TV Broadcasting System and

Standards, RF System , and NTSC

Color TV Broadcasting
Presenter: Group III Date of Report: June 30, 2020
Subject & Code: Elec III (12062) Date of Forum: July 3, 2020
Professor: Engr. Ma. Angele Estella
 OBJECTIVES:
▪ Understand the TV Broadcasting Understand the concept of
System and Standards RF System

Differentiate the NSTC

Color of TV Broadcasting
 DIFINITION OF TERMS:

▪ Iconoscope Television
– Was the first practical video camera tube to be used in early television
cameras.
▪ Mechanical Television
– Mechanical scan television is a television system that relies on
a mechanical scanning device, such as a rotating disk with holes in it or a
rotating mirror, to scan the scene and generate the video signal, and a
similar mechanical device at the receiver to display the picture.
▪ Digital Television
– Is the transmission of television audiovisual signals using digital encoding,
in contrast to the earlier analog television technology which used analog
signals.
 DIFINITION OF TERMS

▪ Satellite
– A satellite is an object that has been intentionally placed into orbit. These objects are
called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earth's Moon.

▪ Internet Protocol
– Is the principal communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for relaying
datagrams across network boundaries. Its routing function enables internetworking, and
essentially establishes the Internet.

▪ Radio-frequency
– Is the oscillation rate of an alternating electric current or voltage or of a magnetic, electric
or electromagnetic field or mechanical system in the frequency range from around 20 kHz
to around 300 GHz.
 TV Broadcasting
System and Standards
What is Television?

The electronic delivery of moving images

and sound from a source to a receiver. By
extending the senses of vision and hearing
beyond the limits of physical distance,
television has had a considerable influence
on society.
HISTORY OF TELEVISION

Televisions can be found in billions of homes around the

world. But 100 years ago, nobody even knew what a
television was. In fact, as late as 1947, only a few thousand
Americans owned televisions. How did such a
groundbreaking technology turn from a niche invention to a
living room mainstay?
Today, we’re explaining the complete history of the television
– including where it could be going in the future.
Mechanical Televisions in
the 1800s and Early 1900s

▪ These early televisions started appearing in the early 1800s.

They involved mechanically scanning images then transmitting
those images onto a screen.
▪ One of the first mechanical televisions used a rotating disk with
holes arranged in a spiral pattern.
– This device was created independently by two inventors:
Scottish inventor John Logie Baird and American inventor Charles
Francis Jenkins. Both devices were invented in the early 1920s.
Mechanical Televisions in
the 1800s and Early 1900s

▪ German inventor Paul Gottlieb Nipkow

– Developed the first mechanical television.
▪ Electric Telescope
– That device sent images through wires using a rotating metal disk.
– he device had 18 lines of resolution.
▪ In 1907, two inventors:
Russian Boris Rosing and English A.A. Campbell-Swinton
- combined a cathode ray tube with a mechanical scanning system to create a
totally new television system.
 Mechanical Televisions

▪ (The word television itself had been coined by a Frenchman, Constantin Perskyi, at the
1900 Paris Exhibition.)
 The First Electronic Television was
Invented in 1927

▪ The world’s first electronic television was created by a 21 year old

inventor named Philo Taylor Farnsworth.
– That inventor lived in a house without electricity until he was age 14. Starting in
high school, he began to think of a system that could capture moving images,
transform those images into code, then move those images along radio waves to
different devices.
▪ Between 1926 and 1931
– mechanical television inventors continued to tweak and test their creations.
However, they were all doomed to be obsolete in comparison to modern
electrical televisions:
▪ by 1934, all TVs had been converted into the electronic system.
 Iconoscope television camera tube

▪ Conceived in 1923 by V.K. Zworykin, the

iconoscope was used in the Radio
Corporation of America's first public
television broadcasts in 1939. The scene
to be televised was focused on a light-
sensitive mosaic of tiny globules of
treated silver, which assumed an electric
charge proportional to the strength of
the illumination. A narrow scanning
beam, shot from an electron gun and
traced across the mosaic by magnetic
deflection coils, caused a succession of
voltages to pass to a signal plate. The
picture signal then passed to an
amplifier for transmission to a television
receiver.
How Did Early Televisions Work?

▪ The two types of televisions listed above,

mechanical and electronic, worked in vastly
different ways. We’ve hinted at how these TVs
worked above, but we’ll go into a more
detailed description in this section.
 Colour Television

▪ Colour television was by no means a new idea. In the late 19th century
a Russian scientist by the name of A.A. Polumordvinov devised a
system of spinning Nipkow disks and concentric cylinders with slits
covered by red, green, and blue filters. But he was far ahead of
the technology of the day; even the most basic black-and-white
television was decades away.
▪ In 1928, Baird gave demonstrations in London of a colour system using
a Nipkow disk with three spirals of 30 apertures, one spiral for each
primary colour in sequence.
▪ In 1952 the National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) was
reformed, this time with the purpose of creating an “industry color
system.”
Production line for the RCA CT-100 television

Production line for the CT-100,

the Radio Corporation of
America's first commercial
colour television, in
Bloomington, Indiana, 1954
.David Sarnoff Library,
Princeton, New Jersey
 Colour television picture tube

▪ At right are the electron guns, which generate beams corresponding to the values of red, green, and blue light in the
televised image. At left is the aperture grille, through which the beams are focused on the phosphor coating of the
screen, forming tiny spots of red, green, and blue that appear to the eye as a single colour. The beam is directed line by
line across and down the screen by deflection coils at the neck of the picture tube.
Digital Television

▪ Digital television technology emerged to public

view in the 1990s. In the United States professional
action was spurred by a demonstration in 1987 of a
new analog high-definition television (HDTV)
system by NHK, Japan’s public television network.
▪ In late 1996 the FCC approved standards proposed
by the Advanced Television Systems Committee
(ATSC) for all digital television, both high-definition
and standard-definition, in the United States.
Digital Television simplified block diagram
Principles Of Television Systems

The television picture

▪ Human perception of motion
– A television system involves equipment located at the
source of production, equipment located in the home of
the viewer, and equipment used to convey the television
signal from the producer to the viewer.
 Principles Of Television Systems

Image analysis
▪ Flicker
– The first requirement to be met in image analysis is that the
reproduced picture shall not flicker, since flicker induces severe visual
fatigue.
– Flicker becomes more evident as the brightness of the picture
increases.
– If flicker is to be unobjectionable at brightness suitable for home
viewing during daylight as well as evening hours, the successive
illuminations of the picture screen should occur no fewer than 50 times
per second.
 Principles Of Television Systems

Image analysis
▪ Resolution
– The second aspect of performance to be met in a
television system is the detailed structure of the image.
– A printed engraving may possess several million
halftone dots per square foot of area.
– However, engraving reproductions are intended for
minute inspection, and so the dot structure must not be
apparent to the unaided eye even at close range.
 Principles Of Television Systems

Image analysis
▪ Picture shape
– picture tube aspect ratios for SDTV and
HDTVSince some of the picture
information flows off the top, sides, and
bottom of a television screen, the safe
action area (A) is actually 90 percent of the
transmitted picture. The safe title area (B) is
the 80 percent of the transmitted picture
that is assumed not to be hidden behind the
decorative mask around the receiver tube.
 Principles Of Television Systems

▪ Scanning
– The fourth determination in image analysis is the path over
which the image structure is explored at the camera and
reconstituted on the receiver screen.
– In standard television, the pattern is a series of parallel straight
lines, each progressing from left to right, the lines following in
sequence from top to bottom of the picture frame.
– The exploration of the image structure proceeds at a constant
speed along each line, since this provides uniform loading of the
transmission channel under the demands of a given structural
detail, no matter where in the frame the detail lies.
 Principles Of Television Systems

Scanning
▪ The scanning pattern (Interlaced
lines)
– The geometry of the standard scanning
pattern as displayed on a standard
television screen is shown in the figure.
– It consists of two sets of lines.
▪ One set is scanned first, and the lines are
so laid down that an equal empty space is
maintained between lines.
▪ The second set is laid down after the first
and is so positioned that its lines fall
precisely in the empty spaces of the first
set.
 Principles Of Television Systems
Scanning
▪ Deflection signals
– The scanning spot is made to follow the
interlaced paths described above by being
subjected to two repetitive motions
simultaneously (see the figure).
– One is a horizontally directed back-and-forth
motion in which the spot is moved at constant
speed from left to right and then returned as
rapidly as possible, while extinguished and
inactive, from right to left.
– At the same time a vertical motion is imparted
to the spot, moving it at a comparatively slow
rate from the top to the bottom of the frame.
– wave forms in sequential scanning Wave
forms for horizontal and vertical deflection of
the scanning spot in sequential scanning.
 Principles Of Television Systems

Scanning
▪ Synchronization signals
– The return of the scanning spot from right to left and from bottom to
top of the frame, during which it is inactive, consumes time that
cannot be devoted to transmitting picture information.
– This time is used to transmit synchronizing control signals that keep
the scanning process at the receiver in step with that at the
transmitter.
– The amount of time lost during retracing of the spot proportionately
reduces the actual number of picture elements that can be
reproduced.
 Principles Of Television Systems

Picture signal
▪ Wave form
– The translation of the televised scene into its
electrical counterpart results in a sequence of
electrical waves known as the television picture
signal.
– This is represented graphically in the diagram as a
wave form, in which the range of electrical values
(voltage or current) is plotted vertically and time
is plotted horizontally.

wave form for black-and-white TVWave form of

the monochrome (black-and-white) television
picture signal.
 Principles Of Television Systems

Picture signal
▪ Wave form
composite TV signal Luminance
information is obtained as the image of
the scene to be televised is scanned
horizontally. Blanking pulses are
transmitted to extinguish the scanning
spot on the receiver screen at the end of
each scan line. The receiver is precisely
aligned with the transmitter by a series
of short synchronization pulses. These
three signals are added together to
produce the composite video signal,
which then amplitude modulates a radio-
frequency carrier wave for transmission.
 Principles Of Television Systems

Picture signal
▪ Wave form
wave form of vertical synchronization signal Transmitted at the end of each field, a series of
pulses returns the scanning spot to the top of the television screen. The time required to return
the inactive spot is known as the vertical blanking interval.
Principles Of Television Systems

Picture signal
▪ Distortion and interference
– The signal wave form that makes up a television
picture signal embodies all the picture information
to be transmitted from camera to receiver screen
as well as the synchronizing information required
to keep the receiver and transmitter scanning
operations in exact step with each other.
 Principles Of Television Systems

Picture signal
▪ Bandwidth requirements
– The quality and quantity of television service are limited
fundamentally by the rate at which it is feasible to transmit the
picture information over the television channel.
– If, as is stated above, the televised image is dissected, within a
few hundredths of a second, into approximately 200,000 pixels,
then the electrical impulses corresponding to the pixels must
pass through the channel at a rate of several million per second.
 Compatible Colour Television
▪ Compatible colour television
represents electronic technology at
its pinnacle of achievement, carefully
balancing the needs of human
perception with the need for
technological efficiency.
▪ The transmission of colour images
requires that extra information be
added to the basic monochrome
television signal, described above. At
the same time, this more complex
colour signal must be “compatible”
with black-and-white television, so that
all sets can pick up and display the
same transmission.
 Basic principles of compatible colour:
The NTSC system

The technique of compatible colour television

utilizes two transmissions. One of these carries
information about the brightness, or luminance,
of the televised scene, and the other carries the
colour, or chrominance, information.
Colour wheel in which hue changes with location
around the circle and saturation changes with
distance from the centre or circumference. Hue
and saturation, perceived together, make up the
chrominance value of an image.
 Compatible colour television

▪ wave form of colour TV

signal The chrominance
signal, which carries the hue
and saturation information, is
added to the luminance
signal, which carries the
brightness information.
Detection of the hue
information by the television
receiver is aided by the
addition of a short colour
burst to the back porch of the
blanking pulse.
 Compatible colour television

Spectrum allocations
for television
channels in the NTSC,
PAL, and SECAM
systems.
Digital television

Can be accessed through

different access technologies: ground
waves (DTTV), cable, satellite, ADSL
and mobile devices.
 Television transmission and reception

▪ Transmission and reception involve the components of a television system that generate, transmit, and utilize the television
signal wave form (as shown in the block diagram).

▪ The scene to be televised is focused by a lens on an image sensor located within the camera.

▪ This produces the picture signal, and the synchronization and blanking pulses are then added, establishing the complete
composite video wave form.

▪ The composite video signal and the sound signal are then imposed on a carrier wave of a specific allocated frequency and
transmitted over the air or over a cable network.
 Television transmission and reception

Transmission
▪ Generating the colour picture signal
– the colour television signal actually consists of two components, luminance (or brilliance) and
chrominance; and chrominance itself has two aspects, hue (colour) and saturation (intensity of
colour).
– The television camera does not produce these values directly; rather, it produces three picture
signals that represent the amounts of the three primary colours (blue, green, and red) present at
each point in the image pattern.
– From these three primary-colour signals the luminance and chrominance components are derived
by manipulation in electronic circuits.
 Television transmission and reception

Transmission
▪ The carrier signal
– he picture signal generated as described above can be conveyed over
short distances by wire or cable in unaltered form, but for broadcast
over the air or transmission over cable networks it must be shifted to
appropriately higher frequency channels. Such frequency shifting is
accomplished in the transmitter, which essentially performs two
functions:
▪ (1) generation of very high frequency (VHF) or ultrahigh frequency (UHF) carrier
currents for picture and sound,
▪ (2) modulation of those carrier currents by imposing the television signal onto
the high-frequency wave.
 Television transmission and reception

Transmission
▪ The sound signal
– The sound program accompanying a television picture signal is transmitted by equipment similar to
that used for frequency-modulated (FM) radio broadcasting. In the NTSC system, the carrier
frequency for this sound channel is spaced 4.5 megahertz above the picture carrier and is separated
from the picture carrier in the television receiver by appropriate circuitry.
– The sound has a maximum frequency of 15 kilohertz (15,000 cycles per second), thereby assuring
high fidelity. Stereophonic sound is transmitted through the use of a subcarrier located at twice the
horizontal sweep frequency of 15,734 hertz.
– The stereo information, encoded as the difference between the left and right audio channel,
amplitude modulates the stereo subcarrier, which is suppressed if there is no stereo difference
information.
– The base sound signal is transmitted as the sum of the left and right audio channels and hence is
compatible with nonstereo receivers.
 Television transmission and reception

Transmission
▪ The sound signal

TV sound components
Components of television sound transmission and
reception.
 Television transmission and reception
Transmission
▪ The television channel
– When the band of frequencies in the picture signal is imposed on the high-frequency broadcast
carrier current in the modulator of the transmitter, two bands of frequencies are produced above
and below the carrier frequency.
– These are known as the upper and lower side bands, respectively. The side bands are identical in
frequency content; that is, both carry the complete picture signal information.
– One of the side bands is therefore superfluous and, if transmitted, would wastefully consume
space in the broadcast spectrum.
– Therefore, the major portion of one of the side bands (that occupying frequencies below the
carrier) is removed by a wave filter, and the other side band (occupying frequencies above the
carrier) is transmitted in full. Complete removal of the superfluous side band is possible, but this
would complicate receiver design; hence, a vestige of the unwanted side band is retained to serve
the overall economy of the system.
 Television transmission and reception

Transmission
▪ Broadcast television
– After the signal wave form and carrier current are combined in the modulator, the
modulated carrier current is amplified (typically to 10,000 watts or more) and
passed to the transmitter antenna, which is designed to direct radio waves along
the surface of the Earth and to minimize radiation toward the sky.
– The antenna must be placed to stand as high and in as exposed a location as
possible, since the radio waves tend to be intercepted by solid objects that stand in
their path, including the Earth’s surface at the horizon.
– Reception beyond the horizon is possible, but the signal at such distances becomes
rapidly weaker as it passes to the limit of the service area.
Television transmission and reception

Transmission
▪ Cable Television
– Cable television actually began as a service for people living far from the large
cities where most broadcasting took place.
– The solution for rural consumers was a single master antenna located high on a
hill to pick up the faint signals, which would then be amplified and retransmitted
over coaxial cables to the homes of viewers.
– Thus community antenna television (CATV) was invented, with the earliest
system being installed in 1948. Later, CATV systems were installed in large cities
to provide an improved picture by avoiding ghosts and other forms of noise
and distortion.
 Television transmission and reception

Transmission
▪ Direct broadcast satellite television
– Communications satellites located in geostationary orbit about the Earth are used
to send television signals directly to the homes of viewers—a form of transmission
called direct broadcast satellite (DBS) television.
– Transmission occurs in the Ku band, located around 12 gigahertz (12 billion cycles
per second) in the radio frequency spectrum. At these high frequencies, the
receiving antenna is a small dish only 46 cm (18 inches) in diameter.
– More than 100 programs are available over a single DBS service. Since competing
services are not compatible, separate equipment is needed for each
– . Also, the receiving antenna must be carefully aimed at the appropriate satellite.
 Television transmission and reception

Transmission
▪ Teletext
– teletext is routine throughout Europe. Teletext uses the vertical blanking interval
(see the section The picture signal: Wave form) to send text and simple graphic
information for display on the picture screen.
– The information is organized into pages that are sent repetitively, in a round-robin
fashion; a few hundred pages can be sent in about one minute.
– The page selected by the viewer is recognized by electronic circuitry in the
television receiver and then decoded for display.
– The information content is mostly of a timely, general interest, such as weather,
news, sports, and television schedules. Graphics are formed from simple mosaics.
 Reception
▪ The television receiver the sound and picture carrier waves are picked up by the receiving
antenna, producing currents that are identical in form to those flowing in the transmitter
antenna but much weaker.
▪ These currents are conducted from the antenna to the receiver by a lead-in transmission line,
typically a 12-mm (one-half-inch) ribbon of plastic in which are embedded two
parallel copper wires.
▪ This form of transmission line is capable of passing the carrier currents to the receiver,
without relative discrimination between frequencies, on all the channels to which the receiver
may be tuned.
▪ Television signals also are delivered to the receiver over coaxial cable from a cable service
provider or from a videocassette recorder. In addition, some television receivers have an input
that bypasses the tuner and detector so that an unmodulated video signal can be viewed
directly, in effect making the television receiver into a video display terminal.
 Reception

▪ Basic receiver circuits

– he input terminals of the receiver, the picture and sound signals are at their weakest,
so particular care must be taken to control noise at this point.
– The first circuit in the receiver is a radio-frequency amplifier, particularly designed
for low-noise amplification.
– The channel-switching mechanism (tuner) of the receiver connects this amplifier to
one of several individual circuits, each circuit tuned to its respective channel.
– The amplifier magnifies the voltages of the incoming picture and sound carriers and
their side bands in the desired channel by about 10 times, and it discriminates by a
like amount against the transmissions of stations on other channels.
 Reception
▪ Controls
– Receivers are commonly provided with manual controls for adjustment of the picture by the viewer.
▪ These controls are:
– (1) the channel switch, which connects the required circuits to the radio-frequency amplifier and
superheterodyne mixer to amplify and convert the sound and picture carriers of the desired channel;
– (2) a fine-tuning control, which precisely adjusts the superheterodyne mixer so that the response of the tuner
is exactly centred on the channel in use;
– (3) a contrast control, which adjusts the voltage level reached by the picture signal in the video amplifiers,
producing a picture having more or less contrast (greater or less range between the blacks and whites of the
image);
– (4) a brightness control, which adjusts the average amount of current taken by the picture tube from the
high-voltage power supply, thus varying the overall brightness of the picture;
– (5) a horizontal-hold control, which adjusts the horizontal deflection generator so that it conforms exactly to
the control of the horizontal synchronizing impulses;
– (6) a vertical-hold control, which performs the same function for the vertical deflection generator;
– (7) a hue (or “tint”) control, which shifts all the hues in the reproduced image; and
– (8) a saturation (or “colour”) control, which adjusts the magnitudes of the colour-difference signals applied to
the electron guns of the picture tube
 Television cameras and displays

▪ Electron tubes
– The operation of the
camera tube is based on
the photoconductive
properties of certain
materials and on
electron beam scanning.
– These principles can be
illustrated by a
description of the
Vidicon, one of the most
enduring and versatile
camera tubes.
(See the diagram.)
Television cameras and displays

▪ Camera image sensors

– The television camera is a device that employs light-sensitive image sensors to
convert an optical image into a sequence of electrical signals—in other words, to
generate the primary components of the picture signal. The first sensors were
mechanical spinning disks, based on a prototype patented by the German Paul
Nipkow in 1884.
– As the disk rotated, light reflected from the scene passed through a series of
apertures in the disk and entered a photoelectric cell, which translated the
sequence of light values into a corresponding sequence of electric values.
– In this way the entire scene was scanned, one line at a time, and converted into an
electric signal.
 Digital Terrestrial Television (DTTV)

▪ In the case of DTTV, the transmission is made using ground

Hertzian waves, that is to say, those that are broadcast through the
atmosphere with no need of cable or satellite and are received
through conventional UHF antennas.
▪ All systems have a similar digital transmission scheme, based on
the MPEG transport stream standard, with MPEG-2 and H264 video
encoding.
▪ The main differences lie in the way the transport stream becomes a
broadcast signal, in the video format before encoding (or,
alternatively, after decoding), and in the audio format, as well as in
the modulation systems.
Digital Terrestrial Television (DTTV)

▪ There are different

broadcasting
standards in the
world, which are
described in Figure 1.
 Satellite digital television

▪ In Satellite Digital Television the signal is broadcasted to a wide geographic

area through communications satellites, as opposed to terrestrial
television, whose waves do not reach the atmosphere, or cable television,
based on the broadcast through fibre optic networks and coaxial cable.
▪ In the satellite television broadcasting there are two different stretches: the
uplink, through which the information is sent from the broadcasting centre
to the satellite, and the downlink, which broadcasts this information from
the communications satellite towards the area it illuminates in the surface
of the earth. To avoid interference between both links, each of them uses a
different frequency band.
 Satellite digital television

▪ The main advantage of using satellite television systems is how easy it is

to reach big coverage areas.
▪ It also facilitates the signal reception in remote or isolated locations, as
opposed to other systems such as ground-wave or cable television.
▪ Satellite communications are also characterised by introducing
important delays in the transmission of the signal, due to the distance it
must cover.
 Satellite digital television
▪ The technical regulations on satellite broadcasting, DVB-S, are defined
in the European Standard EN 300 421. Since the publication of the first
version of the DVB-S specification, technology has kept developing,
which lead to the publication of a new set of regulations known as
DVB-S2.
▪ Both DVB-S and DVB-S2 use QPSK modulation. The main
advantages of DVB-S2 are a 30% higher efficiency than with DVB-S, a
wider range of applications for both domestic and professional use,
techniques such as encoding adaptation to maximise the value in use
of the satellite resources and backward compatibility towards the
previous generation, DVB-S.
 Satellite digital television

The technical
regulations on
satellite
broadcasting,
DVB-S, are
defined in the
European
Standard END
300 421
Digital cable television
▪ In Digital Cable Television the signal is distributed through cable
networks (fibre optic and coaxial cable).
▪ Other services can be provided over these networks together with
the Digital Television signal, such as land line phone service and
Internet connection.
▪ The standard used in Europe for Digital Cable Television
broadcasting is the DVB-C (Digital Video Broadcasting – Cable).
▪ DVB-C uses a QAM modulation, the signal is strong against noise,
the broadcast is immune to interference and the delays are minimal.
 Internet Protocol Television (IPTV)

▪ In the Internet Protocol Television the signal is distributed

through network protocols to the final user, normally
through high-speed ADSL data connections.
▪ As the main distinguishing factor against the rest of
Digital Television access technologies, it is worth pointing
out the strong interactive component of these types of
services, which are mainly on demand (VoD), that is to
say, the final user can choose the content that wishes to
watch and decide when to do it.
 Mobile TV

▪ Mobile Digital Television is the television broadcasting service with

digital technology whose signal is received in mobile or portable
devices or equipment (mobile phone, laptop, PDA, etc).
In this environment we can consider 2 broadcasting modes:
▪ Unicast.- An exclusive channel is established between the emitter or
base station and the mobile device.
▪ Broadcast.- A broadcasting service where the signal is sent from the
emitter or base station to all the mobile devices, for an unlimited
number of users.
RF System
Introduction

The radio-frequency system, or RF system, supplies

power to the ALS in the form of microwaves.
Microwaves are radio waves with a wavelength
between about one meter and one millimeter, which
are the wavelengths used for radio and television
broadcasts as well as radar and microwave ovens.
Most parts of the RF system supply microwave
radiation with a wavelength of about 0.6 meter
 Electromagnetic Radiation for an
explanation of wavelengths

Do you listen to the radio, watch TV, or use a microwave oven? All these devices make use of
electromagnetic waves. Radio waves, microwaves, visible light, and x rays are all examples of
electromagnetic waves that differ from each other in wavelength.
 Electromagnetic Radiation for an
explanation of wavelengths

Electromagnetic waves are produced by the motion of electrically charged particles.

These waves are also called "electromagnetic radiation" because they radiate from
the electrically charged particles. They travel through empty space as well as through
air and other substances.

• Scientists have observed that electromagnetic radiation has a dual "personality." Besides
acting like waves, particles (called "photons") that have no mass.
 Electromagnetic Radiation for an
explanation of wavelengths
The photons with
the highest energy
correspond to the
shortest
wavelengths. The
full range of
wavelengths ( and
photon energies) is
called the
Electromagnetic
Spectrum.
 How important is the RF system?

▪ Microwave power is used to energize electrons, keeping them whirling

around the ALS storage ring at almost the speed of light. Eventually, the
electrons release this energy as x rays and ultraviolet light. Scientists use
this light, which is called synchrotron radiation, to carry out experiments
at the ALS.
▪ All the energy released as synchrotron radiation originates as RF power.
▪ The basic components of the RF system include:
▪ Klystrons
▪ Waveguides
▪ RF Cavities
 What is a klystron?
A klystron is a very powerful type
of microwave amplifier. Radar
installations and television
broadcast stations use klystrons
to generate their broadcast
signals. The klystrons at the ALS
"broadcast" down special tubes
and cables, called waveguides,
that lead to the linac, booster
synchrotron, and storage ring.
The klystron for the ALS booster
ring is a commercial model like
those used in television
broadcasting. As a TV
transmitter it would broadcast
on channel 18, which
corresponds to a frequency of
roughly 500 MHz.
 Shows how a klystron works
▪ An electron gun produces an intense
flow of electrons into the klystron.

▪ A low-energy microwave
signal intersects this continuous
electron beam, breaking it up into a
pulsed beam consisting of separate
"bunches" of electrons.

▪ The pulsed electron beam passes

through a tuned waveguide, inducing
a powerful high-energy microwave
signal.

▪ High-energy microwave power travels

along the waveguide to the linac,
booster synchrotron, or storage ring,
where it passes its energy to electrons,
accelerating them to relativistic
velocity.
How does the electron beam become pulsed?

▪ In the same way that a radio broadcast signal induces an

electrical current in a portable radio antenna, the low-energy
microwave signal (lets say it's 500 MHz) causes the electrons in
the electron beam to speed up or slow down at the point where
the two intersect. When the microwave is near its crest (peak
power) as it intersects the beam, it makes the electrons in that
part of the beam at that moment speed up, just as a surfer
speeds up when she catches a wave. When the microwave is
near its trough as it meets the beam, the electrons in that part
of the beam at that moment slow down. The result is an
electron beam that is broken into pulses that have the same
frequency as the low-energy microwaves: 500 MHz.
How does the pulsed electron beam induce
high-energy microwave power?

The pulsing electron beam interacts with the

tuned waveguide (a very carefully constructed and
adjusted hollow copper tube) causing it to
resonate like a bell at 500MHz, transmitting
microwave radiation down its entire length, which
extends either to the linac, the RF cavity on the
booster synchrotron, or the RF cavities on the
storage ring.
 What is a waveguide?

▪ A waveguide is a conduit
for efficiently transmitting
electromagnetic radiation.
The coaxial cable used for
cable television, the optical
fiber used in
telecommunications, and
the linac are other
examples of waveguides.
The large box-like
structures in the following
photograph are
waveguides attached to
the top of the storage ring.
 What is an RF cavity?
▪ Radio frequency cavities, or RF cavities, receive
RF energy from a klystron and transfer it to
electrons as they pass through the cavities on
their way around the booster synchrotron and
storage ring. Just as in the klystron, RF radiation
interacts with electrons, adding energy to
increase or maintain their speed.
▪ In the booster ring this energy increases the
speed of the electrons to 99.999996 percent of
the speed of light. In the storage ring two RF
cavities resupply the electrons with the energy
that they lose in emitting synchrotron light--
about 100 MeV for every turn around the
storage ring. Here are two photographs of an
RF cavity during installation at the ALS booster
synchrotron.
 NTSC
BROADCAST
STANDARDS
 History

In 1941 a group of television engineers and government policy

makers established the standards for creating and broadcasting
black-and-white television; these standards are essentially still in
effect today. The National Television Standards Committee
(NTSC) addressed various technical specifications for image
reproduction and reception, ensuring compatibility between
every television camera and TV set across the country and with
those of any other nation that shared the NTSC system: Japan,
Mexico, Canada, and much of South America. In the early 1950s
NTSC changed these standards slightly to accommodate the
addition of color to the television signal.
 History NTSC
▪ The National Television System Committee was established in 1940 by the United States
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to resolve the conflicts that were made between
companies over the introduction of a nationwide analog television system in the United States.
▪ In March 1941, the committee issued a technical standard for black-and-white television that
built upon a 1936 recommendation made by the Radio Manufacturers Association (RMA).
▪ In January 1950, the committee was reconstituted to standardize color television.
▪ The FCC had briefly approved a color television standard in October 1950 which was developed
by CBS.
▪ Legal action by rival RCA kept commercial use of the system off the air until June 1951, and
regular broadcasts only lasted a few months before manufacture of all color television sets was
banned by the Office of Defense Mobilization in October, ostensibly due to the Korean War.
 History NTSC
▪ CBS rescinded its system in March 1953, and the FCC replaced it on December 17, 1953,
with the NTSC color standard, which was cooperatively developed by several companies,
including RCA and Philco.
▪ In December 1953 the FCC unanimously approved what is now called the NTSC color
television standard (later defined as RS-170a).
▪ The first publicly announced network television broadcast of a program using the NTSC
“compatible color” system was an episode of NBC’s Kukla, Fran and Ollie on August 30,
1953
▪ The first color NTSC television camera was the RCA TK-40, used for experimental
broadcasts in 1953
▪ March 1954, was the first commercially available color television camera. Later that year,
the improved TK-41 became the standard camera used throughout much of the 1960s.
About National Television System Committee

NTSC, named after the National Television

System Committee, is the analog television
system that is used in North America, and until
digital conversion was used in most of the
Americas (except Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay,
Uruguay, and French Guiana); Myanmar; South
Korea; Taiwan; Philippines, Japan; and some
Pacific island nations and territories.
The end!