her lord smiles upon her, and embraceth her in
his arms, or whether he frowns, or rebukes, or smites her, she
apprehends the sweetness of his love in all, and is refreshed,
supported, and instructed by every such dispensation of his authority
over her…

…If you stand for your natural corrupt liberties, and will do what is good
in your own eyes, you will not endure the least weight of authority, but
will murmur*, and oppose, and be always striving to shake off that
yoke*. But if you will be satisfied to enjoy such civil and lawful liberties,
such as Christ allows you, then will you quietly and cheerfully submit
unto that authority which is set over you, in all the administrations of it,
for your good. Wherein if we fail at any time, we hope we shall be
willing (by God’s assistance) to hearken to good advice from any of
you, or in any other way of God. So shall your liberties be preserved, in
upholding the honor and power of authority amongst you.

*exoneration: pardon
*ordinances: edict, law, decree
* distemper: deranged state or could also mean diluted, “watered down” state
* yoke: harness used on beasts (oxen, etc.)
* frowardness: disposition to go counter to what is demanded or what is reasonable
* murmur: grumbling

MLA Citation Information:

Jameson, J. Franklin, ed. “Speech to the General Court.” Original Narratives

of Early American History: Winthrop’s Journal, 1630-1649, Vol. II.
New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1908: 238-239.

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PROMPT #2 INTRODUCTION:
Benjamin Franklin was frequently consulted by the younger firebrand Thomas
Paine for advice and suggestions regarding his political writings, and Franklin
assisted Paine with some of his famous essays. The following letter is Franklin's
response to a manuscript Paine sent him which advocated against the concept of a
providential God. Paine later published the manuscript.

ASSIGNMENT:
After carefully reading Franklin’s letter, write a well organized essay in which you
identify his purpose and analyze the language strategies he employs to achieve
that purpose.

TO THOMAS PAINE [date uncertain]:

DEAR SIR,
I have read your manuscript with some attention. By the argument it
contains against a particular Providence, though you allow a general
Providence, you strike at the foundations of all religion. For without the
belief of a Providence, that takes cognizance of, guards, and guides,
and may favor particular persons, there is no motive to worship a
Deity, to fear his displeasure, or to pray for his protection. I will not
enter into any discussion of your principles, though you seem to desire
it. At present I shall only give you my opinion, that, though your
reasonings are subtile* and may prevail with some readers, you will not
succeed so as to change the general sentiments of mankind on that
subject, and the consequence of printing this piece will be, a great deal
of odium* drawn upon yourself, mischief to you, and no benefit to
others. He that spits against the wind, spits in his own face.

But, were you to succeed, do you imagine any good would be done by
it? You yourself may find it easy to live a virtuous life, without the
assistance afforded by religion; you having a clear perception of the
advantages of virtue, and the disadvantages of vice, and possessing a
strength of resolution sufficient to enable you to resist common
temptations. But think how great a portion of mankind consists of weak
and ignorant men and women, and of inexperienced, inconsiderate
youth of both sexes, who have need of the motives of religion to
restrain them from vice*, to support their virtue, and retain them in the
practice of it till it becomes habitual, which is the great point for its
security. And perhaps you are indebted to her originally, that is, to your
religious education, for the habits of virtue upon which you now justly
value yourself. You might easily display your excellent talents of
reasoning upon a less hazardous subject, and thereby obtain a rank
[page 281 ends; page 282 begins] with our most distinguished
authors. For among us it is not necessary, as among the Hottentots*,
that a youth, to be raised into the company of men, should prove his
manhood by beating his mother.

I would advise you, therefore, not to attempt unchaining the tiger, but
to burn this piece before it is seen by any other person; whereby you
will save yourself a great deal of mortification* by the enemies it may
raise against you, and perhaps a good deal of regret and repentance. If
men are so wicked with religion, what would they be if without it? I

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 intend this letter itself as a proof of my friendship, and therefore add no
professions to it; but subscribe simply yours,

B. Franklin

* subtile – acute, keen, sharply aware

* odium – loathing, disgust
* vice – sin, immorality
* Hottentots – South African tribe
* mortification – humiliation

MLA Citation Information:

Sparks, Jared, ed. “Letter to Thomas Paine.” The Works of Benjamin Franklin,
Vol. X. Boston: Tappan, Whittemore, and Mason, 1840: 281-282.

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PROMPT #3 INTRODUCTION:
Margaret Fuller Ossoli was an American Transcendentalist and a contemporary of
Ralph Waldo Emerson. The following essay (“Fourth of July”) was part of a larger
collection of writings entitled Life Without and Life Within, and though it is a
departure from much of her other writings focusing on the roles of women in
society, it does speak to the Transcendentalist tendency to advocate for reform as
she directs her words to the next generation of political leadership in America.

ASSIGNMENT:
After carefully reading Margaret Fuller Ossoli’s “Fourth of July,” write a well
organized essay in which you identify her purpose and analyze the language
strategies she employs to achieve that purpose.

The bells ring; the cannon rouse the echoes along the river shore; the
boys sally forth with shouts and little flags, and crackers enough to
frighten all the people they meet from sunrise to sunset. The orator is
conning* for the last time the speech in which he has vainly attempted
to season with some new spice the yearly panegyric* upon our country;
its happiness and glory; the audience is putting on its best bib and
tucker, and its blandest expression to listen.

And yet, no heart, we think, can beat today with one pulse of genuine,
noble joy. Those who have obtained their selfish objects will not take
especial pleasure in thinking of them today, while to unbiased minds
must come sad thoughts of national honor soiled in the eyes of other
nations, of a great inheritance risked, if not forfeited.

Much has been achieved in this country since the Declaration of

Independence. America is rich and strong; she has shown great talent
and energy; vast prospects of aggrandizement open before her. But the
noble sentiment which she expressed in her early youth is tarnished;
she has shown that righteousness is not her chief desire, and her name
is no longer a watchword for the highest hopes to the rest of the world.
She knows this, but takes it very easily; she feels that she is growing
richer and more powerful, and that seems to suffice her.

These facts are deeply saddening to those who can pronounce the
words "my country" with pride and peace only so far as steadfast
virtues, generous impulses, find their home in that country. They
cannot be satisfied with superficial [page 232 ends; page 233
begins] benefits, with luxuries and the means of obtaining knowledge
which are multiplied for them. They could rejoice in full hands and a
busy brain, if the soul were expanding and the heart pure; but, the
higher conditions being violated, what is done cannot be done for good.

Such thoughts fill patriot minds as the cannon-peal bursts upon the ear.
This year*, which declares that the people at large consent to cherish
and extend slavery as one of our "domestic institutions," takes from the
patriot his home. This year, which attests their insatiate love of wealth
and power, quenches the flame upon the altar.

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Yet there remains that good part which cannot be taken away. If
nations go astray, the narrow path may always be found and followed
by the individual man. It is hard, hard indeed, when politics and trade
are mixed up with evils so mighty that he scarcely dares touch them for
fear of being defiled. He finds his activity checked in great natural
outlets by the scruples of conscience. He cannot enjoy the free use of
his limbs, glowing upon a favorable tide; but struggling, panting, must
fix his eyes upon his aim, and fight against the current to reach it. It is
not easy, it is very hard just now, to realize the blessings of
independence.

For what is independence if it do not lead to freedom? -- freedom from

fraud and meanness, from selfishness, from public opinion so far as it
does not agree with the still, small voice of one's better self?

Yet there remains a great and worthy part to play. This country
presents great temptations to ill, but also great inducements to good.
Her health and strength are so remarkable, her youth so full of life, that
disease cannot yet have taken deep hold of her. It has bewildered her
brain, made her steps totter, fevered, but not yet tainted, her blood.
Things are still in that state when ten just men may save the city. A
few men are wanted, able to think and act upon principles of an eternal
value. The safety of the country must lie [page 233 ends; page 234
begins] in a few such men; men who have achieved the genuine
independence, independence of wrong, of violence, of falsehood.

We want individuals to whom all eyes may turn as examples of the

practicability of virtue. We want shining examples. We want deeply-
rooted characters, who cannot be moved by flattery, by fear, even by
hope, for they work in faith. The opportunity for such men is great;
they will not be burned at the stake in their prime for bearing witness
to the truth, yet they will be tested most severely in their adherence to
it. There is nothing to hinder them from learning what is true and best;
no physical tortures will be inflicted on them for expressing it. Let men
feel that in private lives, more than in public measures, must the
salvation of the country lie. If that country has so widely veered from
the course she prescribed to herself, and that the hope of the world
prescribed to her, it must be because she had not men ripened and
confirmed for better things. They leaned too carelessly on one another;
they had not deepened and purified the private lives from which the
public vitality must spring, as the verdure of the plain from the
fountains of the hills… [page 234 ends; page 235 begins]

We know not where to look for an example of all or many of the virtues
we would seek from the man who is to begin the new dynasty that is
needed of fathers of the country. The country needs to be born again;
she is polluted with the lust of power, the lust of gain. She needs
fathers good enough to be godfathers - men who will stand sponsors at
the baptism with all they possess, with all the goodness they can
cherish, and all the wisdom they can win, to lead this child the way she
should go, and never one step in another. Are there not in schools and
colleges the boys who will become such men? Are there not those on
the threshold of manhood who have not yet chosen the broad way into
which the multitude rushes, led by the banner on which, strange to say,

91
 the royal Eagle is blazoned, together with the word Expediency*? Let
them decline that road, and take the narrow, thorny path where
Integrity leads, though with no prouder emblem than the Dove. They
may there find the needed remedy, which, like the white root, detected
by the patient and resolved Odysseus, shall have power to restore the
herd of men, disguised by the enchantress to whom they had willingly
yielded in the forms of brutes, to the stature and beauty of men.

* “conning” – intensely studying, pouring over

* “panegyric” – public speech praising someone, something
* “this year…” – probably 1848; this year saw the beginning of widening division between the major
political parties because of issues surrounding slavery
* “expediency” – used with a derogatory implication; may be used to communicate the idea that
something is done not necessarily for the best reason but for a practical or material reason

MLA Citation Information:

Fuller Ossoli, Margaret. “Fourth of July.” Life Without and Life Within. New
York: The Tribune Association, 1869: 233-235.

92
A.P. English Language and Composition
Student Page Activity 7 – Unit 2, Assessment #2 Model, and Review of Transitions

Directions:
The essay below is an excellent response to the writing prompt preceding it, and the writing
prompt the essay responds to replicates the requirements of the four Unit 2 Assessment #2
Writing Prompts.

Read the writing prompt and the essay written in response to it, then with a partner
highlight or underline aspects of the essay demonstrating the writer’s awareness of setting
up and making good transitions, then in the space provided on the right side of the page
briefly annotate to describe how each highlighted/underlined transitional element works.

NOTE: Consider how the thesis statement sets up transitions among body paragraphs, and
also consider how the writer uses some of the following commonly used transitional words
and phrases. Be aware of these and use them as you write your essay in response to one of
the four Unit 2, Assessment 2 writing prompts.

Commonly Used Transitional Words and Phrases

Cause and Effect:

accordingly it follows, then therefore
as a result since thus
consequently so
hence then

Conclusion:
as a result in short so
consequently in sum, then therefore
hence it follows, then thus
in conclusion, then largely to sum up
in order to overall to summarize

Comparison:
along the same lines likewise
in the same way similarly

Contrast:
although even though on the other hand
but however regardless
by contrast in contrast whereas
conversely nevertheless while
despite the fact that on the contrary yet

Addition:
also in addition yet
and in fact
besides indeed
furthermore moreover

Concession/Acknowledgement:
admittedly granted of course to be sure
although it is true I concede that naturally

Example:
After all for example to take a case in point
As an illustration for instance
Consider specifically

Elaboration:
Actually that is to put it bluntly
By extension in other words to put it succinctly
In short to put it another way ultimately

93
A writing prompt that is very similar to those in Unit 2’s Assessment 2:
Introduction
“Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” is perhaps Edwards’ most famous sermon; it was
delivered on a visit to the congregation at Enfield, Connecticut, in 1741. His sermons are
often noted for their fire-and-brimstone imagery. This one is no exception. Edwards’
purpose in this sermon was to awaken and persuade the “natural men” in the
congregation to accept Christ as their savior or convert them to Christianity.

Assignment
Read the sermon carefully, then write a well organized essay in which you analyze the
language Edwards employs to achieve his complex purpose.

Model essay written in response to the above writing prompt (the following essay
would receive high scores in all areas of the Assessment #2 rubric):

During the mid 1700’s, there was a religious revitalization taking

place known as the Great Awakening, and one of its more prominent
advocates was that of Jonathan Edwards, a Puritan minister. The advocates
of the Great Awakening hoped to bring more of the unconverted to the
light of the Puritan faith. One of Edwards’ sermons, “Sinners in the Hands
of an Angry God,” is often held up as an example of how these advocates
went about urging the unconverted to contract themselves to the Puritan
faith. The language Edwards employs in this sermon not only establishes
him as advocate and ally of the self assured, unconverted members or
“natural men” of the congregation, it more importantly undermines their
confidence and ultimately ignites their fear of a wrathful, omnipotent being
in order to induce them to convert.
The initial paragraphs of Edwards’ sermon work to establish himself
as his audience’s advocate. While anticipating a reluctance in his audience
to take seriously his warnings about the consequences of living outside the
Puritan faith, Edwards seems to know he has to convince the audience he
stands with them, not against them, so he suggests repeatedly that he is
the “Mediator” between them and a wrathful God (79). In asserting this
Edwards makes himself seem less of a demanding browbeater and more of
a guide or person who seeks to help his audience reach an agreement with
God. Besides this initial effort to make himself out to be an advocate for
these “natural men,” Edwards also is careful to include himself in the
numbers that God oversees when he states, “What are we, that we should
think to stand before him, at whose rebuke the earth trembles, and before
whom the rocks are thrown down?...” (79). The use of inclusive pronoun
“we” is only part of these initial paragraphs; it changes to the finger

94
pointing “you” in the fifth paragraph of this excerpt of the sermon (81). In
using “we” Edwards stands with his audience, making them more inclined
to see him as ally and not a scornful, censuring father figure. It is this
language that helps Edwards create a sense that he is working in his
audience’s best interests.
After establishing himself as a firewall between his audience and
their wrathful God, Edwards continues to work to achieve his purpose by
undermining or taking away his audience’s confidence before effectively
playing upon their fears of a wrathful God. It begins with the suggestion
that without a “Mediator” they will have “no means within reach that can
be any security to them” (79). The imagery here prompts the audience to
doubt its abilities to attain a firm grasp on any sense of “security,” and that
without a helping hand from Edwards, his audience will fall into the
“flames” of God’s wrath (79). Additionally, when Edwards syllogistically
proposes in the second paragraph of the sermon that the dead in hell
would attest that when they were alive they never expected to be a
resident of hell, because they thought they had a good “scheme” (79), the
implied conclusion seeks to unnerve the audience; Edwards knows his
audience will logically conclude that their thinking is not unlike that of the
dead in hell, and he hopes to take away their confidence in any plans they
might think are foolproof in avoiding God’s wrath. This syllogistic language
used to destabilize the foundations of his audience’s self assuredness is
also observable in a paragraph near the end of the sermon; when he
premises in two conditional structures the possibility of how dreadful it
would be for the rest of the audience to know of the one person among
them who was about to be subject to God’s wrath (81), he gives each of
them some hope that they are not that one. However, his logic leads them
to a conclusion that takes away any hope they might have had when he
asserts that “instead of one,” it is more likely that many of the audience
members will remember this “discourse,” or the warning of his sermon, “in
hell” (81). In first giving them some hope and then abruptly taking it away,
Edwards hopes to crumble the cornerstones of his audience’s confidence.
Then, along the same lines, in paragraph five and throughout the rest of
the sermon, the second person voice (“you” and “your”) serves Edwards as
a way to point out and at the individual members of his audience. He wants
them to feel as though they cannot hide. It is also the voice associated

95
with giving direction and/or commands making his tone more threatening
and/or intimidating and in turn this intensifies the anxiety of his audience
as they consider the possibility that hell’s “gaping mouth” may in fact be
waiting for them (80).
Granted, Edwards shows great skill in using language to establish
an ethos and to undermine his audience’s self assuredness, but his most
powerful use of language in this sermon is that which works to ignite the
audience’s fear of a wrathful, merciless God. Edwards’ skills in affecting a
fear in his audience is evident when he employs a connotatively loaded
parallel structure in the sermon’s fourth paragraph (i.e. “the devil is
waiting for them, hell is gaping for them, the flames gather and flash about
them”) which compels the audience to pay attention to the imagery
contained within the structures and accentuates the fear-provoking aspect
of the imagery (79), an imagery suggesting they will be swallowed by the
maw of hell if they do not convert. While Edwards often uses language in
this sermon to induce a fear and motivate his audience to amend their
ways, he also wants his audience to feel that the Puritan faith will offer his
audience protection, and this is most evident when Edwards emphasizes
for his audience in paragraph four that they would not be granted a
“forbearance” by God (80). The use of this word choice makes the
audience associate the situation they are in with idea that they are a part
of a dire legal proceeding in which they may not be granted leniency by an
“incensed God” (80); this fear inducing language encourages the audience
to enter into a binding contract with the Puritan church, because then they
would be assured protection from the “arbitrary will” of God (80).
Naturally, Edwards wants his audience to know there is a way out their
predicament, but more importantly he wants to make sure his audience is
consumed with fear. This is evident in much of the imagery Edwards
employs throughout the sermon. One such image is the insect imagery in
paragraph ten of his sermon where Edwards suggests his audience is like a
spider, “a loathsome insect,” in the hand of God which God tenuously holds
over the fires of his wrath (81). Edwards hopes to again intensify the fears
of his audience as he paints a lurid picture of God’s power over their frail
existence, and thus induce them to contract themselves to the protection
of the Puritan faith.

96
 Though much of the fear inducing language of his sermon works
with simple imagery and metaphor, the conclusion of the sermon also
reminds the audience of the power of God’s wrath with an interesting
Biblical allusion to the destruction of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah for
being dens of iniquity (81). It is interesting, because one would assume
Edwards, a Puritan minister, would allude frequently to the Bible, but he
seems to realize his target audience (“natural men” who, in all probability,
did not often and/or could not read the Bible) would have lost interest in
too many indirect references to something of which they knew little.
Though many of the “natural men” may have known of this story through
conversations and interactions they may have had with the more practiced
Puritans of the congregation, Edwards makes a wise decision on how to
best achieve his purpose by not using too many allusions to the obscurities
of the Bible. The use of this allusion was also a prudent choice, because it
is in line with what has dominated Edwards’ sermon; Edwards wants to
make sure his language in the sermon motivates his audience to convert
because of their fear of a wrathful God, a God that will punish them in the
same way he laid low Sodom and Gomorrah.
Overall, Edwards seems to effectively establish himself as ally
before he undermines his audience’s self confidence and induces a fear of a
wrathful God to motivate them to convert to the Puritan faith. And just in
case his audience wasn’t already thoroughly motivated, Edwards adds a
little bandwagon appeal at the end of his sermon when he emphasizes that
“many are flocking to him [God],” “many are daily coming from the east,
west, north, and south,” and that “many that were very lately in the same
miserable condition that” his audience is in “are now in a happy state, with
their hearts filled with love to him who has loved them, and washed them
from their sins in his own blood” (81). Here Edwards wants to make sure
his audience feels as though they are missing out on an opportunity
everyone else enjoys. His use of language here at the end of his sermon is
somewhat indicative of how much of the language of this sermon is
masterfully shrewd in how it plays on its audience’s fears – in this case, a
fear of being ostracized.
Work Cited

Edwards, Jonathon. “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.” Elements of Literature: Fifth

Course. Austin, Texas: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 2000: 79-81.

97
Activity 8 – Constructing the thesis statement and topic sentences for an essay
responding to one of the Unit 2 Assessment 2 writing prompts

Directions:
1. After deciding which one of the four Unit 2 Assessment 2 writing prompts you will
respond to, read the passage carefully noting whether or not the writer/speaker uses
language to create an ethos, logos and/or pathos.

2. Then write on the lines below a possible thesis statement in which you state the
writer’s/speaker’s larger sense of purpose, the specified audience, and the strategies
or the appeals (ethos, logos, and/or pathos) he employs in the passage to achieve
his purpose. Note that if you do determine that the writer/speaker has created ethos
or pathos in the writing, make sure to specify the ethos or pathos in the thesis; for
example, do not simply say the writing creates a pathos. Remember the thesis
statement of the essay that analyzed “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”…

The language Edwards employs in this sermon not only establishes

him as advocate and ally of the self assured, unconverted members or
“natural men” of the congregation, it more importantly undermines
their confidence and ultimately ignites their fear of a wrathful,
omnipotent being in order to induce them to convert.

This thesis statement points to specific emotional appeals (pathos elements) when it
states, “he also undermines their confidence and ultimately ignites their fear...”

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3. After you’ve written a thesis statement for the essay you will write to respond to the
writing prompt you’ve chosen, write on the lines below at least two of the body
paragraph topic sentences which should extend from a specific aspect of the above
thesis statement you just wrote. For example, remember two of the body paragraph
topic sentences from the essay that analyzed “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry
God”…

The initial paragraphs of Edwards’ sermon work to establish an ethos

or a sense that he wants his audience to perceive him as their
advocate.

and…

98
 After establishing himself as a firewall between his audience and their
wrathful God, Edwards continues to work to achieve his purpose by
undermining or taking away his audience’s confidence before
effectively playing upon their fears of a wrathful God.
Note how the first body paragraph topic sentence extends from the ethos aspect of
the thesis, and then how the second body paragraph topic sentence extends from a
specific pathos element (“undermines their confidence”) in the thesis statement.

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4. After you finish writing the topic sentences which extend from the thesis statement
you just wrote, meet with a partner or small group, exchange your thesis statements
and topic sentences, then read the each other’s sentences and offer feedback on how
to improve the sentences and/or celebrate what the writer has done well. Try to offer
some suggestions on how to improve the sentences, even if it takes the form of
cleaning up the mechanics of the writing or suggesting a different wording or
phrasing of a sentence or two. Write your suggestions next to the sentences the
writer wrote on this activity page, then return it to the writer or have another group
member read and offer suggestions.

5. After you’ve exchanged sentences and offered suggestions on how to improve them,
and returned this activity sheet to the writer, choose which group member’s thesis
statement and topic sentences are the best in your group and be ready to share
them with the class.

Homework:
Carefully reread the passage of the prompt you’ve chosen and analyze the language the
writer/speaker uses to achieve his /her purpose. Annotate your passage in the margins.

99
Student Page Activity 9 – Review the use of weaving structures in style analysis

Directions:
1. Review your homework (the annotations you wrote in the margins as you analyzed
the passage of the Unit 2 Assessment 2 writing prompt you chose), then pick one or
two concrete details to practice writing weaving structures (remember doing this in
Unit 1? Continue to use weaving structures in your analysis essays; it demonstrates
sophisticated sentence fluency).

2. On the lines below incorporate the concrete detail(s) into weaving structures where
you subordinate a concrete detail to some commentary/analysis. Your
commentary/analysis might take the form of stating how the detail creates an ethos,
logos, and/or pathos.

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Remember that the subordinate clause part of your weaving structures is always introduced
with a subordinating conjunction, like one of these:

after before rather than when

although even though since whenever
as if though whether
because in order that until while

Also remember to continue to do your best to avoid using “dead” verbs, especially in your
independent clause commentary. “Dead” verbs are any of the forms of be, like am, is, are,
etc., and others like shows, demonstrates. Instead try using some of the following verbs
when writing your independent clause commentary; here’s a list of some that may help you
describe the specific effect of a language feature:

accentuate alert allude amend

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amplify demonize hint provide
argue differ ignite reduce
assert diminish illuminates refute
assure dissipate imply reveal
balance distinguish infer shift
belittle elicit interpret signal
censure establish intimidate speculate
cite exaggerate introduce strengthen
contrast exaggerate marshal suggest
convince explain negate support
counterbalance explore objectify undermine
crescendo expose offer understate
defend extend ornament unmasks
define focus pose unnerve

3. After you finish writing weaving structure(s), meet with a partner or small group,
exchange your weaving structures, then read the each other’s sentence(s) and offer
feedback on how to improve the sentences and/or celebrate what the writer has
done well. Try to offer some suggestions on how to improve the sentences, even if it
takes the form of cleaning up the mechanics of the writing or suggesting a different
wording or phrasing of a sentence or two. Write your suggestions next to the
sentences the writer wrote on this activity page, then return it to the writer or have
another group member read and offer suggestions.

4. After you’ve exchanged sentences and offered suggestions on how to improve them,
and returned this activity sheet to the writer, choose which group member’s weaving
structure is/are the best in your group and be ready to share them with the class.

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Student Page Activity 10 – Construct a Closing ¶ Which Avoids Simple Summary

Directions: Read through the following options for constructing a closing paragraph, and
then complete the closing paragraph assignment which follows this page.

Option 1: Closure Paragraph Showing How One Piece of Language Near the End of
the Rhetoric Is Indicative or Microcosm of a Larger Strategy of the Rhetoric – this
type of concluding paragraph still does analysis but does it to assert that there is a specific aspect of
language at or near the end of the rhetoric that is indicative of a larger, significant language strategy
that has dominated much of the rhetoric; for example, in the following closure paragraph from the
analysis model, the writer asserts that there is a specific language feature which is indicative of how
much of Edwards language in the sermon is about making the audience fearful.
Overall, Edwards employs just the right language to create an effective ethos, undermine
the audience’s self-confidence, and induce a fear of a wrathful God to motivate them to convert to
the Puritan faith. And just in case his audience wasn’t already thoroughly motivated, Edwards
adds a little bandwagon appeal at the end of his sermon when he emphasizes that “many are
flocking to him [God],” “many are daily coming from the east, west, north, and south,” and that
“many that were very lately in the same miserable condition that” his audience is in “are now in a
happy state, with their hearts filled with love to him who has loved them, and washed them from
their sins in his own blood” (81). Here Edwards wants to make sure his audience feels as though
they are missing out on an opportunity everyone else enjoys. His use of language here at the end
of his sermon is somewhat indicative of how much of the language of this sermon is masterfully
shrewd in how it plays on its audience’s fears – in this case, a fear of being ostracized.

Option 2: Closure Paragraph Analyzing the Overall Logos of the Rhetoric – this type
of concluding paragraph summarizes the larger sense of logos in the speech and looks at how the
other strategies (like the specific forms of ethos and pathos) work as premises to lead the audience to
an ultimate conclusion.
Ultimately, the use of the Sodom and Gomorrah allusion is employed as some of that
finalizing language meant to coerce his audience into a conclusive sense of fear, an unavoidable
sense of dread that motivates his once self-assured audience to conclude they must now aligned
and contract themselves with the church. It is an unavoidable conclusion first premised by how he
employs language to establish himself as a mediating firewall between them and their wrathful
God, thus starting his overall syllogism with a sense that he and his audience are of a common
ground. From the common ground established by this premising, Edwards can then chip away at
their self-assuredness, making them feel as though their “scheme” is not as well founded as they
thought, and, in this moment of self-doubt, he then finishes them off with that fear inducing
language meant to make them want the security that the church affords.

Option 3: Closure Paragraph Assessing the Overall Effectiveness of the Rhetoric –

this type of concluding paragraph speculates on and assesses the overall effectiveness of the varied
language strategies (i.e. logos and the specific forms of ethos and pathos) on the immediate audience.
While the use of the Sodom and Gomorrah allusion may have been a prudent choice for an
audience that was more likely to be affected by a good concrete piece of hellfire and brimstone
imagery, it, along with other aspects of Edwards’ rhetoric, may not have been as effective as he
would have liked. Admittedly, the language he employs to first establish himself as a mediating
firewall between his audience and their wrathful God is a well-intentioned strategy, but the
audience would probably still tend to see him more as a representative of that wrathful
omnipotent rather than a friend or ally serving their interests. Similarly, his attempt to ignite his
audience’s fear of a wrathful God is also well-intentioned, but, in all probability, it also seems that
it would have fallen short of its goal. Conversely, the language employed to plant the seeds of
self-doubt seems like it would have been the most effective part of his rhetoric, because it seems
natural for people to question themselves and their plans; this strategy is perhaps most effective,
because it works with what is already there in the audience. The rhetoric of Edwards’ sermon
would have also been more effective if he had focused more on the fear of being ostracized that is
a part of the final paragraphs of his sermon; in that time and place, people depended on their
neighbors, and if Edwards had reminded them of that, they would have been more likely to
contract themselves with the church.

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Activity 10 Assignment:
On the lines below, write a closing paragraph for your analysis essay responding to one of the three
analysis prompts and demonstrate the use of one of the above closure paragraph ideas.

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Student Page Activity 11 – Unit 2 Assessment 2 Draft #1 Peer Edit
Directions:
1. Before you begin peer editing today, your teacher will distribute the Writing Focus/Ideas
and Organization segments of the rubric that will be used to score the final draft of the
essay you will write in response to Assessment 3.

2. After your teacher distributes the rubric, carefully read the “Distinguished (9-10)”
column of the Writing Focus/Ideas category, and be ready to discuss what makes for a
9-10 score in the Writing Focus/Ideas category.

3. After discussing as a class what makes for a 9-10 score in the Writing Focus/Ideas
category, carefully read the “Distinguished (9-10)” column of the Organization category,
and be ready to discuss what makes for a 9-10 score in the Organization category.

4. After discussing as a class what makes for a 9-10 score in the Organization category,
staple these segments of the rubric to your 1st draft of the essay respond to the
Assessment 3 prompt.

5. Then while your teacher circulates to check whether or not you’ve completed your first
draft, write brief notes in the margins of your essay to your peer editor about specific
Writing Focus/Ideas or Organization elements you want help with or advice on as your
peer editor reads and comments on these two areas of your essay; make sure you point
to a specific Writing Focus/Ideas or Organization element of your writing when asking for
help from your editor (e.g. Writing Focus/Ideas element: you’re not sure if a concrete
detail is appropriate or clearly supportive of a topic sentence or thesis statement).

6. After your teacher checks that you’ve completed your draft and you’ve finished writing
marginal notes to your editor, you will begin to peer edit another student’s essay.

7. First, put down your pen or pencil and carefully read through the other student’s essay
from beginning to end, without stopping to write anything down.

8. Second, review each of the student’s marginal notes to you (the peer editor) and do
your best to address them; offer any advice you believe will help them. Please write
your advice on the draft next to the note; do not go to the person and simply tell
him/her this it what he/she should do to fix the problem – this distracts him/her from
his/her job as a peer editor, and, more importantly, he/she will probably not remember
anything you told him/her about how to fix the problem.

9. Third, address any other additional Writing Focus/Ideas and/or Organization problems
you see in their essay; write notes to the writer in the margins and make sure you
underline or highlight the problem, even draw an arrow to it if need be.

10. Fourth, write a marginal note or two about what the writer did well in the areas of
Writing Focus/Ideas and/or Organization. Celebrate each other’s success.

11. Fifth, based on what you’ve seen in the essay in terms of its ability to achieve the 9-10
requirements of the Writing Focus/Ideas and Organization, give the essay scores for
each of these categories, then return this essay and its scoring rubric to the writer.

12. After your peer editor has returned your essay and its scoring rubric, carefully read the
advice your peer editor has given you, revise and rewrite aspects of your essay and print
out another clean draft of it (typed, double spaced – include the Work/Works Cited
page) ready for peer editing the next class day.

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Student Page Activity 12 – Unit 2 Assessment 2 Draft #2 Peer Edit
Directions:
1. Before you begin peer editing today, your teacher will distribute the Effective Use of
Language and Conventions segments of the rubric that will be used to score the final
draft of the essay you will write in response to Assessment 3.

2. After your teacher distributes the rubric, carefully read the “Distinguished (9-10)”
column of the Effective Use of Language category, and be ready to discuss what makes
for a 9-10 score in the Effective Use of Language category.

3. After discussing as a class what makes for a 9-10 score in the Effective Use of Language
category, carefully read the “Distinguished (9-10)” column of the Conventions category,
and be ready to discuss what makes for a 9-10 score in the Conventions category.

4. After discussing as a class what makes for a 9-10 score in the Conventions category,
staple these segments of the rubric to your 1st draft of the essay respond to the
Assessment 3 prompt.

5. Then while your teacher circulates to check whether or not you’ve completed your first
draft, write brief notes in the margins of your essay to your peer editor about specific
Effective Use of Language and/or Conventions elements you want help with or advice on
as your peer editor reads and comments on these two areas of your essay; make sure
you point to a specific Effective Use of Language and/or Conventions element of your
writing when asking for help from your editor (e.g. Conventions element: you’re not
sure if you correctly documented a source on the Works Cited page).

6. After your teacher checks that you’ve completed your draft and you’ve finished writing
marginal notes to your editor, you will begin to peer edit another student’s essay.

7. First, put down your pen or pencil and carefully read through the other student’s essay
from beginning to end, without stopping to write anything down.

8. Second, review each of the student’s marginal notes to you (the peer editor) and do
your best to address them; offer any advice you believe will help them. Please write
your advice on the draft next to the note; do not go to the person and simply tell
him/her this it what he/she should do to fix the problem – this distracts him/her from
his/her job as a peer editor, and, more importantly, he/she will probably not remember
anything you told him/her about how to fix the problem.

9. Third, address any other additional Effective Use of Language and/or Conventions
problems you see in their essay; write notes to the writer in the margins and make sure
you underline or highlight the problem, even draw an arrow to it if need be.

10. Fourth, write a marginal note or two about what the writer did well in the areas of
Effective Use of Language and/or Conventions. Celebrate each other’s success.

11. Fifth, based on what you’ve seen in the essay in terms of its ability to achieve the 9-10
requirements of the Effective Use of Language and Conventions, give the essay scores
for each of these categories, then return this essay and its scoring rubric to the writer.

12. After your peer editor has returned your essay and its scoring rubric, carefully read the
advice your peer editor has given you, revise and rewrite aspects of your essay and print
out a clean final draft of it (typed, double spaced – include the Work/Works Cited page)
ready to turn in on the teacher’s assigned due date.

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