GRAMMAR POINTS and USEFUL ENGLISH

Contenido
GRAMMAR POINTS........................................................................................................................3
1. The difference between MANDATORY and COMPULSORY........................................................3
Mandatory vs Compulsory......................................................................................................3
What does Mandatory mean?....................................................................................................3
What does Compulsory mean?.................................................................................................5
What is the difference between Mandatory and Compulsory?..............................................6
• Meaning:.................................................................................................................................6
• Nature:....................................................................................................................................6
• Reference:..............................................................................................................................6
• Context:..................................................................................................................................7
2. Must...........................................................................................................................................7
3. HELP...........................................................................................................................................7
4. Linking positives and negatives..................................................................................................7
5. Possessive 2 or atributive?.........................................................................................................7
Happy "Veterans' Day," "Veteran's Day," or "Veterans Day"?...................................................8
6. Goal or Purpose?......................................................................................................................10
7. Pattern verbs. To or –ing infinitive...........................................................................................10
8. Think of or think about?...........................................................................................................11
9. First person (voice) in academic writing...................................................................................11
10. Order of Adjectives...............................................................................................................11
11. However and Nevertheless..................................................................................................13
12. Nonetheless and Nevertheless.............................................................................................14
13. People or Persons?...............................................................................................................16
Person, persons or people?....................................................................................................16
14. False or Fake?.......................................................................................................................17
15. Addressing a problem or Tackling?.......................................................................................17
16. Gerund used after “to”.........................................................................................................18
How do I remember the rule: a gerund used after ‘to’ (i.e. when to use -ing form after to)?
.........................................................................................................................................................18
17. Relation or Relationship?.....................................................................................................20
18. HELP.....................................................................................................................................22
Help somebody (to) do..............................................................................................................22
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19. In order to (so as to) … so that (in order that)......................................................................23
In order to.....................................................................................................................................25
So that or in order that?............................................................................................................26
20. Important to or Important for?............................................................................................26
21. Prepositions TO and FOR......................................................................................................27
22. Make an assessment or Do an assessment?.........................................................................27
23. Apostrophe...........................................................................................................................27
Apostrophe.......................................................................................................................................27
Contractions.................................................................................................................................28
Plurals..........................................................................................................................................28
Possessives...................................................................................................................................28
The general rule for forming possessives.....................................................................................29
Exceptions to the general rule......................................................................................................29
Shared or individual possessives..................................................................................................30
Avoid awkward possessives.........................................................................................................30
The apostrophe with other punctuation........................................................................................30
24. Perspective of? Perspective on? Or Perspective at?...........................................................30
25. Neither (uses).......................................................................................................................31
Neither as a determiner............................................................................................................32
Neither … nor.............................................................................................................................32
Not with neither and nor............................................................................................................33
Neither do I, Nor can she..........................................................................................................33
Not … either...............................................................................................................................34
Neither: typical errors................................................................................................................35
26. Either … or…......................................................................................................................35
27. Influence on? Or Influence in?.............................................................................................36
3 Answers...............................................................................................................................36
28. Accordingly or Therefore?....................................................................................................39
Accordingly is a synonym of therefore......................................................................................39
Therefore is a synonym of accordingly.....................................................................................39
In context|conjunctive|lang=en terms the difference between therefore and
accordingly.................................................................................................................................39
As adverbs the difference between therefore and accordingly.............................................39
2
29. DUE TO or BECAUSE OF?......................................................................................................39
30. Provided that........................................................................................................................40
How to use “provided that”.......................................................................................................40
31. Although (usage)........................................................................................................................42
Crafting Better Sentences: Use “Although” Carefully.....................................................................42
31. Make or Do?.........................................................................................................................43
32. On or upon?.........................................................................................................................46
33. The use of the preposition ‘as to’.........................................................................................46
As to ‘as to’….............................................................................................................................46
APPENDIX. USEFUL ENGLISH WORDING...........................................................................................48
-on account of: Because of.......................................................................................................51
- under colour of: Under the pretext of..............................................................................64
GRAMMAR POINTS
1. The difference between MANDATORY and COMPULSORY
http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-mandatory-and-vs-compulsory/
Mandatory vs Compulsory

Mandatory and compulsory are two words that are often confused when it comes to their
meanings and connotations, when strictly speaking, there is some difference between the
two words. The word mandatory is generally used in the sense of ‘binding.’ On the other
hand, the word compulsory is generally used in the sense of ‘essential.’ This is the main
difference between the two words. However, you will see that almost all the dictionaries
put mandatory and compulsory as synonyms though we say they have this difference. In
that case, we have to regard when each term is used. Let us find out more about each
term.
What does Mandatory mean?

Mandatory means binding. It is important to note that anything that is mandatory has the
quality of binding the doer to the work. On the other hand, the word mandatory often refers
to conditions. Let us focus on the sentences given below.
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It is mandatory to fill up all the details in the application form.
It is mandatory to mention the annual income of the parent.
In both the sentences given above, the word mandatory is used in the sense of ‘binding’
and something that is conditional. Hence, the meaning of the first sentence would be ‘the
application form can be submitted under the condition that all the details are filled up by
the applicant.’ The meaning of the second sentence would be ‘the applicant is bound by
the details regarding the annual income of his parent.’
There is another important fact that we can understand by looking at these examples. If
you take another look at both of the examples given above, you will see that they are both
sentences that speak about some kind of legal matter. In the first sentence, we are
speaking about an application form. In the second sentence also the speaker must be
speaking about some kind of application. We do not ask for someone’s parent’s annual
income in general conversation. That is something we come across if we are filling an
application for bursary or a scholarship, etc. So, both situations in the examples refer to
incidents where we come to face legal situations. That shows that mandatory is a word
used in the legal context.
4
I
‘It is mandatory to fill up all the details’
What does Compulsory mean?
On the other hand, compulsory means essential. Anything that is compulsory has to be
essentially done without postponement. The word compulsory often refers to things or
requirements. Observe the two sentences given below.
80% of attendance is compulsory for the students to take the examination.
Wearing uniform is compulsory.
In both the sentences, the word compulsory is used in the sense of ‘essential.’ The
meaning of the first sentence would be ‘80% of attendance is essential for the students to
take the examination.’ The meaning of the second sentence would be ‘wearing uniform is
essential.’
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Let us see why we have used the word compulsory in these examples. If you look at these
examples, you will see that the first example refers to the field of education. We are talking
about the attendance of students in that particular example. In the second example too, we
may be talking about a school education or may be a work uniform as the firemen or the
policemen wear. Thus, it becomes clear to use that the word compulsory is used in the
context of fields such as education, employment, or business.
‘Wearing uniform is compulsory’

What is the difference between Mandatory and Compulsory?
• Meaning:
• The word mandatory is generally used in the sense of ‘binding.’
• On the other hand, the word compulsory is generally used in the sense of ‘essential.’
• Nature:
• Anything that is mandatory has the quality of binding the doer to the work.
• Anything that is compulsory has to be essentially done without postponement.
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• Reference:
• The word mandatory often refers to conditions.
• The word compulsory often refers to things or requirements.
• Context:
• The word compulsory is often used in the fields of education, business, and employment.
• The word mandatory is often used in the field of law.
These are the differences between the two words mandatory and compulsory. So, next
time you come across these two words consider the context and use each word
appropriately.
Images Courtesy:
1. United Nations loan application form by Alex Goldmark (CC BY 2.0)

2. Uniform by Robertvan1 (CC BY 2.5)
2. Must
http://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/grammar-vocabulary/grammar-videos/have-must-and-
should-obligation-and-advice
3. HELP
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/verb-patterns/help-somebody-
to-do.
4. Linking positives and negatives

http://www.shertonenglish.com/resources/es/miscelaneous-topics/agreement.php
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/also-as-well-or-too?q=Also
%2C+as+well+and+too%3A+typical+error
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5. Possessive 2 or atributive?
http://www.getitwriteonline.com/archive/111108possattrib.htm
Happy "Veterans' Day," "Veteran's Day," or "Veterans Day"?

Possessives vs. Attributive Nouns
Which rendering is correct in each of the following groups?
1. Veterans' Day, Veteran's Day, Veterans Day

2. Fathers' Day, Father's Day, Fathers Day
3. English Majors' Society, English Major's Society, English Majors Society
4. Bankers' School, Banker's School, Bankers School
5. International Executives' Association, International Executive's
Association, International Executives Association
To ask which rendering is "correct" in these groups is actually to pose a trick

question: if these were not proper names, all of these choices could be
grammatically correct depending on the context.
Let's begin by examining how these phrases differ from one another:
 The first choice in each group is a plural noun in the possessive case
(Fathers', Veterans', Majors', Bankers' and Executives').
 The second choice in each group is a singular noun in the possessive case
(Father's, Veteran's, Major's, Banker's, and Executive's).
 The third choice in each group uses a plural noun that is not in the
possessive case. We refer to it as an attributive; that is, it functions as a
modifier and does not need to be possessive.
To make the best choices in the five groups above, we must consider whether the
possessive or the attributive is more appropriate and, if the possessive case is
appropriate, whether the possessives ought to be singular or plural.
Unfortunately, one rule does not govern in all instances when it comes to
deciding when to treat a noun as merely attributive and when to make it
possessive. The Chicago Manual of Style (15th ed., University of Chicago Press)
admits that "the line between a possessive or genitive form and a noun used
attributively-as an adjective-is sometimes fuzzy, especially in the plural." This
style manual suggests that writers omit the apostrophe "in proper names (often
corporate names) or where there is clearly no possessive meaning" (p. 284):
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 Publishers Weekly
 Diners Club
 Department of Veterans Affairs
In deciding whether to use an apostrophe in such constructions, we cannot

always depend on logic to lead us to the best choice. For example, referring to
the second Sunday in May as "Mothers' Day" might seem logical if we think of it
as a day to honor all mothers and not simply one mother. But if we look up the
phrase in Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.), we find the noun
"mother" rendered as a singular possessive-"Mother's Day"-perhaps to
acknowledge the fact that each person honors his or her own mother.
Similarly, Webster's gives us "Father's Day," not "Fathers' Day."
On the other hand, Webster's tells us that in the United States, November 11 is

known as "Veterans Day"-plural but not possessive. We might have assumed that
we would render the name of a holiday honoring veterans in the same way we
render the name of a holiday honoring fathers or mothers. We could also have
logically concluded that since we are honoring all veterans, we would use the
plural possessive: "Veterans' Day." Instead, we must determine the appropriate
form of many widely used names not by following a consistent principle but by
verifying the conventional usage. In all such situations, we should rely on a
reputable style manual or dictionary.
This issue becomes even more complicated when we must render the titles or
names of institutions, associations, societies, and the like (as in groups 3, 4, and 5
above) that are not likely found in any style manual or dictionary. Again, we
cannot rely on logic alone to determine whether the possessive case is
appropriate. In our third example above, for instance, we could argue that the
society belongs to a group of English majors (English Majors' Society), or we
could say, simply, that it is an organization for them (English Majors Society).
In the absence of a ruling by a reputable style manual or dictionary, then, we

have to determine how the organization itself handles its name in official
publications. If an organization does not use the apostrophe in its name, then
neither should we-even if we could argue logically that possession is indicated.
We would not, therefore, use an apostrophe in "South Carolina Bankers School,"

"Federal Judges Association," "Texas Classroom Teachers Association," or
"International Executives Association" because, according to their own Web
sites, the organizations themselves do not do so.
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Likewise, even though the names "Randolph-Macon Woman's College" and "The
Navy Enlisted Man's Club" may at first seem counterintuitive (since neither of
these institutions belongs to or serves only one woman or one man), we must
nevertheless render the names exactly as the institutions do. We can find this
information on an organization's Web site or in its official documents.
When creating a new organization, the founders must decide how to handle the
title. Most organizations omit the apostrophe and treat the noun as attributive
rather than possessive, suggesting that the organization or conference does not
belong to the group but instead exists to serve its members.
However, plural nouns that do not end in s-such as children, women, and men-are
almost always treated as possessives, no matter what the logic would dictate. We
could argue, for example, that the Bakersville Children's Home does not belong
to the children but rather is for them. But no one would consider writing
"Bakersville Children Home." Likewise, the London Men's Convention may
more logically be for the men of London than belong to them, but "London Men
Convention" would sound odd to most ears.
Thus, when we are confused about whether a noun in a title or proper name is
attributive or possessive, we can follow these steps:
1. See if the title or name appears in a reputable style manual or dictionary

(as do "Father's Day" and "Veterans Day," for example).
2. If the title or name does not appear in the dictionary, check to see how
the group or organization itself is rendering it.
3. If the title or name in question is not well-enough established for a
precedent to have been set in regard to its rendering, then make a
decision based on logic (is possession clearly indicated?) and sound
(would the phrase sound odd if the noun were not in the possessive
case?)
6. Goal or Purpose?
http://www.differencebetween.net/miscellaneous/difference-between-purpose-and-goal/
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7. Pattern verbs. To or –ing infinitive.
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/verb-patterns/verb-patterns-
verb-infinitive-or-verb-ing
8. Think of or think about?

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/diccionario/esencial-ingles-americano/think-about-of-
someone-something
Think of: to consider doing something (We are thinking of moving to Amsterdam)
Think about: to remember someone or something (I was just thinking about you when you called!)
9. First person (voice) in academic writing.
https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/blog/2013/apr/19/academic-writing-
first-person-singular
10. Order of Adjectives
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/adjectives/order-adjectives
Sometimes we use more than one adjective in front of a noun:
He was a nice intelligent young man.
She had a small round black wooden box.
Opinion adjectives:
Some adjectives give a general opinion. We can use these adjectives to describe
almost any noun:
good bad lovely strange
beautifu nice brilliant excellent
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l
awful important wonderful nasty
Some adjectives give a specific opinion. We only use these adjectives to describe
particular kinds of noun:
Food: tasty; delicious

Furniture, buildings: comfortable; uncomfortable
People, animals: clever; intelligent; friendly
We usually put a general opinion in front of a specific opinion:
Nice tasty soup.
A nasty uncomfortable armchair
A lovely intelligent animal
Usually we put an adjective that gives an opinion in front of an adjective that

is descriptive:
a nice red dress; a silly old man; those horrible yellow curtains
We often have two adjectives in front of a noun:
a handsome young man; a big black car; that horrible big dog
Sometimes we have three adjectives, but this is unusual:
a nice handsome young man;
a big black American car;
that horrible big fierce dog
It is very unusual to have more than three adjectives.
Adjectives usually come in this order:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Genera
Specific Shap Nationalit
l Size Age Colour Material
opinion e y
opinion
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We use some adjectives only after a link verb:
afraid alive alone asleep
content glad ill ready
sorry sure unable well
Some of the commonest -ed adjectives are normally used only after a link verb:
annoyed; finished; bored; pleased; thrilled
We say:
Our teacher was ill.

My uncle was very glad when he heard the news.
The policeman seemed to be very annoyed
but we do not say:
We had an ill teacher.
When he heard the news he was a very glad uncle
He seemed to be a very annoyed policeman
A few adjectives are used only in front of a noun:
north
northern
sout countless eventful
southern
h occasional indoor
eastern
east lone outdoor
western
west
We say:
He lives in the eastern district.
There were countless problems with the new machinery.
but we do not say:
The district he lives in is eastern

The problems with the new machinery were countless.
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Try these tasks to improve your adjective ordering.
11. However and Nevertheless
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv206.shtml
We can use either of the adverbs however or nevertheless to indicate that the

second point we wish to make contrasts with the first point. The difference is one of
formality: nevertheless is bit more formal and emphatic than however. Consider the
following:
 I can understand everything you say about wanting to share a flat with
Martha. However, I am totally against it.
 Rufus had been living in the village of Edmonton for over a

decade. Nevertheless, the villagers still considered him to be an outsider.
12. Nonetheless and Nevertheless

http://www.differencebetween.net/language/difference-between-nonetheless-and-nevertheless/
Nonetheless vs. Nevertheless

The terms ‘Nonetheless’ and ‘Nevertheless’ implicate the same
meaning. However, the usage of both words is drastically different
owing to the sentiments of the people. According to the general
consensus, people like using the word ‘nevertheless’ instead of
‘nonetheless’ simply because one sounds better than the other. The
significance and impact of both words really depend upon human
psychology. According to Google statistics, approximately 130
million people use the word ‘nevertheless’ and 70 million people
use the word ‘nonetheless’.
When you break the word ‘nonetheless’ into individual terms, it
says ‘none-the-less’. It involves the use of the word ‘none’ that is
considered as both a noun and an adverb. The word ‘none’ is used
14
more as a noun than as an adverb. However, while trying to
compare two different things and estimating the result, a lot of
people feel uncomfortable using a noun-based word to signify an
adverb. This can be proven by the fact that 28,100,000 pages can
be found where ‘nonetheless’ is given as the input query, whereas
as many as 89,300,000 pages are found where the term
‘nevertheless’ is given as the input query.
Delving deep into the history or the origins of both the terms, the
usage of the term ‘nevertheless’ was noticed from as early as the
14th century, whereas the term ‘nonetheless’ came into existence
later in the 16th century. Moreover, when looking into the quality
of the two terms, ‘nonetheless’ sounds tangible, whereas
‘nevertheless’ sounds temporal.
Etymologically, the word ‘nonetheless’ sounds pretty close to

‘anyways’. This can be seen in the following sentence: ‘I cannot
accept the ride, but thank you nonetheless.’ It simply means that I
do not need any ride; anyways I am thankful that you asked me,
although I do not need to thank you!
However, when talking about the present day scenario regarding
the usage of the two terms, they are purely used in a formal
written set up. The words ‘nonetheless’ and ‘nevertheless’ are
hardly used in day to day communication. Both of these words
have been largely replaced by the term ‘however’.
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Yet another difference between the terms is that ‘nevertheless’ is
often used in an active voice, and ‘nonetheless’ is used in the
passive voice.
In summary, the following are the differences between

‘nonetheless’ and ‘nevertheless’.
1. ‘Nonetheless’ is less frequently used when compared to

‘nevertheless’.
2. ‘Nonetheless’ provides a tangible sense to the sentence

structure, whereas ‘nevertheless’ provides a temporal sense to the
sentence structure.
3. The word ‘nevertheless’ appeared earlier in history than the

word ‘nonetheless’.
Read more: Difference Between Nonetheless and Nevertheless |

Difference
Between http://www.differencebetween.net/language/difference-
between-nonetheless-and-nevertheless/#ixzz4kNUfYeJX
13. People or Persons?
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/person-persons-or-people
Person, persons or people?
de English Grammar Today
We use person in the singular to refer to any human being:
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Joel is such a nice person.
She’s a person I have a lot of respect for.
Persons (plural) is a very formal word. We only use it in rather legalistic contexts:
[notice in a lift]
Any person or persons found in possession of illegal substances will be

prosecuted.
To refer to groups of human beings or humans in general, we use people:
I saw three people standing on the corner.
Not: I saw three persons …
Jim and Wendy are such nice people.
People are generally very selfish.
Three people were interviewed for the job, but only one person had the right
qualifications and experience.
14. False or Fake?

https://www.italki.com/question/377372?hl=es
It really depends on the situation. Sometimes, fake and false can be used interchangeably and that
completely depends on the situation. Sometimes they cannot be used interchangeably. Most of the
time, they CANNOT be used interchangeably because they mean two different things. For example:
You have given false information.

You have given fake information.
Those two sentences above CANNOT be used interchangeably. The correct way to say it would be,
"You have given false information." That means the information is not true, wrong, incorrect, not
factual.
Fake means it's artificial, not genuine, a copy or imitation. Like the guy said above me:
"That Gucci bag is fake." That means it's a copy or imitation or counterfeit. It's not a real Gucci but
an imitation of one.
Hope this helps!
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15. Addressing a problem or Tackling?
Address:
Think about and begin to deal with (an issue or problem)
‘a fundamental problem has still to be addressed’
Tackle:
Make determined efforts to deal with (a problem or difficult task)
‘police have launched an initiative to tackle rising crime’
16. Gerund used after “to”
https://www.quora.com/How-do-I-remember-the-rule-a-gerund-used-after-%E2%80%98to
%E2%80%99-i-e-when-to-use-ing-form-after-to
How do I remember the rule: a gerund used after ‘to’ (i.e.

when to use -ing form after to)?
Ex. Mother Theresa devoted her life to helping the poor. Please suggest an easy way
to remember the rule, or any grammar trick. I am very bad at remembering things.
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8 Answers
18
Mike Mendis
Answered Sep 2, 2014 · Upvoted by Joe Devney, Professional writer and editor, Master's in
Linguistics.
I take it that you are confused about when to use "to help" (or some other verb) and when to
use "to helping" (or some other VERB+ing).
The way to differentiate between the two is to see if you can put a noun after the word "to" in
the sentence you are writing. If you can put a noun after "to" and the sentence makes sense,
then you should use a gerund (VERB+ing). This is because a gerund is VERB+ing used as
a noun. If not, then you should not use the "-ing" ending. In this way, we get
an infinitive (to + VERB). The difference between the two forms is that in the first case, the
word "to" is a preposition, whereas in the second case, "to" is part of
the infinitive (INFINITIVE = to + VERB), not a separate grammatical element in the
sentence.
If we apply this test to the example sentence, we could say something like:
Mother Teresa devoted her life to service (noun).

Mother Teresa devoted her life to the poor (noun).
Clearly, we can put a noun after "to" in this sentence. We can feel confident that the place after
"to" in this sentence is a place for a noun, (and remember that a gerund does the work of a
noun). Since the sentence meets the test, we can feel safe in using a gerund in the place of the
noun after "to." In this case, "to" is clearly a preposition (since it is followed by a noun). So
we say:
Mother Teresa devoted her life to helping the poor. [preposition + gerund]
Let's look at another sentence:
Mother Teresa decided to _____________.
In this sentence, it would be impossible to put a noun in the blank after "to" and have the
sentence still make sense. We cannot say: "Mother Teresa decided to service." Since this
sentence does meet the test, we need to use "help" without the "-ing." This creates
an infinitive (to + VERB). So we get:
Mother Teresa decided to help the poor. [infinitive]
Consider another common construction that causes confusion: "look forward to." Should
there be a gerund after this or just the simple form of the verb without -ing? If we apply the
test, we get sentences like this:
They are looking forward to the party. (noun)

I am looking forward to your response. (possessive pronoun + noun)
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Clearly the place after the word "to" in this case is a place for a noun, and "to" is therefore
a preposition. So we use a gerund.
I look forward to hearing from you. [preposition + gerund]

They are looking forward to meeting you at the party. [preposition + gerund]
But we cannot say:
I look forward to hear from you. [INCORRECT]

They are looking forward to meet you at the party. [INCORRECT]
NOTE: Infinitives can be used as nouns just as gerunds are used as nouns. However, it

is important to remember that the word "to" is included in the infinitive, whereas "to"
is not part of the gerund, but is a preposition that comes before the gerund as a separate
grammatical element.
In the following sentences, "to help" is used as a noun, but "to" is part of the infinitive, not a
separate grammatical element.
To help the poor was Mother Teresa's desire from an early age.

Mother Teresa wanted only one thing in life: to help the poor.
17. Relation or Relationship?
Denis Baizeau from France writes:
I do not feel comfortable when I have to use the

words relation and relationship. Could you please help me to clarify
the main usages and differences of these two closely related words.
Many thanks in advance.
Roger Woodham replies:
Relationships
A relationship is a close friendship between two people, especially

one involving romantic feelings:
 They had been together for two years and Mike wanted to
carry on, but Jenny felt that their relationship wasn't really
20
going anywhere.
Relationship can be used in two other ways. It can describe two

things and the way in which they are connected:
 Doctors now believe that there may be some relationship /

connection between autism and the MMR vaccine.
It can also describe close ties between people or groups of people and
the way they feel and behave towards each other:
 The Smiths placed great emphasis on close family

relationships and always went on holiday together.
 The relationship between the leaders of the two countries

has never been closer.
Relations
Relation also describes the link between people, groups or countries

and the way they behave towards each other. In this sense there is
very little difference between relations and relationship. For instance,
we could also say:
 Relations between (the leaders of) the two countries have

never been closer.
Most of the differences are context specific in this sense. For example,
we talk about diplomatic relations and race relations, not diplomatic
relationships or race relationships:
 Diplomatic relations between the two countries were broken

off over this incident and their ambassadors were sent home.
 The need to improve race relations in Inner London

boroughs is of paramount importance.
Your relations are also members of your family:
 I invited all my friends and relations to my twenty-first

birthday party.
 Mark Totterdale and Simon Totterdale (no relation) are both

head teachers in Bristol.
Your blood relations are the people who are related to you by birth,

not through marriage. If you say that they are your own flesh and
blood, you are emphasizing that they are members of your own
family:
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 He's my own flesh and blood. I can't leave him to fend for
himself when he needs my help.
18. HELP
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/verb-patterns/help-somebody-
to-do
Help somebody (to) do

We use help with or without an object:
Let me help you.
Can I help?
We also use help with an object and an infinitive with or without to:
Jack is helping me to tidy my CDs. or Jack is helping me tidy my CDs.
I am writing to thank you for helping us find the right hotel for our holiday. or I
am writing to thank you for helping us to find the right hotel for our holiday.
Warning:
We don’t use help with an -ing form:
I am trying to help him look for a new bike.
Not: I am trying to help him looking …
19. In order to (so as to) … so that (in order that)
22
Learning English
clauses of purpose: 'in order to' and 'so

that'
Gyonggu Shin from South Korea writes:
I would like you to talk about the difference

between to + infinitive and in order to +
infinitive.
In these two sentences:
a) I went to school to study.

b) I went to school in order to study.
(b) seems to be all right, though perhaps you do

not say it.
Roger Woodham replies:
to… / in order to…. / so as to….
You are right, Gyonggu. If we use in order to it sounds a bit

more formal and explicit than to by itself, but both are equally
possible in both spoken and written English.
They both convey exactly the same meaning when expressing

purpose:
 To cut the tree down, I had to hack through the

undergrowth first.
 In order to cut the tree down, I had to hack through
the undergrowth first.
In order to is normal before a negative infinitive. We do not

usually use to by itself here:
 In order not to oversleep, I set the alarm for seven

o’clock.
 I walked very slowly across the room with the drinks in
order not to spill them.
We can also use so as to instead of in order to and it carries
23
the same degree of explicitness or formality:
 We moved house last year so as to be closer to our

children and grandchildren.
 I gave him a cheque in advance to ease his financial
problems and so as not to delay the building work.
Before stative
verbs like know, seem, appear, understand, have, etc, it is
more usual to use in order to or so as to:
 I talked to them both for half an hour so as to have a

thorough understanding of the problem.
 I followed her around all day in order to know whether
she had any intention of meeting him.
So that.../ in order that ...
These structures are also frequently used to talk about purpose,

although so that is more common and less formal than in order
that.
Note that these structures are normally used with (modal)

auxiliary verbs.
Compare the following:
 He’s staying on in Australia for nine more months so

that he can perfect his English.
 He’s staying on in Australia for nine more months in
order to perfect his English.

 We’re going to leave by three so that we don’t get stuck
in the rush-hour traffic.
 We’re going to leave by three so as not to get stuck in
the rush-hour traffic.
 Jamie had an afternoon nap so that he wouldn’t fall

asleep at the concert later.
 Jamie had an afternoon nap in order not to fall asleep at
the concert later.
 In order that you may pass the exam, we recommend

you read through all your notes. (Very formal.)
 In order to pass the exam, we recommend you read
through all your notes. (Less formal.)
Note that in informal colloquial English, that may be omitted
24
from the so that construction.
Listen out for this variation, though I wouldn’t recommend that

you use it:
 I’ll come early so we can have a good chat before Denise

arrives.
 I’ve bought a video camera so I can film the children as
they grow up.
 We shall wear warm clothes when we go camping in
October so we don’t get cold.
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/linking-words-and-
expressions/in-order-to
In order to
In order to is a subordinating conjunction.
We use in order to with an infinitive form of a verb to express the purpose of

something. It introduces a subordinate clause. It is more common in writing than
in speaking:
[main clause] MrsWeaver had to work full-time [subordinate clause]in order to earn a
living for herself and her family of five children.
We all need stress in order to achieve and do our best work.
The negative of in order to is in order not to:
They never parked the big van in front of the house in order not to upset the
neighbours.
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/so-that-or-in-order-that
So that or in order that?

25
We use so that and in order that to talk about purpose. We often use them with
modal verbs (can, would, will, etc.). So that is far more common than in order
that, and in order that is more formal:
I’ll go by car so that I can take more luggage.
We left a message with his neighbour so that he would know we’d called.
[on a website]
In order that you can sign the form, please print it out and mail it to this address.
We often leave out that after so in informal situations:
I’ve made some sandwiches so (that) we can have a snack on the way.
When referring to the future, we can use the present simple or will/’ll after so that.
We usually use the present simple after in order that to talk about the future:
I’ll post the CD today so that you get it by the weekend. (or … so that you will
getit …)
We will send you a reminder in order that you arrive on time for your
appointment. (or … so that you arrive on time … or … so that you’ll arrive on
time …)
So that (but not in order that) can also mean ‘with the result that’:
The birds return every year around March, so that April is a good time to see
them.
20. Important to or Important for?
https://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/14484/important-to-me-or-important-for-me
The simple explanation is that "important to" is something you value, while "important
for" is something you need, or that will help you in some way.
A nice example is:
 "It is important for you to get well" ~ your life will be improved by returning to health
26
 "It is important to your family that you get well" ~ they put a high value on you being
healthy.
There is a large grey area, particularly if you are talking about personal experiences.
Passing an exam, for example, is something you put a high value on (or you would
never have started the course) and will also benefit you in terms of career. In this case,
it is 'important to' and 'important for' you.
https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/224278/whats-the-difference-between-
important-to-and-important-for
Important to signifies a connection to the specified subject (in this case me). Important

for denotes importance for a certain cause.
It's important to me! refers to something you value or hold in great esteem.
It's important for me! refers to a cause, e.g. It's important for my health/success etc.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cv9afxcMXGA
21. Prepositions TO and FOR
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E3gvjrh5_TY
22. Make an assessment or Do an assessment?
https://www.usingenglish.com/forum/threads/85432-quot-make-assesment-quot-or-quot-do-
assessment-quot
I'd use 'make an assessment' with the results/conclusion and 'do an assessment' with the
process/inspection, etc.
23. Apostrophe
http://www.thepunctuationguide.com/apostrophe.html
Apostrophe

The apostrophe ( ’ ) has three uses: contractions, plurals, and possessives.

Contractions

27
Contractions (e.g., let’s, don’t, couldn’t, it’s, she’s) have a bad reputation. Many argue that
they have no place at all in formal writing. You should, of course, observe your
publisher’s or instructor’s requirements. An absolute avoidance of contractions,
however, is likely to make your writing appear stilted and unwelcoming.

If you are unsure where to insert the apostrophe when forming a contraction, consult a
good dictionary. Avoid the most common contraction–apostrophe error: the
contraction of it is is it’s;without the apostrophe, its is the possessive form of it.

Example: It’s often said that every dog has its day.

In informal writing, it is acceptable to indicate a year with only the last two digits
preceded by an apostrophe (e.g., the class of ’85, pop music from the ’80s).

Plurals

The apostrophe is seldom used to form a plural noun.

Incorrect: Since the 1980’s, the Thomas’s, both of whom have multiple PhD’s, sell
old book’s and magazine’s at the fair on Saturday’s and Sunday’s.

Correct: Since the 1980s, the Thomases, both of whom have multiple PhDs, sell old
books and magazines at the fair on Saturdays and Sundays.

The rare exception to the rule is when certain abbreviations, letters, or words are used
as nouns, as in the following examples. Unless the apostrophe is needed to avoid
misreading or confusion, omit it.

He received four A’s and two B’s.

We hired three M.D.’s and two D.O.’s.

Be sure to cross your t’s and dot your i’s.

Do we have more yes’s than no’s?

For this last example, the trend is to instead write yeses and noes.

Possessives

The formation of possessives is treated in different ways by different authorities. The
rules below are based on The Chicago Manual of Style, 16th edition, and are appropriate
28
for most writing. Associated Press style, used by most newspapers, is slightly
different. See the essay on style for more information.

The general rule for forming possessives

The general rule is that the possessive of a singular noun is formed by adding an
apostrophe and s, whether the singular noun ends in s or not.

the lawyer’s fee
the child’s toy
Xerox’s sales manager
Tom Jones’s first album
Jesus’s disciples
Aeschylus’s finest drama
anyone’s guess
a week's vacation

The possessive of a plural noun is formed by adding only an apostrophe when the
noun ends in s, and by adding both an apostrophe and s when it ends in a letter other
than s.

excessive lawyers’ fees
children’s toys
the twins’ parents
the student teachers’ supervisor
the Smiths’ vacation house
the boys’ baseball team
the alumni’s fundraising
someone with twelve years’ experience

Exceptions to the general rule

Use only an apostrophe for places or names that are singular but have a final word in
plural form and ending with an s.

Beverly Hills’ current mayor
the United States’ lingering debt problem
Cisco Systems’ CEO

Nouns that end in an s sound take only an apostrophe when they are followed by sake.

for goodness’ sake
for conscience’ sake
29

A proper noun that is already in possessive form is left as is.

T.G.I. Friday’s menu was recently changed.

Shared or individual possessives

Joint possession is indicated by a single apostrophe.

Robert Smith and Rebecca Green’s psychology textbook. (they coauthored the book)

Stanley and Scarlett’s house. (they share the house)

Individual possession is indicated by apostrophes for each possessor.

France’s and Italy’s domestic policies are diverging.

Chris’s and John’s houses were designed by the same architect.

Avoid awkward possessives

Correct but awkward: St. Patrick’s Cathedral’s Fifth Avenue entrance.

Better: The Fifth Avenue entrance for St. Patrick’s Cathedral.

The apostrophe with other punctuation

The apostrophe should never be separated from the word to which it attaches by
adjacent punctuation.

Correct: The house on the left is the Smiths’, but the house at the end of the street
is the Whites’.

Incorrect: The house on the left is the Smiths,’ but the house at the end of the
street is the Whites.’

24. Perspective of? Perspective on? Or Perspective at?
https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/81041/which-is-the-suitable-preposition-for-a-
perspective
30
You can have a different perspective of a phenomenon if you are using the
"perception" meaning of perspective.
Members of the audience had different perspectives of the stage, depending on their
seat.
If instead you want to use the "opinion" meaning of perspective, then you would have a
perspective on a phenomenon (with the implication that you want to share and argue
in support of your perspective).
Members of the audience had different perspectives on the performance as they left the
theatre, depending on their tastes.
You can't have a perspective at a phenomenon without a fairly strange set of

circumstances and taking a bit of poetic license with the language. Such a construction
simply sounds wrong, unless the context strongly indicates that having a perspective
can somehow have an effect on the phenomenon being focused upon. Such a context
might happen in a fantasy novel where mental powers can change the world, but
wouldn't be correct in more mundane writing contexts. Even in a fantastical context, it
would take a better writer than I to craft such a sentence that didn't sound awkward:
I forcefully thought my different perspective at the magical wildfire, trying to impose

my will on reality and extinguish the flames.
25. Neither (uses)
Neither, neither … nor and not … either
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-
grammar/questions-and-negative-sentences/neither-neither-nor-
and-not-either
from English Grammar Today

Neither as a determiner
Neither allows us to make a negative statement about two people or things at the same
time. Neither goes before singular countable nouns. We use it to say ‘not either’ in relation
to two things. Neither can be pronounced /ˈnaɪðə(r)/ or /ˈni:ðə(r)/.
31
Neither parent came to meet the teacher. (The mother didn’t come and
the father didn’t come.)
Neither dress fitted her. (There were two dresses and not one of them
fitted her.)
We use neither of before pronouns and plural countable nouns which have a determiner
(my, his, the) before them:
Neither of us went to the concert.
Neither of the birthday cards was suitable.
Spoken English:
In formal styles, we use neither of with a singular verb when it is the subject. However, in
informal speaking, people often use plural verbs:
Neither of my best friends was around.
Neither of them were interested in going to university.
In speaking, we can use neither on its own in replies when we are referring to two things
that have already been mentioned:
A:
Mike, which would you prefer, tea or coffee?
B:
Neither thanks. I’ve just had a coffee.
Neither … nor
We can use neither as a conjunction with nor. It connects two or more negative
alternatives. This can sound formal in speaking:
Neither Brian nor his wife mentioned anything about moving house.
(Brian didn’t mention that they were moving house and his wife didn’t
mention that they were moving house.)
Neither Italy nor France got to the quarter finals last year.
32
The less formal alternative is to use and … not … either:
Italy didn’t get to the quarter finals last year and France didn’t either.
See also:
 Not … either
Not with neither and nor
When a clause with neither or nor is used after a negative clause, we invert the subject
and the verb after neither and nor:
He hadn’t done any homework, neither had he brought any of his books
to class.
We didn’t get to see the castle, nor did we see the cathedral.
See also:
 Conjunctions
Neither do I, Nor can she
We use neither and nor + auxiliary/modal verb + subject to mean ‘also not’:
A:
I hate snakes. I can’t even look at a picture of a snake.
B:
Neither can I.
Not: I can’t also.
A:
Jacqueline doesn’t drive.
B:
33
Nor does Gina.
Not: Gina doesn’t also.
See also:
 So am I, so do I, Neither do I
Not … either
We can use not … either to mean ‘also not’, but we do not change the word order of the
auxiliary or modal verb and subject:
A:
I haven’t ever tasted caviar.
B:
I haven’t either. (or Neither have I./Nor have I.)
A:
I didn’t see Lesley at the concert.
B:
I didn’t either. (or Neither did I./Nor did I.)
In informal speaking, we often say me neither:
A:
I can’t smell anything.
B:
Me neither. (or I can’t either.)
34
Neither: typical errors
 We use neither, not none, when we are talking about two people or things:
Books and television are different. Neither of them should replace the
other.
Not: None of them …
 We don’t normally use both (of) + not to make a negative statement about two
people or things:
Neither of these shirts is/are dry yet.
Not: Both of these shirts aren’t dry yet.
 Take care to spell neither correctly: not ‘niether’ or ‘neighter’
26. Either … or…

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/linking-words-and-expressions/either-
or
from English Grammar Today

Either… or… connects two choices:
I’ve saved some money to buy either [choice 1]a DVD player or [choice 2]an
MP3 player.
We use either… or… to connect items which are the same grammatical type, e.g. words,
phrases, clauses:
We can either pre- or post-date the document. I don’t mind. (connecting

prefixes)
It’s either black or grey. I can’t remember. (connecting words)
You can stay either with me or with Janet. (connecting phrases)
35
Either I drive to the airport or I get a taxi. (connecting clauses)
The opposite of either… or… is neither… nor…. We use it to make negative statements
connecting items:
We got so wet. We had neither umbrellas nor raincoats with us!
Neither our families nor our friends know that we are getting married!
27. Influence on? Or Influence in?
https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/17422/influence-of-media-in-our-lives-or-influence-
of-media-on-our-lives
Which one is correct, "influence of media in our lives," or "influence of media on

our lives?"

3 Answers
active oldest votes

17427 Both in and on are correct and used in this case. There is no
up
absolute rule but it seems that for some people there may be a
vote3down vote accepted
slight distinction between "influence of media on people" and

"influence of media in things" which would incline me toward
"influence of media in our lives".
You can change the grammar to remove the proposition, for

example "how media influences our lives", providing that you are
happy using a singular verb with a Latin plural noun.
share improve this answer

| answered Mar 22 '11 at 16:39
36
Henry
16.1k33656
add a comment |
17444 They're both correct, with a slight distinction in meaning.

up
vote2down vote  If you speak of the influence of media in our lives, then I
feel there's an implication that the media is just one of several
things influencing us.
 If you speak of the influence of media on our lives, then I
expect the media to be the only influence under discussion.
I don't know whether this distinction is specific to "the media", so

let me posit some new phrases:
 The influence of religion in modern life

 The influence of religion on modern life
Yup, the distinction's still there: to me, "in" implies one of many
influences, while "on" implies a more all-encompassing influence.
share improve this answer

| answered Mar 22 '11 at 18:19
JPmiaou
5991819
add a comment |
17460 When I read the two sentences I distinguish the meanings of the
up
two as such:
vote1down vote
(Influence of) (media in our lives)
(Influence of media) (on our lives)
A rewording to make it more clear:
This is the influence that the media in our lives has on
37
[something].
This is the influence that the media has on our lives.
This is not a necessary distinction, however, and you can

legitimately say:
This is the influence that the media has in our lives.
There is another difference between using "in" and "on" in this

context. "In" implies that something is happening within our lives
or that something is affecting our lives from the inside. "On"
implies a more distant, abstract influence: Something is happen to
our lives from the outside or to our lives as a whole.
I worked in that building.
I worked on that building.
38
28. Accordingly or Therefore?
https://wikidiff.com/therefore/accordingly
Accordingly is a synonym of therefore.

Therefore is a synonym of accordingly.
In context|conjunctive|lang=en terms the difference between therefore and

accordingly
is that therefore is (conjunctive) consequently, by or in consequence of that or this
cause; referring to something previously stated while accordingly is (conjunctive) in
natural sequence; consequently; so.
As adverbs the difference between therefore and accordingly

is that therefore is (conjunctive) for that or this purpose, referring to something
previously stated while accordingly is (manner) agreeably; correspondingly; suitably;
in a manner conformable.
https://hinative.com/en-US/questions/12565
Therefore: indicates a cause and effect. "I missed my last bus, therefore I took a taxi. "
Accordingly: means to act in a way appropriate to the situation. "I missed my last bus,
therefore I took a taxi. I was late to work, and the boss disciplined me accordingly. "
Consequently: another way to say therefore, showing an action as a result of something

else. "I missed my last bus, therefore I took a taxi. I was late to work, and the boss
disciplined me accordingly. I almost lost my job, Consequently I was never late again. "
29. DUE TO or BECAUSE OF?

http://linguistech.ca/Tips+and+Tricks+-+Because+of+vs.+Due+to
BECAUSE OF VS. DUE TO

Surprisingly, many people misuse because of and due to without even realizing it. The difference is subtle, so
some people do not make the distinction. In spite of this, the rule should be followed, especially in
formal writing.

THE RULE
39

Due to is a predicate adjective + preposition that means “the result of” or “resulting from.” It is always used
after a form of the verb to be.
 E.g. Her headache was due to the enormous elephant peculiarly perched on her head.

Because of is a preposition used to introduce an adverbial phrase and means “as a result of.” It is not used
after a form of the verb to be.
 E.g. She had a headache because of the enormous elephant peculiarly perched on her head.

THE TRICK

Due to has to follow some form of the verb to be.

30. Provided that
https://blog.harwardcommunications.com/2015/01/20/how-to-use-provided-that/
How to use “provided that”

Posted on January 20, 2015by barnabyharward
The phrase “provided that” has numerous possible meanings, which can result in
ambiguity if it is not used properly.
First of all, “provided that” can simply be a verb + conjunction combination. This is
a common structure in legal writing. E.g.:
Section 3 provides that the obligation does not apply in the following

circumstances.
(i.e. In accordance with section 3, the obligation does not apply…)
Before it was amended, the Act provided that the seller could take possession of
the goods and retain them until payment was made.
(i.e. Under the previous version of the Act, the seller could take possession…)
In this way contracts, laws or acts have “provisions”. Provisions are particular
rules, requirements, stipulations, etc.
“Provided that” also has an idiomatic meaning as a phrase that introduces a

proviso. A proviso can be a number of things, including a condition, an exception
and a qualification.
40
1) The most common idiomatic meaning is “on the condition that”. This is how
“provided that” is usually understood in everyday English. Here are some
examples:
You may go to the party provided that you’re home by 12.00.
You can drive a car provided that you have a valid licence.
You may produce your own version of the form, provided that the content is the
same as in the attached template.
If you omit “that” the meaning stays the same:
You can drive a car provided you have a valid licence.

2) A less common meaning is “with the exception that”. This meaning is rarely
used outside of legal writing. E.g.:
If the Deposit is not paid, the Seller has the right to rescind this Agreement by
delivering written notice to the Purchaser within 30 days of the date of this
Agreement, provided that such rescission right is not effective if the Seller has
rescinded the Preliminary Agreement for the Property.
(i.e. If the Deposit is not paid the Seller has the right to rescind this Agreement
except if the Seller has already rescinded the Preliminary Agreement.)
All the above comments apply to the Properties, provided that the comments
concerning the Expropriation Decision do not apply as there was no equivalent
for the Properties.
(i.e. All the above comments apply to the Properties except the comments
concerning the Expropriation Decision.)

3) Here’s an – admittedly rather complex – example of “provided that” as

a qualification. Again this usage is only likely to appear in legal writing.
If the Seller’s production of the product is stopped or disrupted by an event of
force majeure, the Seller must allocate its available supplies of the product to the
Buyer based upon the same percentage of the Seller’s preceding year’s shipments
of products to the Buyer in relation to the Seller’s total shipments of the
product, provided, however, that to the extent that the Seller does not need any
tonnage that is available in excess of the allocation of products to the Buyer, it
must make that tonnage available to the Buyer.*
(i.e. The proviso qualifies the Seller’s obligation by adding additional information:
If the Seller has a greater amount of the product available than the same
percentage of the previous year’s shipments to the Buyer, he must also sell that
amount to the Buyer.)

The phrase “providing that” is sometimes used as an alternative to “provided

that”. Both mean the same thing and both are correct, but “provided that” is the
more popular alternative.

41
* Example taken from Bryan Garner “Legal Writing in Plain English”, p. 111.
Needless to say, Garner presents this sentence as an example of how NOT to write
legal English. Garner generally does not advocate the use of provisos. He suggests
rewriting and simplifying such sentences – a point of view that you might agree
with if you’ve had difficulty understanding the last three examples in this post.
31. Although (usage)
http://www.writewithjean.com/usage-and-grammar/although/
Crafting Better Sentences: Use “Although” Carefully

Although is a marvelous word that – alas – even professional writers sometimes
use incorrectly. Train your writing radar to keep a mental lookout for although, and
follow these simple rules:
1. Never put a comma after although.
Beware of writing something like this:
I decided to accept the job offer. Although, I had some doubts about the company’s
stability. INCORRECT
Here’s the correct version:
I decided to accept the job offer although I had some doubts about the company’s
stability. CORRECT
You could also write it this way:
I decided to accept the job offer. However, I had some doubts about the company’s
stability. CORRECT
2. Always attach an although idea to a complete sentence. Anything that starts
withalthough is an extra idea. It can’t stand alone: You have to attach it to a
complete sentence. (Think of a garage – nice to have, but you need a house to go
with it.)
Although I had some doubts about the company’s stability. I decided to accept the
job offer. INCORRECT
Although I had some doubts about the company’s stability, I decided to accept the
job offer. CORRECT
3. Yes, you can start a sentence with although! If you start a sentence with
an althoughidea, end the idea with a comma, and follow it with a real sentence.
Suppose you wrote “Although the hurricane was headed our way.” This is an extra
idea that can’t end with a period. What to do?
Your first choice is to end it with a comma and add a real sentence. (Think garage +
house, as I mentioned earlier.) Here’s what you might have when you’re finished:
Although the hurricane was headed our way last night, early this morning it turned
north and missed Florida completely. CORRECT
Another choice would be to put your extra idea at the back of a real sentence. In
that case you wouldn’t use a comma. Here’s the result:
Early this morning the hurricane turned north and missed Florida completely
although it was headed our way last night. CORRECT
4. Sometimes you can fix an although mistake just by substituting however.
Nothing fancy is required: Just use a period and a capital letter.
42
Here’s a sentence that needs fixing (never put a comma after although, and never
leave an although idea hanging out there by itself).
Gloria has been madly in love with Chuck ever since he showed up in her algebra
class. Although, he’s not interested in her at all. INCORRECT
Substitute however, and you’re done! Take a look:
Gloria has been madly in love with Chuck ever since he showed up in her algebra
class. However, he’s not interested in her at all. CORRECT
And that’s all there is to it! Those four simple rules will help you use although with
confidence – an important skill for any serious writer.
Jean Reynolds, Ph.D., is a longtime English professor and Shaw scholar who
has published eleven books. Her most recent book is What Your English Teacher
Didn’t Tell You: Everything You Need to Know about Showcasing Yourself
through Your Writing (Maple Leaf Press).
31. Make or Do?

'make'
and
'do'
Davivien asks about 'make' and 'do'

collocations:
I would like to know the differences between the

verbs to do and to make. Do you 'make an
exam' or do you 'do an exam'?
Roger replies:
do
You do an exam. But there are no easy rules to follow. We

always use do to describe indefinite activities, often
with what, thing, anything, nothing, etc and generally
speaking we also use do to talk about duties, jobs or (leisure)
activities. Look at the following examples:
 'What shall we do now?' 'You can do what you like. I'm

going home!'
 'He didn't do anything. He just sat there.'
43
 'You expect me to do everything around the house.
Well, I'm fed up!'
 'I did all my homework last night so tonight I'm going
to do the housework.'
 'I did a lot of research and I think I did a good job on
that essay. I did my best anyway.'
 'I intend to do lots of walking on holiday this year, and
perhaps some bird-watching too.
make
We tend to use make when we are talking about constructing,

creating or performing something. Study the following
examples:
 'I made three suggestions and left it to him to make the

final decision.'
 'I've made all the arrangements for the trip and
I've madea great effort to get it all right.'
 'I'm afraid I'm going to have to make my excuses and
leave.'
 'I have to make three phone calls.'
make or do?
Test your knowledge of make and do now by clicking on what

you think is the correct box in the examples that follow.
It is not always as easy as the above examples suggest. It is

often simply a matter of usage, of learning and knowing which of
these two verbs collocate with which nouns. Best of luck! The
first two examples are done for you.
1 make do the cleaning and the cooking check answer
a lasting impression (on

2 make do check answer
someone)
the shopping and the washing-

up
4 make do some serious work check answer
44
a lot of damage (to
something)
6 make do an announcement or a speech check answer
an application (e.g. for a

driving test)
8 make do a sound or a noise check answer
9 make do one's hair or one's teeth check answer
10 make do a lot of harm rather than good check answer
11 make do business (with somebody) check answer
12 make do (somebody) a favour check answer
13 make do love, not war check answer
14 make do a mess, a profit or a fortune check answer
fun of someone or a fool of

someone
16 make do amends for one's behaviour check answer
32. On or upon?
Upon for more abstract issues.
33. The use of the preposition ‘as to’
https://stancarey.wordpress.com/2008/08/30/as-to-as-to/
45
As to ‘as to’…
Some English usage and style commentators are
unperturbed by the widespread use of as to as a catch-all
preposition; others are aghast. The best approach would
seem to lie somewhere between their respective reactions:
to neither avoid it outright nor open the floodgates. The
careful writer will learn to use it discerningly.
First, we can probably agree that as to is fine when

introducing a new subject, or returning to a subject that
was mentioned only briefly before:
As to the lab’s upcoming experiment, we’ll just have to wait

and see.
As to the cost of living on the island, that’s something worth
investigating.
Here it is used in much the same way one might

use concerning, regarding, with regard to, on the subject
of, on the matter of, on the question of, or as for (which to
my ear is slightly less formal than as to). Note that a simple
rearrangement can sometimes do away with as
to altogether:
The cost of living on the island is [something] worth

investigating.
The disagreements arise in its other common application, as

a compound preposition. This usage has a long and
impeccable history: the Merriam-Webster Dictionary of
English Usage contains lines by Jane Austen, Henry James,
Daniel Defoe, George Bernard Shaw and others, all using as
to in a manner apt to horrify the fussier grammarians.
46
Unfortunately, the term lends itself to overuse, especially as
a default preposition for writers who don’t know or have
forgotten a more suitable preposition:
We are awaiting confirmation as to the meeting schedule.

We are awaiting confirmation of the meeting schedule.
It is essential to have detailed guidelines as to the project

structure.
It is essential to have detailed guidelines on the project
structure.
The problem with using as to in this way is that it obscures

the relationship between the parts it’s supposed to connect.
When it displaces a more direct preposition for no good
reason, it can weaken the sentence. Its vagueness is
mistaken for versatility, even vitality.
As to often pops up before words like what, which, how,

who, whom, why, and whether:
It was anyone’s guess as to whether it would snow.

She wasn’t sure as to which cat was her favourite.
The pilots had no idea as to why the plane malfunctioned.
In The King’s English the Fowler brothers called this usage

an “absurd prevailing abuse”, but it is probably not wrong
in most readers’ eyes. Still, the above lines tend to read
better, being plainer, without as to.
There is no unbreakable rule about using as to as a

preposition, but there are good reasons for being alert to
how and when you might be inclined to do so.
34. Ought to vs. Must and should.
47
https://www.englishgrammar.org/must-and-ought-to/
Must and Ought to
AUGUST 16, 2010 - pdf
Must doesn’t change its form, whatever be its tense or the number and person of its subject. It
can refer to the present or future.
You must do this now. (Present)
He must pay damages. (Future)
You must file a petition. (Future)
Must can refer to the past only when it is used with the present perfect of the main verb.
She must have gone home. (Here must refers to the past time because it is used with the present
perfect of the verb go.)
She must have reached home. (Past)
Uses of must
Must is used to express ideas such as compulsion, obligation or duty. It is much stronger than
should.
We must love our country.
They must recognize our rights.
He must pay the fine.
Must can be used to talk about necessity.
We must get up early.
I must improve my writing skills.
Must we go now?
Must can express probability or logical certainty.
48
She must have already left.
He must be mad to do this.
Oh, there is the door bell; that must be the postman.
To signify strong determination
I must go now, whatever happens.
Ought
Ought is different from other auxiliary verbs: it is followed by a to-infinitive.
Uses of ought
Ought expresses ideas such as duty, necessity and moral obligation. It is not as forceful as must,
but it is stronger than should.
You ought to be punctual.
We ought to help the poor.
You ought to visit your friends once in a while.
Ought generally points to present and future time. It can point to past time when it is followed by
the perfect infinitive (have + past participle).
You ought to have helped him. (It was your duty to help him but you didn’t.)
https://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2014/03/03/must-should-ought/
Must, should, or ought to?
A woman’s place is in the bosom of her family; her thoughts ought seldom to emerge from it.
The Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Miscellany, Volume 97, 1825
Those nineteenth-century moralists! Can you imagine what today’s world would have been like if
women such as Florence Nightingale, Emmeline Pankhurst, or Harriet Beecher Stowe had confined
49
their thoughts to family life? While the viewpoint behind it may be outdated, this famous
quotation is a neat way of illustrating one of the main uses of ought, namely expressing the
speaker’s view as to a correct or dutiful course of action, often imbued with a tinge of social
rectitude.
As you may know, ought is a special type of verb known as a modal verb: I’ve covered some of
these already in earlier blogs. I’d now like to turn my attention to a trio of modals which share a
similar range of meanings: must, ought, and should. All these verbs can be used to talk about duty
and obligation, to give advice or instructions, or to express degrees of probability. Should can also
be used in other ways, but as I’m endeavouring to keep this fairly brief, I’ll save my discussion of
conditional meanings of should and the difference between should and would for another day. If
you’re avid for all the information right this minute, you can find a full rundown of should here.
Let’s explore the central meanings of must, should, and ought first, then we’ll turn to their
similarities and differences, so as to help you use each verb in the most effective and idiomatic
way.
Must
We use must in three main ways:
• to talk about something that has to be done because it’s compulsory or obligatory (that is, it’s
absolutely necessary to obey a rule, law, order, or instruction):
Online stores must give a cooling-off period of seven working days.
She was told that she must not discuss the case with third parties, including her MP.
or because it’s very important:
To calm public opinion, police must quickly arrest the culprits and solve this case.
I must get back to work: a deadline approaches.
• to express the view that something is highly likely because it’s a logical conclusion based on
something else that the speaker knows, or it’s the normal thing to expect:
Our measurements show that exactly the opposite must be the case.
Her mega hairdo must have taken several cans of hairspray to achieve.
• to say to someone that you strongly recommend or advise something because it’s a good idea:
If you go to Barcelona, you must see the cathedral.
We get on well and keep saying we must meet up for lunch sometime.
Ought
We use ought in three main ways:
• to express the view that something is the right thing to do, because it’s morally correct, polite, or
someone’s duty:
50
You ought to admit that you made a mistake.
They ought not to be allowed to damage property without paying compensation.
• to predict that something is fairly likely or expected, based on normal circumstances or logic:
Our long-delayed mail is on the way from France and ought to arrive today.
The weather oughtn’t to be cold in May.
• to offer or ask for advice or recommendations:
If you haven’t read the book then you ought to see the movie.
What ought to be done to improve things?
Should
Here are the three main meanings of should:
• to talk about what we think is the right or correct thing to do, especially from the point of view
of duty or appropriateness:
All employees should be provided with a proper job description.
Children shouldn’t be allowed to watch too much TV.
• to give or ask for advice or suggestions:
I told Kathy she should try to get some rest.
Can you recommend any exercises, or should I see a doctor?
• to predict that something will probably happen or is expected to be the case, based on logic or a
typical situation:
My sister’s on her way, she should be here soon.
By next month I should have enough money to buy a car.
Differences and similarities
We can compare and contrast must, ought, and should according to two categories: meaning and
grammar.
1. Meaning
As we’ve seen, we can use all three verbs to express broadly similar meanings: the main
distinctions between them are related to degrees of emphasis. Must is the most emphatic: you use
it when you’re confident about a conclusion, or when you want to stress that it’s very important
for someone to follow your recommendations. You also use must to refer to something that’s
required by a rule or law. Unlike should and ought, must isn’t used to make predictions:
✓ According to the forecast, it should be warm tomorrow.
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✓ According to the forecast, it ought to be warm tomorrow.
X According to the forecast, it must be warm tomorrow.
Ought is less strong than must, and isn’t used to talk about things that are compulsory. It often
carries with it slightly more forcefulness and more of a sense of moral obligation or
appropriateness than should.
The meanings of should that we’re addressing in this blog overlap with those of ought, but should
is much more common statistically. There are over 2 million instances of should on the Oxford
English Corpus, compared with around 71,000 occurrences of ought. In particular, should is much
more frequent in questions or negative constructions than ought. Should is the least forceful of
the trio: it’s mostly used to make suggestions and more tentative predictions.
Compare the nuances of meaning in the following:
If you have a mole that starts to bleed, you must see a doctor. [it’s vital, as it could be cancer]
The fat content of the cheese must not exceed 44%. [this is to obey a food regulation]
The object of the exercise was to prevent the public from seeing what they ought to see. [it’s
morally desirable that people knew]
I ought to eat more fruit and vegetables. [it’s a good idea and will make me healthier]
You should see the size of the crowds he plays in front of! [this is my opinion, but you don’t
actually need to see the crowds for yourself]
I think I should go home. [I’m considering this as an option]
Having said this, however, there’s frequently little distinction in meaning between ought and
should, and indeed it is possible to have the same interpretation using one or both alternatives.
Should is more common in questions, especially in daily conversation: ought sounds rather formal
when used interrogatively. Additionally, speakers of North American English tend to use should
rather than ought when expressing a negative idea (we shouldn’t turn away from such
opportunities rather than we oughtn’t to turn away from such opportunities).
2. Grammar
2.1 Tenses
You can form the past tense of should and ought by using have and the past participle of the main
verb. We can use this construction to talk about things which were supposed to have been done or
have happened (but didn’t) or to speculate about things which we’re not sure about in the past:
They should have done more research.
I ought to have left here by 3.30.
Surely they should have got home by midnight.
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You also form the past of must with have plus the past participle of a main verb. You can use must
have to express certainty about something in the past, based on logic or normal expectations:
From the evidence of his pupils, he must have been a good teacher.
However, you can’t use must have to talk about something important that should have occurred in
the past or something compulsory. If you say:
They must have done more research.
it doesn’t mean ‘they were supposed to have done more research but didn’t’; it means that the
speaker is sure that they had carried out more research in order to get to the situation they’re
now in.
2.2 Infinitives
Ought is unlike most other modals, because we always use the infinitive to when we use it with a
main verb. You shouldn’t say:
X I ought eat less meat.
X Ought we visit her soon?
X You ought not miss this play.
You need to use to:
✓ I ought to eat less meat.
✓ Ought we to visit her soon?
✓ You ought not to miss this play.
The only case where you don’t have to accompany ought with to is if there is no other main verb
in the sentence or clause:
✓ Say what you have to say, not what you ought.
✓ We should file that under ‘Educational’ too, oughtn’t we?
With should and must, the infinitive to isn’t used:
X I should to leave now.
X She mustn’t to discuss the case with anyone.
✓ I should leave now.
✓ She mustn’t discuss the case with anyone.
The above should have helped to clarify these three verbs; you ought now to know how to use
them; I must stop writing immediately!
53
The opinions and other information contained in OxfordWords blog posts and comments do not
necessarily reflect the opinions or positions of Oxford University Press.
Author
Catherine Soanes
Catherine Soanes is an ex-lexicographer and EFL teacher.
Published March 3 / 2014.
35. Meantime or Meanwhile?

https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/meantime-vs-meanwhile
'Meantime' vs. 'Meanwhile'

Does it matter which you use?



There are so many words to learn on other pages of this website, but in the meanwhile, let's talk
about a pair of words you probably know very well. Or should I say "in the meantime, let's talk…"?
Or maybe I should say "meanwhile, let's talk…"?
Huh. Meanwhile and meantime: are they the same? Does it matter which one you use?
54
Both 'meantime' and 'meanwhile' have been used as adverbs, as in "meanwhile/meantime, down
at the farm…," since the late 1500s.
Have no fear. We're here to give you the lowdown:
Meantime and meanwhile have both been used as nouns in the prepositional phrase "in the
meanwhile/meantime" since the 1300s—which is from the time of their lexical infancy. (They also
both appear in other phrases, like "for the meanwhile/meantime.") Both have been used as
adverbs, like in "meanwhile/meantime, down at the farm…," since the late 1500s. They've been
interchangeable for pretty much all of their long histories. But that doesn't mean they don't each
have their favorite territory.
Meantime is the one that's usually used as a noun (that is, as the object of the preposition in
phrases like "in the meantime" and "for the meantime."):
The company will be put up for auction…. In the meantime, the company will use two loans … to
help keep the lights on.
— Maya Kosoff, Vanity Fair, 10 June 2016
The great majority of times meantime is seen in published, edited text, it's in exactly that context:
as a noun, in the phrase "in the meantime." It's not difficult to find examples, though, where
meantimeis used as an adverb:
Meantime, the Port Authority is asking the FAA for permission to collect an extra $110 million in
passenger fees to pay for preliminary construction.
— Seth Barron, City Journal, Winter 2016
Shakespeare liked to use meantime this way, as when King Lear in the eponymous 1608 play said,
"Meantime we shall express our darker purpose."
But the usual choice for the role of adverb is meanwhile:
He performs his signature stunt several times with formidable skill, all in full view of the camera
with no cuts. Meanwhile, mere feet away, a young woman paces the parking lot, talking on her
cell phone.
— Joe Blevins, A.V. Club, 14 July 2016
But, again, atypical examples are not hard to find:
But since the satellite trackers still have another year of battery life, the team is hoping to learn
much more in the months to come. In the meanwhile, enjoy some lovely photos of whale sharks
from the study….
— Maddie Stone, Gizmodo, 27 June 2016
"In the meanwhile" has been accused of being "unidiomatic" (i.e. of sounding weird), but it isn't so
unidiomatic that native speakers instinctively avoid it. If you use it, there's no reason you should
stop.
But if you want to use this pair of words in the ways they're most often used and need help
remembering which goes where, you can think of this sentence:
55
In the time it takes to say "in the meantime," you could just as well say "meanwhile."
But really, the most efficient way to deal with the pair is to use whichever you prefer wherever
you prefer it.
36. CAUSATIVES (HAVE-GET)
https://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/causatives-have-get.html
Causatives: Have and Get

Download this explanation in PDF here.
See my explanation about the causative verbs 'let' and 'make' here.
We use a causative verb when we want to talk about something that someone else
did for us or for another person. It means that the subject caused the action to
happen, but didn't do it themselves. Maybe they paid, or asked, or persuaded the
other person to do it. For example, we can say:
 I cleaned my house. (This means I cleaned it myself).
If I paid someone to clean it, of course I can say:
 A cleaner cleaned my house.
But, another way is to use a causative construction. So I can also say:
 I had my house cleaned.
In a sense, using a causative verb is similar to using a passive. The important thing
is that the house is now clean. We don't focus on who did the cleaning.
Have + object + past participle (have something done)
We usually use 'have something done' when we are talking about paying someone
to do something for us. It's often used for services. The form is 'subject + have +
object + past participle'.
 I had my car washed.
 John will have his house painted.
Get + object + past participle (get something done)
We can also use 'subject + get + object + past participle'. This has the
same meaning as 'have', but is less formal.
 The students get their essays checked.
56
 I'll get my hair cut next week.
 He got his washing machine fixed.
Try an exercise about 'have something done' and 'get something done'
here.
Have someone do something (have + person + infinitive)
We can also use the construction 'subject + have + person + infinitive'.

This has a very similar meaning to 'have something done', which we've
already talked about, but this time we say who did the thing - we talk
about the person who we asked to do the thing for us.
 I had the electrician look at my broken light.
 The doctor will have the nurse call the patients.
 The teacher had the students write the answers on the whiteboard.
Get someone to do something (get + person + to + infinitive)
Finally, we can also use the construction 'get + someone + to +

infinitive'. Again, this means that you cause the other person to do the
action, maybe by paying them to do it, or by asking them to do it, or by
persuading them to do it.
 She gets her son to do his homework by promising him ice cream when he's
finished.
 I got the cleaner to clean under the cupboards.
Sometimes, this construction has the feeling that we needed to convince someone
to do something, while the other constructions on this page are neutral.
CONTINUE + ING OR +TO infinitive

http://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/grammar/beginner-grammar/verb-ing-or-verb-
infinitive
After certain verbs we use the -ing form, and after other verbs we use the infinitive. Sometimes we
can use either form and there is no change in meaning. Occasionally we can use either form and
there is a change in meaning.
So what’s the rule for whether we use the -ing form or the infinitive?
Sorry, there isn’t a rule. You have to learn which verbs go with which pattern.
The verbs followed by -ing include enjoy, mind, stop and recommend.
I told him you really enjoy cooking.

Would you mind helping me?
57
It didn't stop raining all day yesterday.
Daisy recommends trying Alfie’s tiramisu.
The negative is verb + not + -ing.
Imagine not having pizza! I eat it all the time.
Verbs usually followed by -ing
stop finish imagine suggest recommend avoid mind miss risk enjoy
I thought you could say: 'I recommend that you see that film'?
Yes, you’re right, you can. But we’re not looking at the more complex patterns with that or an object
today.
OK, what about the verbs followed by the infinitive?
These include decide, want, promise, plan and forget.

She decided to go with Elliot instead.
I wanted to visit Rome.
She promised to take me there.
I planned to go to some real Italian restaurants.
She didn’t forget to phone.
The negative is verb + not + infinitive.
They decided not to make pizza.
Here are more verbs that are usually followed by the infinitive:
hope offer fail agree forget manage learn afford arrange ask expect would
like decide plan promise want invite
What about the verbs that can be followed by either form?
These include start , begin , continue and bo th er.
It started raining. or It started to rain.

Don’t bother waiting for me. or Don’t bother to wait for me.
The verbs like, love and hate can be followed by -ing or the infinitive when talking about repeated
actions.
I love reading long novels. (British English or American English)

I love to read long novels. (American English)
But when we are talking about situations, we use the -ing form.
Paulo loves living by the beach in Rio.

Do you like working as a waitress?
So, 'I love learning grammar rules' or 'I love to learn grammar rules' are both OK?
Exactly. But there are some more verbs which can be followed by -ing or the infinitive, but the two
options have different meanings, for example remember and stop.
58
I never remember to lock the door, and my mum gets really angry!
(remember + infinitive = remember something and then do it)
I never remember locking the door, but when I go back and check I always have.
(remember + -ing = remember something you did before)
She stopped smoking three years ago.

(stop + -ing = to not do something any more)
It was hot, so we stopped to have a drink. (we stopped walking)
(stop + infinitive = to not do something in order to do something else)
Let’s stop to have a rest now.
OK, later on you can try to remember all the patterns.
Albeit or Although?
https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/359402/what-are-the-differences-between-albeit-
and-although
Albeit is a conjunction whose usage has become more common in recent

decades (see Ngram). There are difference in usage with the conjunctions
although/though, see the extract below:
 The conjunction albeit has been labeled archaic, but it appears to be making a
comeback. It means though or although, but it is not interchangeable with these
words in all circumstances. Think of it as a shorter way of saying although
it is or although it be.
From: (grammarist.com)
Albeit and Although:
 are two words in the English language that are almost similar in their sense but
with some sort of difference though. Albeit is more often used in informal
speech or writing whereas although can be used in all cases of writing.
This is one of the main differences between the two words ‘albeit’ and ‘although’
Look at the two sentences given below:
37. Although he worked hard he could not pass the examination.

38. He worked hard albeit without success.
o In the first sentence the word ‘although’ is used in the beginning of the
sentence itself. In the second sentence it is used in the middle of the
59
sentence and in an informal way too. It is also important to know that
the word ‘albeit’ is used more as a conjunction and hence very
often it is used in the middle of a sentence than at the very
beginning of a sentence . In other words it can be said that the
word ‘albeit’ is very rarely used in the beginning of a sentence.
This is also a very important difference between the words
‘albeit’ and ‘although’.
o There is an interesting rule in the case of the usage of the word
‘although’. As you can see from the example given above,
‘although’ can be used in the beginning of a sentence but it
cannot be used at the end of a sentence. It is grammatically incorrect
to say ‘I had a good time in the party although.’ In such cases the word
‘although’ can be replaced by the word ‘though’ and hence the sentence
becomes correct as ‘I had a good time in the party though’.
Thereby and Therefore
https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/148009/thereby-vs-therefore
Thereby and Therefore have different meanings.
Explanation
Thereby : It means as a result of an action.
For instance, let's say there is a sentence like, Regular exercises make us more fit, thereby
keeping us more active.
We are kept active because of doing "Regular exercises". keeping us active is a RESULT of the
ACTION we are doing, which is the exercises.
Therefore : It means for that reason.
For instance, let's say there is a sentence like, Regular exercises make us more fit and therefore
made us more healthy. So we are made healthy because of doing the regular exercises. It's not a
RESULT, but a REASON. You may or may not get healthy by doing regular exercises(the Result
may vary), but regular exercises is a REASON why you are healthy.
Summary
 Thereby -> Subsequent RESULT of the first sentence.

 Therefore ->REASON why something was done/ happened as a result of the first sentence.
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/therefore http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictiona
ry/english/thereby
60
Between . . . and, from . . . to
https://englishforjournalists.journalism.cuny.edu/2014/12/08/betweenandfromto/
by Diane Nottle on December 8, 2014 in Uncategorized Comments Off on Between . . . and, from . .
. to
Between now and the end of the semester — and that’s not far away — I’d like everyone to
master the difference between two constructions commonly used to indicate ranges, especially in
business stories that report changes in revenue and earnings over time.
One student wrote this semester:
The latest data on the world cocoa economy from the International Cocoa Organization (ICCO)
show that between 2002 and 2012 cocoa production rose at an annual average rate of over 3
percent.
As written, this sentence says production rose at that rate from 2003 to 2011 — the years
between 2002 and 2012. Picture these years as a shelf of books:
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Between 2002 and 2012 indicates those nine years literally between 2002 and 2012; it does not
include the bookends in boldface. To do so, as the writer intended, use from . . . to:
The latest data . . . show that from 2002 to 2012 cocoa production rose at an annual average rate
of over 3 percent.
In the same story:
In addition, sales of candies, chewing gum and chocolate in China rose 46 percent between 2007
and 2012.
61
It should have read:
In addition, sales of candies, chewing gum and chocolate in China rose 46 percent from 2007 to
2012.
And it’s not just a matter of time. Just this week, a student wrote:
Today, the center cooks between 1,400 and 2,000 lunches a day for seniors 60 to 98.
Better:
Today, the center cooks 1,400 to 2,000 lunches a day for seniors 60 to 98.
Here she didn’t need from. Why not save a word when you can? And notice how the age range is
expressed: 60 to 98.
Ken Aragaki got it right the first time when he wrote:
In some parts of the South Bronx, Simone said, the price of a buildable square foot has doubled in
the past year – $40 to 50 per square foot, from $25 to $26 last year.
Here from is not part of a from . . . to construction, but part of doubled . . . from.
Two students made the same related mistake in their stories:
62
In the Ivory Coast, ICCO’s data show, production of cocoa beans dropped 6 percent between
2010-11 and 2011-12.
Enrollment has increased roughly 43% between 2013 and 2014.
There was no year between 2010-11 and 2011-12, or between 2013 and 2014; they were
consecutive. The sentences should have read:
In the Ivory Coast, ICCO’s data show, production of cocoa beans dropped 6 percent from 2010-11
to 2011-12.
Enrollment has increased roughly 43% from 2013 to 2014.
Finally:
Bloom goes five times a week and stays between three and four hours.
Better: three to four hours. More conversationally: three or four hours.
Why did I choose between . . . and in my lede for this post? While this grammar point may
gradually dawn on you from now to Dec. 19, there will (I hope) be one point in time between now
and then when you will have mastered it. May it come before capstones are due.
Buscargramática
63
inglésinglés-alemánalemán-inglés
Next
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/adverbs-of-time-and-
frequency/next

Next is an adjective, an adverb or a pronoun.
Next means the first thing or person immediately after the present thing or person:
The next person she met was an old lady who had lived in the village all her life.
(adjective)
There was a loud bang, and I can’t remember what happened next. (adverb)
Each week is just like the next: work, work, work. (pronoun)
Warning:
Next does not mean nearest:
Can you tell me where the nearest supermarket is please?
Not: Can you tell me where the next supermarket is please?
See also:
 Nearest or next?
Next as an adjective
Next or the next?
When we talk about days of the week, weeks, months, years, seasons or public
holidays in the future in relation to now, we use next without the and without a
preposition:
I have an appointment with the dentist next Wednesday morning.
Not: … the next Wednesday morning.
Are you working next week?
Not: Are you working on next week?
64
Next year will be our fortieth wedding anniversary.
We’re going to plant some new flowers next spring.
To refer to the future, we can use the next few hours, the next two days, the next
six months, etc.:
I’ll finish the work in the next few days. You can pay me then.
We’ll be home for the next three weeks, then we’re going away to France for two
weeks.
When we talk about times in the past or future not related to now, we normally use
the. However, in informal situations, we can omit the when we talk about the past:
The next day we travelled to the ancient city of Qom.
We’re going to spend the first night in Oslo, then the next day we’ll fly to Narvik.
Two policemen grabbed me. Next minute, I was arrested and thrown into a van.
The next time
We can use the next time to refer to the past or to the future. In informal situations,
we can omit the:
We’ve been to Australia a few times. The first time we went it was work, then the
next time we went it was a mix of work and holiday.
The next time you’re in Ireland, you must come and visit us.
I saw him about five years ago and he was unemployed. Next time I saw him he
was driving a bus.(informal)
Next as an adverb
[a group of children are waiting to ride a pony]
Adult:
Who wants to go next?
Child:
Me! Me!
He said he was upset about the drama club, but I can’t remember what he said
next.
65
Next as a linking adjunct
We can use next as a linking adjunct to refer to something which follows
immediately after something before. We often use this when giving instructions:
To convert your old cassette tapes to CDs, first you will need a cable to connect
your cassette player to your computer. Next, you will need some sort of software
to convert your music to a digital format such as MP3.
Next as a pronoun
We can use next as a pronoun with or without the:
Ollie’s coming to stay the week after next. (the week after next week)
I don’t know how I’m going to manage from one day to the next.
Next to
We can use next to for people or things that are very near or beside each other:
Can I sit next to you at the restaurant? There’s something I want to tell you.
We can also use next to when we are comparing things:
Next to English, my best language is Spanish. (English is my best language, then
Spanish.)
Next: typical error

 When we say next week, next summer, next August, etc., we don’t use a
preposition:
I’m going away next Wednesday.
Not: I’m going away on next Wednesday.
“In doing so” vs “In so doing”
https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/361803/in-doing-so-vs-in-so-doing
What's the difference between "in doing so" and "in so doing"? I believe they're
interchangable -- but "in so doing" feels almost archaic to me.
Which one is most acceptable? Is there a difference?
66
They're both fixed phrases. The one with so before during is more complex syntactically, and therefore
more formal. Nobody talks like this; this is very old-fashioned written legal language. There are no
meaning differences between them; which one to write (if either) depends on how formal the author
wishes to appear. In doing so is Solicitor grade, but in so doing is Barrister. – John Lawler Dec 4 '16 at
15:40
'In doing so', makes the verb (doing) the focus of the phrase. 'In so doing', is slightly
reflexive, returning the emphasis back to what is being done. It is a finely nuanced
distinction and the degree of formality in the latter phrase lends it to a negative
connotation. "And in so doing the defendant caused....". Whereas the former phrase 'In
doing so' is easier to link with a more positive action.
Subjunctive Mood
https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/subjunctive_mood.htm
The subjunctive mood is the verb form used to explore a hypothetical situation (e.g., If I were you) or to
express a wish, a demand or a suggestion (e.g., I demand he be present).
Easy Examples of the Subjunctive Mood

 If it were me, I'd go.
 (As this explores a hypothetical situation, was becomes were.)
 I wish it were real.
 (As this expresses a wish, was becomes were.)
 It is imperative that the game begin at once.
 (As this expresses a demand, begins becomes begin.)
 I propose he work full time.
 (As this expresses a suggestion, works becomes work.)
Got it? Take a quick test.
More about the Subjunctive Mood

This table summarizes how a verb changes when it's in the subjunctive mood.
Normal Form Normal Example Subjunctive Form Subjunctive Example

am, are, is I am available. be I demand that I be
(to be in the present You are lucky. available.
tense) She is here. I ask that you be
67
truthful.
It's essential that she
be here.
has She has a chance. have I demand she have
(third person singular chance.
of to have in the
present tense)
was I was free. were If I were free, I'd go.
(first person and third He was happy. I wish he were happy.
person singular of to
be in the past tense)
prepares, works, She makes sushi. prepare, work, sing, I propose she make
sings, etc. etc. sushi.
(third-person-singular (remove the s)
verbs in the present
tense, i.e., ones
ending s)
Real-Life Examples of the Subjunctive Mood
Verbs That Attract the Subjunctive Mood
The following verbs often attract the subjunctive mood: to ask, to command, to demand, to insist, to
order, to recommend, to suggest and to wish.
 All we ask of a president is that he be likeable. We seem to have given up on the Pentagon's
corrupt use of our tax dollars. (Author Donella Meadows)
 Saddam Hussein systematically violated every UN resolution that demanded he disarm and
destroy his chemical and biological weapons. (US politician Henry Waxman)
 Don't make election popularity a matter of which candidate hires the most creative
propagandists. Insist that it be a running conversation with the public. (Actor Ron Howard)
 If you are a dog and your owner suggests that you wear a sweater suggest that he wear a tail.
(Author Fran Lebowitz)
Adjectives That Attract the Subjunctive Mood

The following adjectives – especially when used with the word that – often attract the subjunctive mood:
crucial, essential, important, imperative and necessary
 It is necessary to the happiness of man that he be mentally faithful to himself. (Political activist
Thomas Paine)
 When unseen forces come together to provide a man with the strength and capacity to achieve
something great, it is essential that he use the time responsibly and timely. (Author Eyler Robert
Coates)
Set Phrases Featuring the Subjunctive Mood

The subjunctive mood also features in some well-known terms.
 God bless you.
 (I wish that "God bless you".)
 God save the Queen.
68
 (I wish that "God save the Queen".)
 May The Force be with you. (Star Wars)

 The real scientist is ready to bear hardship and, if need be, starvation rather than let anyone
dictate which direction his work must take. (Biochemist Albert Szent-Gyorgyi)
 (If needs be is also common.)
What Is Mood?
Mood is the form a verb takes to show how it is to be regarded (e.g., as a fact, a command, a wish, an
uncertainty).
There are three major moods in English:
 The Indicative Mood. This states facts or asks questions. For example:
o They are playing the guitar.
o Are they playing the guitar?
 The Imperative Mood. This expresses a command or a request. For example:
o Play the guitar!
o Please play the guitar.
 The Subjunctive Mood. This shows a wish or doubt. Some more examples:
o I suggest that Lee play the guitar.
o I propose that Lee be asked to play the guitar.
o If I were Lee, I would play the guitar.
Why Should I Care about the Subjunctive Mood?

When used in idioms and set phrases (e.g., If I were you, God bless you), the subjunctive mood does not
create issues for writers. However, outside set terms, verbs in the subjunctive mood sometimes sound
awkward. Mostly, though, they sound right to the native ear.
The subjunctive mood definitely has its place in English grammar, but we shouldn't pretend it isn't
starting to fade. And, it's starting to fade for two understandable reasons: firstly, it isn't particularly useful
to convey meaning (i.e., the meaning often remains clear if it isn't used), and, secondly, the rules for
using it are tricky. In fact, the subjunctive mood is pretty inefficient as a language tool, and as a language
develops efficiency always trumps dogma.
That said though, verbs in the subjunctive mood still sound aesthetically pleasing to the native ear, and
nobody has started in earnest to condone subjunctive-mood avoidance, so you should use it.
Here's some guidance: If you naturally opt for the verb in the subjunctive mood, use it. If you're unsure
whether the normal verb or the subjunctive verb sounds best, use the subjunctive one. If you can't bear
how the subjunctive one sounds, have the confidence to use the normal verb.
We will all have different thresholds for what sounds awkward and right, but here are some examples to
clarify the guidance.
 I demand that he be present.
 (If you naturally go for be, leave it.)
 It is essential that he is/be there.
69
 (If you can't decide between the normal verb (is) and the subjunctive (be), go for the subjunctive
one.)
 I must insist that he lower/lowers his weapon.
 (If you can't bear how the subjunctive verb (lower) sounds, have the confidence to use the
normal one.)
An uncomfortable truth? Even if your subjunctive verb doesn't sound better, using it is bit of an
opportunity to show off…and to smugly say "it's in the subjunctive mood" if questioned on it. Winner.
Key Points
 If you think your verb in the subjunctive mood sounds a little awkward, use it (and enjoy the
showing off).
 If you think your verb in the subjunctive mood sounds awful, bin it (and enjoy today's leniency).
The Subject
https://www.chompchomp.com/terms/subject.htm
Recognize a subject of a sentence when you see one.
In a sentence, every verb must have a subject. If the verb expresses action—like sneeze, jump, bark, or
study—the subject is who or what does the verb. Take a look at this example:
During his biology lab, Tommy danced on the table.
Danced is an action verb. Tommy is who did the dancing. Look at the next example:
The speeding hotrod crashed into a telephone pole.
Crashed is the action verb. The hotrod is what did the crashing.
Not all verbs are action verbs. Some verbs are linking: am, is, are, was, were, seem, and become,
among others. Linking verbs connect the subject to something that is said about the subject. Take a look
at this example:
Ron's bathroom is a disaster.
Bathroom is the subject. Is connects the subject to something that is said about it, that the bathroom is a
disaster. Here is another example:
70
The bathroom tiles are fuzzy with mold.
The word tiles is the subject. Are connects tiles to something said about them, that they are fuzzy with
mold.
Generally, but not always, the subject of a linking verb will come before the linking verb.
Know the difference between a complete subject and a simple subject.
The complete subject is who or what is doing the verb plus all of the modifiers [descriptive words] that go
with it. Read the sentence below:
The big, hungry, green Martian grabbed a student from the back row.
Who did the grabbing? The Martian, of course. But this Martian wasn't petite, satisfied, and blue. No, this
one was big, hungry, and green. The complete subject, then, is the huge, hairy, hungry, green Martian.
The simple subject, on the other hand, is the who or what that is doing the verb without any description.
Take a look at this example:
The bright copper coin sparkled on the sidewalk.
What did the sparkling? Obviously, the bright copper coin. The, bright and copper, however, are just
description that distinguishes this coin from one that is, let's say, tarnished and silver. The simple subject
is only the word coin.
Remember that the subject is never part of a prepositional phrase.
The subject of a verb will never be part of a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase begins with a
preposition [in, on, at, between, among, etc.] and ends with a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Look at these
examples of prepositional phrases:
in the dirty bathtub
on the bumpy road
at home
71
between us
among the empty pizza boxes
without crying
Sometimes a prepositional phrase appears to be either the subject itself or part of the subject. Read the
example that follows:
Neither of these boys wants to try a piece of pineapple pizza.
In this sentence, the boys seem to be the ones who do not want the pizza, but because they are part of a
prepositional phrase, of these boys, they are not the subject. Neither is the actual subject. Take a look at
another example:
My dog, along with her seven puppies, has chewed all of the stuffing out of the sofa cushions.
Here, both my dog and her seven puppies are chewing on the sofa, but because the puppies are part of
the prepositional phrase along with her seven puppies, the only word that counts as the subject is dog.
Remember this additional point:
Generally, but not always, the subject comes before the verb, as in all of the examples above. There are,
however, exceptions, like this one:
In a small house adjacent to our backyard lives a family with ten noisy children.
Lives is the action verb in this sentence, but it is not the house or the backyard that is doing the living.
Instead, it is the family with ten noisy children. Family, then, is the subject of this sentence, even though
it comes after the verb. Take a look at another example:
Around the peach trees are several buzzing bumblebees.
Are is the linking verb in this sentence. The word trees, however, is not the subject because trees is
within the prepositional phrase around the peach trees. The subject in this sentence, bumblebees,
follows the verb rather than coming before it
72
The Clause
Recognize a clause when you see one.
Clauses come in four types: main [or independent], subordinate [or dependent], relative [or adjective],
and noun. Every clause has at least a subject and a verb. Other characteristics will help you distinguish
one type of clause from another.
Main Clauses
Every main clause will follow this pattern:
Subject + Verb = Complete Thought.
Here are some examples:
Lazy students whine.
Students = subject; whine = verb.
Cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.
Cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs.
My dog loves pizza crusts.
Dog = subject; loves = verb.
The important point to remember is that every sentence must have at least one main clause. Otherwise,
you have a fragment, a major error.
Subordinate Clauses
A subordinate clause will follow this pattern:
73
Subordinate Conjunction + Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought.
Whenever lazy students whine
Whenever = subordinate conjunction; students = subject; whine = verb.
As cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter
As = subordinate conjunction; cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs.
Because my dog loves pizza crusts
Because = subordinate conjunction; dog = subject; loves = verb.
The important point to remember about subordinate clauses is that they can never stand alone as
complete sentences. To complete the thought, you must attach each subordinate clause to a main
clause.
Generally, the punctuation looks like this:
Main Clause + Ø + Subordinate Clause.
Subordinate Clause + , + Main Clause.
Check out these revisions to the subordinate clauses above:
Whenever lazy students whine, Mrs. Russell throws chalk erasers at their heads.
Anthony ran for the paper towels as cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.
Because my dog loves pizza crusts, he never barks at the deliveryman.
74
Relative Clauses
A relative clause will begin with a relative pronoun [such as who, whom, whose, which, or that] or a
relative adverb [when, where, or why].
The patterns look like these:
Relative Pronoun or Adverb + Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought.
Relative Pronoun as Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought.
Whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser
Whom = relative pronoun; Mrs. Russell = subject; hit = verb.
Where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm
Where = relative adverb; he = subject; chews, drools = verbs.
That had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter
That = relative pronoun; had spilled, splashed = verbs.
Who loves pizza crusts
Who = relative pronoun; loves = verb.
Like subordinate clauses, relative clauses cannot stand alone as complete sentences. You must connect
them to main clauses to finish the thought.
Look at these revisions of the relative clauses above:
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The lazy students whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser soon learned to keep their
complaints to themselves.
My dog Floyd, who loves pizza crusts, eats them under the kitchen table, where he chews and drools
with great enthusiasm.
Anthony ran to get paper towels for the cola that had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the
counter.
Punctuating relative clauses can be tricky. You must decide if the relative clause is essential or
nonessential and then use commas accordingly.
Essential relative clauses do not require commas. A relative clause is essential when you need the
information it provides.
Look at this example:
A dog that eats too much pizza will soon develop pepperoni breath.
Dog is nonspecific. To know which dog we are talking about, we must have the information in the relative
clause. Thus, the relative clause is essential and requires no commas.
If, however, we revise dog and choose more specific words instead, the relative clause becomes
nonessential and does require commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence.
Read this revision:
My dog Floyd, who eats too much pizza, has developed pepperoni breath.
Noun Clauses
Any clause that functions as a noun becomes a noun clause. Look at this example:
You really do not want to know the ingredients in Aunt Nancy's stew.
Ingredients = noun.
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If we replace the noun ingredients with a clause, we have a noun clause:
You really do not want to know what Aunt Nancy adds to her stew.
What Aunt Nancy adds to her stew = noun clause
“Much as” vs “Much like”

https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/209821/much-as-vs-much-like
Ask Question
Asked 5 years, 5 months ago
Active 2 years, 9 months ago
Viewed 13k times
"Much as they had done with her..."
"Much like they had done with her..."
I was told that the use of "much like" in the second sentence is grammatically wrong. Any explanation is
greatly appreciated.
word-choice
shareimprove this questionfollow
asked Nov 23 '14 at 0:17
Matt
2911 gold badge11 silver badge44 bronze badges
I was wondering if I could have a more pedantic answer to the OP's question? The previous answer
seems good, but I am having trouble with understanding some of the subtleties. – user194901 Sep 5 '16
at 20:08
77
add a comment
1 Answer
Active
Oldest
Votes
"Much AS they had done with her". Traditionally, "as" and "much as" compare verbals (and qualities)
whereas "like" and "much like" compare nouns. That is, "as" acts as an adverb, and "like" is much like a
preposition. However, this distinction continues to erode over time. I remember when there was debate
over the cigarette ad: "Lucky Strike tastes good—like a cigarette should!" ("like" modifying "tastes" makes
it adverbial, so some insisted it should have been "as".) But decades of such usage have made it
commonplace. And to some people, that means the usage is "acceptable". Whether it is correct (a
concept that is now out of favor; let's say "equally acceptable", ) depends on your audience.
Still, some writers distinguish between comparisons of things and comparisons of actions or qualities: -
(1) Crackers are much like bread. - (2) Crackers are baked, much as bread is. You might be tempted to
put "like" in (2), but I don't think it would work to put "as" in (1).
And there are some other distinctions. Consider - He is acting as a manager. - He is acting like a fool.
In these and many other cases, "as" and "like" are not interchangeable, they are used differently with
different meanings. The below simply would not work with "like": - Much as he wanted to, he couldn't go.
- As ye sow, so shall ye reap".
But sometimes it's hard to tell whether "like" is being used adverbally or not. The following line from a
song (by Barenaked Ladies) illustrates:
"Much like pheromones to flies, you will not avoid my eyes..."
Or suppose you wrote "Much like yesterday, it will rain today." (is "like" modifying "yesterday", a noun, or
modifying "will rain", a verb?) So sometimes it's obvious whether "like" or "as" is more appropriate, and
sometimes it's not.
Lastly, a real conundrum: "Time flies like an arrow, but fruit flies prefer bananas." (That's a double-
entendre that illustrates the problems that might occur if you always substitute "like" for "as".)
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APPENDIX A. USEFUL ENGLISH WORDING
Function Useful English Wording Gramma

r
Commen
ts
Starting point
To start - To begin at the beginning
- As will be discussed in the remainder of this chapter.
- It may be helpful to begin by placing the problem of…
in context.
- First, and perhaps the last question to ask is:
- This work will delve into
- It is the starting premise of this work
- The point of departure of this work is
- At first glance, a purely academic researcher seems on

relatively safe ethical ground. (The Craft of Research)
- This is a tough problem to come to grips with (

- The collection of information got a late start in the the
90’s
- The basic idea developed in the first two chapters can

be simply stated.
- These questions, I will argue, can be answered by

attending to the implications and presuppositions of
the practice of transgenerational commitment making.
I will begin by explaining why members of nations have
a responsibility for making reparations for the treaty
violations of their predecessors. Understanding why
they have this obligation will provide the key to
understanding why they are also responsible for
making reparations for injustices that were not
violations of treaties - like those committed against
Australian Aborigines.
79
- But as we get started, a word of caution (The Craft of
Research).
- This was particularly true of some European “settler

colonies”…, though their institutions were just forming
as the Industrial Revolution was getting under way
(beginning to exist or is happening now).
- When it comes to what it means to live well in the

present, Richard Holloway’s Godless Morality
(Canongate, 2004) remains a crisp, insightful starting
point for getting down to ethical essentials (get down:
to start to direct efforts or attention towards
something) (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
To continue - On this view

adding
information - In light of
- Seen in this light
- In light with the Basic Principles
- In this vein
- In the same vein

- Under the same heading
- By the same token
- It works in line with
- It will expand upon this question.
- From our discussion it would seem that
- For mind-widening discussion of virtual worlds and

much else besides online, the Terra Nova blog at
Terranova.blogs.com is the best place around for
experts insights and debate (much else besides: much
more) (How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
- As to: concerning. With respect to
80
- In this respect, generally sufficient conceptions of the
basis of a natural lawfulness were set out.”…
(Transitional Justice).
- As regards
- Having noted …, we now turn to…
- According to this line of thought
- The above set of questions leads to a related line of

inquiry…
- To this point, two comments are perhaps worth adding.
- One can make the following observation
- The Court has fleshed out its definition by giving

examples of (flesh something out with object Add
more details to something which only exists in a
draft or outline form.)
- The Court has elaborated on this issue (Add more

detail concerning what has already been said.).
- The Court entertained the possibility that...
- This work proceeds to reflect upon
- The economic crisis wound up radicalizing the public’s

opinion about the conflict (wind up: end up)
- Complaints and worries should only be aired in

conjunction with a suggestion
- Along the same lines...
- This sections begins with… proceeds to… and ends

with…
- The account so far raises the following questions...
81
- The book is informed by another conviction
- That significance might ar first be just for yourself, but

you join a community of researchers when you can
state that significance from your readers´ point of view.
In so doing, you create a stronger relationship with
readers...
- Digital world is an arena within which we seamlessly
juggle friendship, media, business, shopping, research,
politics, play, finance, and much else besides.
- Whether we are aware of our participation or not is

largely beside the point: ignorance has its politics as
surely activism does. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- Coupled to this cultural critique comes an economic

argument… (How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
- ...It was an exploitation he linked explicitly to

technology, appending to this most disturbing of his
fictions a question that has only become more pointed
over the four decades since... (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age)
- They also attest to the subject’s relevance and vitality,

at once humbling and a source of inspiration.
- …Aside from a few different types of birds -which act

as your ammunition- that is a complete summary of the
game. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- The choice of the principles of adjudication implies a

related question about where, as an institutional
matter, the work of transformation should lie: judiciary
or legislature? This is the question to which I now turn.
- … China boasts the world’s largest online population

-over 300million users and counting-… (How to Thrive
in the Digital Age).
- On offer, potentially, lies a new kind of relationship

with the state for hundreds of millions of Indians… (on
offer: available to be bought or used). (How to Thrive in
82
the Digital Age).
- On offer are new forms of participation and access for

many millions of people; while the hazards that attend
them flow from the new leverage that a … few might
wield via new systems. (Attend: to happen as a result
of, and at the same time as) (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- … For one thing, innovation… risked the output targets

not being met and the bonuses not being paid. For
another, output targets were usually based on previous
production levels… (Why Nations Fail).
- To name but a few (When providing examples and to

To provide say that could there be more).
examples - It harks back to: mention. Remember. Recall. Evoke.
- This situation…. Significantly informs…
- To take some random examples…

- Suppose one samples a word (of three letters or more)
at random from an English text.
- It is profitable to consider
- To pick an extreme example
- The most telling example in point is

- A brief example may give some insight and clarify the
problem of…
- The leading case in this point is...
- The Colombian case epitomised the features of a

conflict not of an international character. (Be a perfect
example of.)
- Sexuality, here, is an emblem of larger and more

nebolous fears...(How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
- The cases involve weighty symbols of

freedom and repression… (Transitional
83
Justice).
- Reparatory measures appear most

definitional of the liberalizing move, as these
responses instantiate recognition of
individual rights (instantiate: to represent or
be an example of something) (Transitional
Justice).
- Those instances exemplify the tension

between idealized conceptions of the rule of
law and the contingencies of the
extraordinary political context. (Transitional
Justice).
- In a cute, two-dimensional cartoon world,

naughty pigs have stolen some eggs from the
eponymous birds. (Eponymous: giving their
name to something). (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- To get a better grasp of…
- A snapshot review of the decrees shows that...
- This principle ought to apply in its full, including on the basis

of ethnicity, tribe, race, religion, social group, gender and
sexuality, to name some.
To talk about the - The phenomenon dates back

past - It was starkly impossible back then
- To date…
- The community managed to eke out an existence ever

since (throughout the period since)
- We have begun to pass through another wired

watershed: one to do not with raw numbers, but with
time itself.
84
- We are already as distant from that past as readers
then were from the pre-Gutenberg world… beyond the
wildest dreams of scholars just half a century ago.
- At the turn of the fourteenth century, Europe had a

feudal order... (at the turn of the century: the time
when a particular century ends and another begins)
(Why Nations Fail)
- English political institutions were on their way to much

greater pluralism by 1688, compared with those in
France and Spain, bur if we go back in time one
hundred years, to 1588, the differences shrink to
almost nothing. (Why Nations Fail)
- What we never had until a decade or so ago, however,

is the radically new scale and empiricism embodied in
the internet. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- Their interplay with the critical juncture that

independence from colonial rule created laid the
foundations for Botswana’s economic and political
success. (Why Nations Fail),
- …we cannot turn the clock back to an era of pre-

digital gatekeeper safeguarding… (How to Thrive
- Across the ensuing centuries, entrepreneurial

authors helped build high and low literary
cultures… (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- It was also more suited to the dignity of the Leader

(for of late he had taken to speaking of Napoleon
under the title of ‘Leader’) to live in house than in
a mere sty. (Of late: recently; Take to: Begin or fall
into the habit of) (Animal Farm)
- ...It was an exploitation he linked explicitly to

technology, appending to this most disturbing of his
fictions a question that has only become more pointed
over the four decades since... (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
85
- …after 9600 BC, global temperatures rose again, by
seven degrees Celsius in less than a decade, and have
since stayed high (Why Nations Fail).
- Almost overnight, electronic gaming has ceased to be

the preserve of self-designated ‘gamers’ playing on
expensive consoles… (almost overnight: for or during
the night, suddenly, quickly) (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- … We do not and cannot have this in the real world;

and we are in trouble if we learn to expect it, or fail to
develop strategies for coping with life’s wicked,
unrewarded, one time sorrows (one time: former, at
some time in the past, but no longer) (How to Thrive in
the Digital Age).
- The time had been when a few kicks from Boxer’s

hoofs would have smashed the van to matchwood. But
alas! his strength had left him. (Animal Farm).
-
To summarize - Briefly the summary would be as follows
- The upshot is the following
- At a stroke, she threw off what Ghanaian called mental

slavery
- …Aside from a few different types of birds… that is a

complete summary of the game (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
To provide - The simple reason for that conclusion is that…

reasons or - Substantiate arguments in favour of …
evidence
-on account of: Because of
- This is owing to …
- The reason behind this choice lays on the assumption
that
- The foundation of this statement rests upon the

premise that
86
- Our automatic defence of this ideal rests on two
foundations.
- This is due in large part to
- The book is premised on the assumption that
- This can be justified by attention to the implications of

intergenerational agreements.
- These considerations give us good grounds for

assuming that the heirs of victims of injustice are their
children or grandchildren unless we have reason to
think otherwise
- The diachronic approach is predicated on basic facts

about human existence: that people not yet born can
be benefited or harmed by what we do. (Predicate
something on: Found or base something on)
- Such intense efforts upfront are almost rewarded

by greater clarity or the research
- Other bricks support the edifice of rights derived from

being human, including the duties of non-State actors
- They will look at the evidence you present, the

bedrock of every argument.( the fundamental
principles on which something is based.)
- In this case, a good strategy is to start with a

warrant that you hope readers will accept before
you lay out a reason and claim that you fear they
will resist. (Lay out: Lay out: to explain
something clearly, usually in writing)(The Craft
of Research).
- GENERALIZATION: When every known case of

X has quality Y, then all Xs probably have quality
Y. (Seen one, seen them all/.)(The Craft…)
- ANALOGY: When xis like yin most respects, then
X will be like Yin other respects. (Like father, like
son.) (The Craft…)
87
- Such warrants are backed not by evidence but by
the certainty of those who espouse them. It is
pointless to challenge them, because they are
statements of faith, impervious to argument or
evidence. (Impervious: not influenced or affected
by something). (The Craft…)
- If you are like most contemporary readers, you

probably preferred the first of these arguments.
That's because its warrant is not controversial (and
therefore goes without saying) (is obvious) (The
Craft…)
- It appeared a foregone conclusion to many

that the Spanish would conclusively defeat
the English… (Foregone conclusion: a result
that is obvious to everyone even before it
happens) (Why Nation’s Fail).
- The continued reliance on the clinical interview for

selection... amply attests to the strength of this
effect. (Think, Fast and Slow)
- How does your argument shape up so far? (Shape

up: Shape up: to develop) (The Craft)
- … there is convincing evidence that people do

not always obey the substitution axiom, and
considerable disagreement exists about the
normative merit of this axiom... (Thinking, Fast
and Slow)
- …the news soon leaked out that every pig was

now receiving a ration of a pint of beer daily
(Animal Farm).
- However, to say that regimes will “do what they

can” does not well explain the great diversity of
transitional legal phenomena. Indeed, to contend
that, as in the realist account, states do what is
possible simply conflates the descriptive account
with its normative conclusions. (Contend:to claim,
to assert something as the truth) (Transitional
88
Justice).
- The moral of these results is disturbing:

Invariance is normatively essential,
intuitively compelling, and psychologically
unfeasible (Thinking, Fast and Slow).
- These observations, of course, run counter to the

standard rational theory of consumer behavior…
(Thinking, Fast and Slow)
- Both positions draw justificatory force from the

role of law in the prior regime; nevertheless, they
differ on what constitutes a transformative principle
of legality. (Transitional Justice).
- All these arguments and beliefs are rooted in a

humanist perspective…(How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- … “The Lele are poor, while the Bushong are

rich… Everything that the Lele have or can do, the
Bushong have more and can do better”. Simple
explanations for this inequality are easy to come
by…(come by: acquire. To obtain something)
(Why Nations Fail)
- These authors and resources have collectively

provided much of the intellectual impetus behind
this book -and I hope they will inspire you, too.
(Impetus: something that encourages a particular
activity or makes that activity more energetic or
effective).(How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
To omit - Needless to say that

language/ideas or
limit its scopes - It need hardly be said that the
- This is an issue outside the scope of this study.
- Though important, those matters fall outside the

purview (The limits of someone’s responsibility,
interest, or activity) of this book (The Craft of
Research)
89
- The author locates her discussion of… within the
framework of…
- I will put to one side the topic of… the problem of…
- Examination of this objection involves a scrutiny of

the notion of…
- It is pointless to artificially widen…
- No doubt….
- What isn’t in doubt is just how politically real these

issues have already become… (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- By way of exception
- Draw a distinction
- think something through: Consider all the possible

effects or implications of something.
- To my best knowledge
- To my occurrence “
- If one looks at
- What one can read into...
- The point I am trying to make here is

- one must not lose sight of
- … and we cannot afford to lose
sight of the fact that no complete
solutions for living exist in the tame
realm of our own creations.
Perfection of a kind is possible in a
game like Angry Birds. (of a kind:
used to describe something that
exists but it’s not very good as it
might be expected to be) (How to
Thrive in the Digital Age).
90
- This puzzle cuts (pare) to the bone
of (Reduce something to the bare
minimum.)
These different ways of showing the
same data can be confusing. To cut
through that confusion, test different
ways of representing the same data. (Cut
through: If you cut through something difficult that
usually causes problems, you quickly understand it or
deal with it so that it does not cause problems for
you (The Craft of Research).
-
- States have carved out an

exception to this rule (2Establish or
create something through
painstaking effort.)
- The case centred around the

events that took place in...
- Transitional jurisprudence centers

on the law’s paradigmatic use in
the normative construction of the
new political regime. (Transitional
Justice).
- there is no consensus on the

question whether, and if so to what
extent, member States of
International Organizations are
91
liable for acts of the latter, save
that reparation is owed for
violations by either.(except for)
- Barring a convincing and strong

reason for the existence and
persistence of the entitlement,
what is to prevent them from doing
so? Barring: IF NOT, IF THERE IS NO,
EXCEPT FOR.
- This rule suggests that if a matter is regulated

by a general standard as well as by a more
specific rule, then the latter should take
precedence over the former
-
- Mention should be made of
- The chapter on the description of
treaty law is the least ground-
breaking
- While Uribe’s government was able

to regain territorial control and
push the rebels back to rural areas,
this was a far cry from military
victory. (To be a far cry from: Be
very different to.)
- Do not blame others for falling

short of your goals
92
- Many potential ideas get
abandoned along the way
- This practice isn’t right in itself

because one size does not fit all
- Do duty for: Serve or act as a substitute for

something else.
- Cultural attributes are supposedly inimical to

development and prosperity. (1Tending to
obstruct or harm.)
- Extractive economic institutions in the urban areas

of the Ottoman Empire were no less stifling
(preventing something from happening) (Why
Nations Fail).
- We will look more specifically at the following:…

How the Europeans themselves stamped out
(Stamp something out: to stop or destroy
something) the possibility of economic growth in
other parts of the world… ( Why Nations Fail).
- …Then the Soviet system hit a roadblock, with

lack of innovation and poor economic incentives
preventing any further progress… (hit a
roadblock: If you hit a roadblock, something stops
you from making progress or continuing with
something, (Why Nations Fail).
- This is important: don’t try to apply these

principles as you write new sentences. If you
follow them as you draft, you may tie yourself in
knots. (tie somebody (up): to confuse someone)
(The Craft of Researsch)
- Well-nigh: almost.
it will be seen that in Newspeak the expression of
unorthodox opinions, above a very low level, was
well-nigh impossible
- I ask the reader’s indulgence in recognizing that the
93
boundaries of these categories are soft and, in many
cases, blurred.
- All things being equal (ceteris paribus)
- The limitations of the study require that it have

such a focus, but my emphasis on these particular
cases seems to leave me open to the criticism
that
- The biggest factor is simply that we were born in

the right place -something we can take no credit
for at all.
- This chapter explains how we acquire obligations

that are historical. However, my defence of
historical obligations is far from complete.
- With technology playing an increasingly central

global role in the disruption of established notions
of what is and isn’t ‘political, it is far from naive
to hope that new forms of political participation
and integration may arise alongside new forms of
connection and identity. (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- The author left untouched the first premise of

her argument.
- It would be neat (disregard specifics for the sake

of convenience) if I could say that…
- The possibility remains that…
- Locke, aware of the disadvantages that can fall on

those who have no opportunity to appropriate
resources, attaches a proviso to his theory.
- A political ethics that aims to promote the well-

being or rights of living individuals needs to
give these 'lifetime-transcending interests'
their due. give someone their due (Be fair to
someone).
- The Kasai is the boundary between two of these.

Soon after passing into Congo along the western
94
bank, you’ll find the Lele people; on the eastern
bank are the Bushong (…) On the face of it there
ought to be few differences between these two
groups with regard to their prosperity.(On the face
of it: apparently. Without having all the relevant
facts). (Why Nations Fail)
- All too: used to emphasize that something is the

case to an extreme or unwelcome extent. Example:
recent evidence confirms what we know about the
all too often famines in Korea.
- Whenever we feel an all but irresistible desire to

flee from our own thoughts, we can be quite sure
there is something important trying to make its way
into our consciousness.
- By the 19070s, economic growth had all but

stopped (all but: almost). Why Nations Fail.
- Industrial production failed to take off in North

Korea
- They are important topics, but too large for us

to do justice to them here.
- Yet the seductive believe that access to the internet

can simply be equated with democratic freedom
does little justice to the complexities of this
situation. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- More needs to be (must be) known

about
- What’s needed is something that

engages with the kind of
encounters and interactions I’ve
had.
- Most of the work remains to be

95
done
- Research counts for little if few

read it.
- Doubts persist on this score (so far

this is concerned. On this matter)
- They had been nervous about the

effects upon their own animals, or
even upon their human employees.
But all such doubts were now
dispelled. (Animal Farm)
- In this chapter, we discuss how to

find the makings of a problem that
can guide your research (making:
the essential qualities needed for
something).
- On the other hand, if you find

nothing, your topic may be too
narrow or too far off the beaten
track to yield quick results (Off the
beaten track: isolated. In or into an
isolated place.)
- The odds are just stacked

overwhelmingly against (or in
favour) us (used to refer to a
situation which is such that an
96
unfavourable or favourable
outcome is overwhelmingly likely)
- Against all odds, the English

destroyed much of the fleet of their
more powerful opponents. (Why
Nations Fail).
- All such strategies are fated to fail,

however, for the simple reason that
loss is written in the rules of the
situation.
- At the same time he warned them

that after this treacherous deed the
worst was to be expected (Animal
Farm).
- Certainly something far more

cautionary and downbeat than the
usual platitudes would be in order.
- There has been a long debate

about how fluctuations in
consumer confidence affect the
stock market, but new statistical
tools suggests little relationship
between...
- It has been an article of faith in

modern physics that the speed of
97
light is constant everywhere at all
times, under all conditions, but new
data suggest it might not be.
- Unless it can be shown that...
- We wish to suggest a …
- In our opinion...
- We believe that...
- Some of the van der Waals
distances appear to be too small
- Mainframes still occupied entire

rooms and were the province of
specialist. (To be the province: to
be an area of special knowledge)
- It should be first noted that the terms used by Governments to

refer to ANSAs on their territories or outside have no
bearings on (have no relevance on) the international law in
effect or on the attribution of human rights obligations.
- As a state undergoes political

change, legacies of injustice have a
bearing on (to have an influence on
something) what is deemed
transformative. (Transitional
Justice).
- This principle ought to apply in its full, including on the basis
of ethnicity, tribe, race, religion, social group, gender and
sexuality, to name some.
- Less than a century later, it is safe to say that even the

wildest of these speculations have been exceeded.
98
- Youn can attribute an objection or alternative to an
unnamed source, which gives it a little weight/give
more weight
- It should be admitted/conceded/acknowledged/noted
that no good evidence proves that...
- Granted/Certainly/Admittedly, True, Of Course Adams

has claimed.... However (From The Craft of Research)
- That principle holds in many cases, but not in all (The

Craft of Research)
- When your argument hinges on the meaning of a

term, define it to support your solution and offer a
subordinate argument for your definition (The Craft of
Research).
- But as we get started, a word (noteof caution.
- It asks almost as little as possible from all involved.

(How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
- If there’s a warning here, it’s that our growing need for

convenience risks sacrificing control… (Ho to Thrive…)
- … disruptions and interruptions are a bad deal from the

standpoint of our ability to process information (from
the perspective/point of view) (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- My own working methods are not a template or an

ideal (How to Thrive).
- We must be able to… adapt our circumstances to us,

insisting that they accommodate the full gamut of our
observing, thinking and feeling. (The full gamut: the
whole range of things that can be included in
something) (The Craft of Research).
- Whatever your order, it must reflect your readers'

needs, not the order that the material seems to impose
on itself (as in an obvious compare-contrast
organization), least of all the order in which those
reasons occurred to you (least of all: especially not).
99
(The Craft of Research).
- When you've done that, you can say to yourself:

Reader, after my best efforts, here's what I believe-not
the whole or final truth, but a truth important to me
and I hope to you. I have tested and supported that
truth as fully as time and my abilities allow… (The
Craft of Research).
- If they don't remember a detail, they insert a"[?]" and

keep writing until they run out of gas… (The Craft of
Research).
- I also noticed that many had a vague, hard-to-
articulate sense of unease about what people might
know... (How to Thrive...).
-
- … the role of technology in teens’ lives comes with its
own anxieties, uncertainties and nagging questions –
and the fact that these are seldom officially broached
does little help to anyone involved. (Nagging: worrying
because it does not completely stop; broach: to begin a
discussion of something difficult) (How to Thrive)
- Under no circumstances stitch together downloads
from the Web with a few sentences of your own. (The
Craft of Research).
- It will be as you draft that you risk the worst

mistake a researcher can make: you lead readers to
think that you're trying to pass off as your own the
work of another writer. (Pass off something as
something: to try to make others believe that
someone or something is something other
than what the person or thing is). (The Craft of
Research).
- the annexation will cost more than the Board

assumes (The Craft of Research).
- Those who think that tax cuts for the rich

stimulate the economy should contemplate the
fact that the top 1 percent of Americans control
one- third of America's total wealth. (The Craft of
100
Research).
- Yet I believe that arguments like Keen’s and

Levine’s are best read as warnings rather than
inexorable fates… (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age)
- … our established notions of excellence, critical insight
and creative spark will not so easily fall by the wayside
(stop doing/making/using something) (How to Thrive
- What was once a taboo –requiring a visit to a specialist
retailer, bounded by (limited) age and access
restrictions – is now mundane. (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- Three decades on, the erotic apocalypse has yet to

materialize... (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- They also attest to the subject’s relevance and vitality,

at once humbling and a source of inspiration
(humbling: making you realize that you are not as
important, good, clever etc as you thought.)
- They had thought the Fifth Commandment was ‘No

animal shall drink alcohol,’ but there were two words
that they had forgotten. Actually the Commandment
read: ‘No animal shall drink alcohol to excess’. (Animal
Farm).
- While, in the abstract, certain legal ideals may be

thought necessary to liberal transition, such theorizing
does not account well for the relation of law and
political change. (Transitional Justice).
- Rather than an undefined last stage of revolution, the

conception of transition advanced here is both more
capacious (having a lot of space and able to contain a
lot) and more defined. (Transitional Justice).
- In the prevailing transitional justice debates, the

punishment of the ancien régime is frequently
101
advocated as necessary in the transition to democracy;
yet, exploration of the legal phenomenology in periods
of political shift suggests that though these are
generally thought to be discrete categories of the law,
there are affinities. (Discrete: having an independent
existence)(Transitional Justice).
- Transitional practices show trials to be few and far

between, particularly in the contemporary period. (Few
and far between: not happening or existing very often)
- Whereas the rule-of-law dichotomy was framed in

terms of procedural versus substantive ideas of justice,
Fuller tries to elide these competing conceptions by
proposing a procedural view of substantive justice
(elide: merge, put together). (Transitional Justice).
- The transitional context fuses these multiple questions

of the legality of the two regimes and their relation to
each other (fuse: to combine or be combined
together). (Transitional Justice).
- The question of what institution is most competent

and legitimate is contingent and will depend on the
particulars of predecessor legacies of injustice in that
country. (Transitional Justice).
- Digital technology, here, is nimble and wonderfully fit

for purpose in its combination of power and flexibility…
(How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- More important is that while sedentary life had pluses,

I also had minuses… (Why Nations Fail).
To express how a - Result in… as synonym expression for “lead to”.

phenomenon
leads to another
- As a windfall: as a result
- In doing so (in so doing): at the time of doing
102
something
- Ensue: happen, occur afterwards or as a result of.

Result. Follow.
- Their answer… would help profoundly to change the

world over the ensuing decade. (How to Thrive)
- In view of the fact that
- The case represents a ground-breaking shift in the

jurisprudence as it finally defined that:
- This would be tantamount to acknowledging…
- It lends itself well to an analysis of…
- This pave the way for…

- This assumptions yields to the conclusion that
- This flows from
- The types of violence vary in accordance with the

degree of territorial competition
- In accord with standard economic analysis, money is

naturally viewed as a proxy for the goods and services
that it could buy. (Thinking, Fast and Slow)
- The foregoing analysis leads to
- This legal development can be used as a stepping stone

to more fair conditions: An action or event that helps
one to make progress towards a specified goal.
103
-Having said that
- That being said,
- This gives us notice of...

- This rule leaves open the possibility that
- The tribunal takes the view that
- Usher: Cause or mark the start of something new. The

irresponsibility of Government ushered in a military
regime.
- Without this unlikely victory, the events that would

create the transformative critical juncture and
spawn the distinctively pluralistic political
institutions of post 1688-England would never have
got moving. (Spawn: to cause something new,
or many new things, to grow or start suddenly
(Why Nation’s Fail).
- Feedback loop: feedback loop is a term commonly

used in economics to refer to a situation where part of
the output of a situation is used for new input. An
example of a positive feedback loop would be one
where success feeds success.
- Virtuous (or vicious) circle
- The organization of this review moves from the

notions concerned with reparations to those ones
concerned with transitional Justice
- To fall in love is to attempt to incarnate perfection

across a limitless range of activities, stretching from
the highest questions to the lowest.
- At the stretch of: in one continuous period.
104
- Stretch out the horizon
- This problem invites another question. Reparation as

restoration invites the question of what victims or
their descendants can rightfully claim in cases of
historical injustice.
- The theory I advance
- The problem statement surfaces new questions
- Chemicals in French fries may be a factor in causing

cancer.
- Some chemicals in French fries correlate with a higher
incidence of some cancers.
- Such moments can be stressful, but they can also be a

sign that you are on the verge of a new insight.
- Their most significant innovation came from the insight

that the methodology of academic research itself
suggested a solution to this. (How to Thrive),
- you'll end up re- searching mechanically or aimlessly,

accumulating more and more stuff with no sense of
what you'll do with it or following trails of bread
crumbs who knows where.
- But if we ignore our children in favour of our romantic

pursuits as a couple, we will scar them and earn their
unending resentment.
- Indeed, the precision of the claim signals how the
argument is likely to proceed.
105
- The digital revolution had gone public.
- At the time of writing, in late 2011, an estimated of

one hour video footage is uploaded to the web for
every minute of real time that passes.
- Yet, even as the writing draws to a close, the

transitions continue (Transitional Justice).
- Whether your research argument _de- pends on data

collected in a lab, in the field, in the library, or online,
record those data completely and clearly, then double-
check them before, as, and after you write them up.
- Thanks to the Company, the game provided a tipping

point in the history of media (the point at which a
series of small changes becomes significant enough to
cause larger, more important change).
- The suffusing of the present is increasingly attended

by strain and anxiety (to be attended by: to be
accompanied by/occur with).
- Well, where there's smoke, there's fire (The Craft of

Research).
- These foundations decisively changed incentives for

people and impelled the engines of prosperity, paving
the way for the Industrial Revolution. (Why Nations
Fail)
- The Venetian Republic … made major strides

towards inclusive political and economic
institutions. (Stride: an important positive
development) (Why Nations Fail).
- Summary of key sources follows. (The Craft of

Research).
- If you find yourself wandering, follow the trail
106
until you see where it takes you. (The Craft of
Research).
- The emergence of a market economy based on

inclusive institutions and sustained economic
growth in eighteenth century England sent ripples
all around the world… (Why Nations Fail)
- Consider how the dynamics of this sharing played

out around (happened, developed in a particular
way) one sombre recent event… (How to Thrive in
the Digital Age)
- Options range from just mentioning an objection and

dismissing it to addressing it at length.
- I watched the debate ripple and resound, passing

on the best insights I found to those who follow me
in turn. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
- As the summer wore on, and the windmill neared

completion, the rumours of an impending
treacherous attack grew stronger and stronger.
(Animal Farm).
- … when you do research and report it as a

conversation among equals working towards
greater knowledge and better understanding, the
ethical demands you place on yourself shoule
redound to the benefit of all... (The Craft of
Research).
- The concern that this breeds (to cause something

to happen, usually something bad), though, run
in two related directions. (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age)
- In 2007, in response to the problems of abuse and

dishonesty he saw damaging the experience of
many digital-community members around the
world,...the American publisher... proposed a
‘bloggers code of conduct’... (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- Boxer’s twelfth birthday was due in the late

107
summer of the following year. (Animal Farm).
- For the time being, certainly, it had been found

necessary to make a readjustment of rations…
(Animal Farm).
- The low incidence of successor trials reveals the

dilemmas in dealing with often systemic and
pervasive wrongdoing by way of the criminal law.
So it is that in the transitional context,
conventional understandings of individual
responsibility are frequently inapplicable, spurring
development of new legal forms. (spur: encourage
an activity or development, or make it happens
faster) (Transitional Justice).
- In fact, a political revolution similar to that

initiated by King Shyaam, even if on a smaller
scale, is likely to have been the breakthrough that
led to sedentary life (Why Nations Fail)
- … Moreover, many of the consequences that

people have traditionally argued as having flowed
from this transition undoubtedly happened.
(Why Nations Fail)
-
- … But whether this happened in a particular place
was not determined by the availability of plant and
animal species. Instead, it was a consequence of
the society’s having experienced the types of
institutional, social, and political innovations that
would have allowed sedentary life and then
farming to emerge (Why Nations Fail).
- Looking across all the Maya cities, archaeologists can

this count how many buildings were finished in
particular years. (Why Nations Fail).
-
To refer to - There seems to be growing consensus.
scholar consensus
108
- It has been argued that
- It is submitted that
- The … (topic or idea) has gained increased attention.
- What seizes their attention is a problem they think

needs a solution, and what holds it is a promise that
you have found it. (The Craft of Research).
- ...This section comes, today, in nine flavours …( for
winning the attention of someone you’ve seen
around)… (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- We now turn attention to the processes that control
the framing of outcomes ad events (Thinking, Fast and
Slow)
- It has gained wider currency.

- You gain the trust of your readers when you
acknowledge and respond to their views
- The idea was greeted with a generally positive

reception by scholars
- It is sometimes said that
- The thought seems to be that
- The common wider usage that speaks of…
- There has been halfway houses between what is
clearly law and what is clearly morality.
- Strike a balance between: choose a moderate option.
- This terminology came into vogue
- The practice has been gaining pace
- The practice seems to gather pace (to start to happen
more quickly and have more success)
- The Court deems it sufficient that…
109
- Conventional wisdoms maintains that...
- Most scholars hold that

- Profuse academic research make it possible to identify
- The concept has been endorsed in several law
principles
- What accounts for the discrepancy between A and B

is…
- Most of the scholars subscribe to this view
- There is far less agreement about what responsibilities

they should bear for past treaty violations committed
by leaders or officials of their nation
- The animals have assumed as a matter of course

that the harvest will be shared equally. (As matter
of course: The usual or expected thing).
- As a matter of fact: to tell the truth.
- A fact of life is that it just takes time for new

researchers to grasp the warrants of their fields
(something unpleasant that cannot be avoided).
- In truth,
- Truth to tell, Jones and all he stood for had

almost faded out of their memories… (Animal
Farm).
- This is true to a degree of all complex

technologies. (How to Thrive…)
- The fact remains: used for emphasizing that

something is still true despite what people
have said or done
(Everyone talks about sexual equality, but the
110
fact remains that women are paid less)
- The difficulty, he insists, is not merely

epistemological - a matter of not knowing what
these forebears would have bequeathed. Where
human choice is involved, there is no fact of the
matter.
(The fact of the matter: the truth. What actually
happened.)
- … And we know for a fact that the vast

majority of our students will have careers in
which, if they do not do their own research,
they will have to evaluate and depend on the
research of others. (for a fact: you are
emphasizing that you are completely certain
that it is true) (The Craft of Research).
- .
- Common sense-grasp
- To most ears, such statement would sound untenable.
- This second conclusion is likely to create disquiet

(concern)
- The Craft of Research is the result of an extraordinary

collaboration among three gifted teachers and scholars
in whose footsteps we are proud to follow.
- I think back on more than fifty years of teaching and

research by how many students and colleagues could
be cited here as having diminished my ignorance.
- The adage often goes that...

- Modern society will be apt to give full credence to our
frustration.
111
- Researchers read secondary sources to keep up with
developments in their fields and, in this way, to
stimulate their own thinking. (keep up with: learn
about or be aware of current developments)
- Don’t panic if you find a source that seems to beat you

to the punch (anticipate or forestall someone’s action)
- Historians and literary critics typically comb primary
sources for passages they can use as evidence (comb:
search carefully and systematically)
- They talk with them about research projects, trying out

ideas personally before writing them up
- When the idea of a loved-based marriage took hold

(started to have an effect) in the eighteenth century…
- When you observe the standard procedures in your

field, you encouraged readers to accept your evidence
at your word.
- You might suspend your conception of argument as a

collaborative inquiry and imagine it not quite as
warfare, but as something close to a warm debate.
View your argument through the eyes of someone who
has a stake in a different outcome, someone who
wants you to be wrong (Has a stake in: To have an
interest in something because of personal
involvement).
- In the dual economic and political transitions that

characterize the contemporary wave of political
change, reparations play explicitly political roles
mediating the change by enabling the creation of new
stakes in the political community in the midst of
transition. (Stake: an emotional investment or gambling
112
in something) (Transitional Justice).
- Not all the stakes are equal. In some places, the deck
is already grotesquely stacked. (the deck is
stacked/stack the deck: to arrange something in a
dishonest way in order t achieve the result you want).
- You can note that there are unsettled issues (The Craft
of Research)
- If you have questions, you’re not alone.
- If all this seems complicated, know that you are in

good company: the relationship of warrants to claims
and reasons has vexed logicians since at least the time
of Aristotle (The Craft of Research).
- But you make an equally strong (though less

friendly) gesture when you keep silent about
warrants you should state for readers not in the
know (In the know: to have knowledge about
something that most people do not have)(The
Craft of Research).
- virtually all climate scientists hold that view (The

Craft of Research).
- Challenging Warrants Based on Articles of Faith

(Article of faith: something that you believe in
very strongly) (The Craft…)
- In their erroneous judgments of the data to which they

had been exposed, naïve subjects “rediscovered” much
of the common, but unfounded, clinical lore concerning
the interpretation of the drew-a-person test. (lore: a
body of traditions and knowledge on a subject or held
by a particular group, typically passed from person to
person by word of mouth) (Think, Fast and Slow)
113
- Whether obligations discussed in this research
are defeated by humanitarian law as lex specialis
in particular situations is left up to the doctrinal
discussion on that topic: (van der Haven, 2017).
- But revising for readers doesn't mean pandering to

them. (Pander to somebody: to do or provide
exactly what a person or group wants,
especially when it is not acceptable,
reasonable, or approved of, usually in order to
get some personal advantage). (The Craft of
Research).
- Those are good rules of thumb, but… (Rule of

thumb: a method of judging a situation or
condition that is not exact but is based on
experience. a practical and approximate way
of doing or measuring something). (The Craft
of Research)
- Scholars have long assumed that democracy improves

the quality of life for its citizens… (The Craft of
Research).
- It’s possible to split hairs (to argue about small details

of something) and dispute the statistical details of old
media’s collapse. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- It’s at this point that Levin’s thesis dovetails most

compellingly with Keen’s. (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age).
- In 1993, at a conference, “Restitution in Eastern

Europe,” convened by the Central European University,
I presented ideas that were later elaborated on in the
chapter on reparatory justice. (Transitional Justice.
Teitel, Ruti).
- … there is convincing evidence that people do not
114
always obey the substitution axiom, and considerable
disagreement exists about the normative merit of this
axiom... (Thinking, Fast and Slow)
- Our analysis of mental accounting owes a large

debt to the stimulating work of Richard Thaler…
(Thinking, Fast and Slow).
- The natural law position espoused by the German

judiciary suggests that transitional justice
necessitates departing from prior putative law.
- …There is little ideological common ground

between them, to say the least… (How to Thrive
- … As the American author Brian Christian -an

author well steeped in Aristotle -puts in his 2011
book… (How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
-
To refer to - In seeking to assess

purposes - It is used as a tool to analyse.
- This bid for: This attempt at
- Put forward: propose, advance, submit a theory for

consideration.
- Furnish criteria: Provide criteria. Be a source of criteria.
- This study rather promotes the position that…
- To be loyal to my attempt.
- Focus is set on…
- An attempt is made to identify…
- The chapter seeks to reaffirm the position that…
115
- For our purposes
- In order for this proposal to make sense.
- My aspiration in this section has been to show that.
- be meant to do something) Be supposed to do

something.
- But the point of present interest is that…
- This work zooms in on

- The text responds to calls for...
- So as to … (do something)= in order to do something
- This is what is central to my inquiry
- The underlying thrust ( The principal purpose or

theme of a course of action or line of reasoning.)
of this work has been...
- One thread running through the book concerns
- The book seeks to gain insight into
- The Statue envisions that
- Psychotherapist is practiced in hunting down the

feelings behind justifications. (Search for and capture).
- But scrolling through these messages also prompts an

uneasy feeling in my chest. (How to Thrive…)
- Comrades!’ he cried. ‘You do not imagine, I hope, that

we pigs are doing this in a spirit of selfishness and
116
privilege?
- The Basic Principles were very instrumental for the

draft of other advisory documents.
- Of course, you have to do some research to get a

handle on your projects
- In chapter 7 we survey the elements that constitute a

research argument.
- What are we to make of this information?

-
- In another sense, this also means they are treated like
school children, or at least like members of a politely
paternal institution-liberated from mundane concerns
the better to learn and perform (the better to learn
and perform: so as to do something better. In order to
do something) (How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
- Convoluted and indirect prose is not what good writers

aim for, but what thoughtless ones get away with. (The
Craft of Research)
- First, my thanks to my editors at Oxford. My gratitude

to… Jack Balkin, Robert Burt, Paul Dubinsky, Stephen
Ellmann, Owen Fiss,.... Special thanks to Zoe Hilden
and Jonathan Stein for their very helpful advice and
editorial suggestions. I am most grateful for the
support of Dean…. My thanks to a number of
constitutional court justices for their generosity in
contributing to my research:. I am grateful to the
students of human rights in transitional regimes at New
York and Yale Law Schools for helpful discussion of
many of the ideas here. I am indebted to Camille
Broussard… (Transitional Justice).
117
- Let me set that issue aside.
To make a -
distinction
- In place of: Instead of
- In its place.
- It resides solely
- Within the terrain of…
- Draw a map very different from that we currently

employ
- This theory has sought the key to the understanding of
law in
- A more important ground of distinction is the
following:
- Based on the analysis of the current state of…
- As for moral (legal) ground
- An important caveat is needed at the outset

- The argument can be better assessed through the
prism of
- Also one may see the picture differently
- What is crystal clear here is
- As with arts, so with sex.
- This text has no equal in the field.
- A marker of skilled performance is the ability to deal

with vast amounts of information swiftly and efficiently
- The plot is replete with stock characters (stock:

overused, hackneyed)
- To get your bearings with respect to a new topic

(Awareness of one’s position relative to one’s
118
surroundings).
- To get a “ballpark” sense of what we are likely to find
through a search of specialized databases. (ballpark:
general, non-specific).
- Sharing he results of your research involves more than

just giving your readers a “data dump” that says, Here
are some facts about my topic”. (data dump: A large
amount of data transferred from one system or
location to another).
- An annotated bibliography offers a bird’s-eye-view of a

range of sources and the roles they might play in your
paper.
- The central question of self-examination is drifting

from ‘Who are you?’ towards ‘What are you doing?’
(Drift: distress or stray to another subject)
- When children are constantly exposed to images of

sadistic violence, they are influenced for the worse
To simplify the - To put bluntly

language
- Put in general terms,
- A cloud of obscurity
- It might be said that
- One might think that
- It would be tantamount to (-ing)
- There appear to be…
- To put the same point another way
- Plainly (simply)
- It has been a potent source of confusion in the theory

of international law.
- Claims under international law are not couched in such

simple terms.
- More concretely
119
- Inject clarity
- Tidy up: bring in order. Sort out
- Treaty keeping is a backward-looking obligation, but

the justification I have offered is forward-looking in the
sense that it depends on the concern of morally
responsible citizens that their commitments be
honoured by their successors
- Now if there was one thing that the animals were

completely certain of, it was that they did not want
Jones back. When it was put to them in this light,
- A tragic truth we should calmly face head on

(involve direct confrontation. Face to face), before
life drives it home to (Make something clearly
understood by the use of direct arguments) us in
its own brutal way.
-
- …we must differentiate between the tame, bounded
arena of digital freedom and the often inchoate
problems life itself throws at us. (How to Thrive in
the Digital Age).
To present the - The discussion spins around (to

quickly turn
topic of the your own or someone else's body to
discussion
face the opposite direction)
- It is supported on the grounds that
- As has been suggested above.
- Last but not least
- But the placement of the boundaries of this concept is

often contested.
- There are some skirmishes on the boundaries
- This can be seen through the prism of… theory.
- This phenomenon merits examination.

- A survey of the international practice shows that
- Setting the stage, …
120
- Debates as to X... run along the same fault lines that
characterize debates about Y...
- And behind their seemingly ineffable existences are
historical and human contexts, ripe for debate. (ripe
for: developed to a suitable condition for something to
happen) (How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
- … I watched the debate ripple and resound,
passing on the best insights I found to those who
follow me in turn. (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age)
- The “velvet” revolutions’ rough underside has been

revealed in courts of law, where debates about the
content of the political transformation continue to
simmer. (Simmer: when something grows slowly
stronger over a period of time and become serious at
any moment). (Transitional Justice).
- The status of POW is a vexed question
- This case begs the question as to whether or not it is a

war crime ((of a fact or action) raise a point that has
not been dealt with)
- It introduces the idea that

- The law expounded on the definition of victims in the
article 2
- It brings about new concerns
- However, the focus of this study is on the moral

demands themselves. It is premised on a belief that
they should be taken seriously
- The theory I advance is relevant to
- My argument for the persistence of reparative

obligations draws on the assumptions that (relies on.
Uses the assumption that)
- The map presents the lay of the land in 2008 (the

current situation).
- War-like crisis poses a difficult dilemma for the rule of

law. The dilemma can be explained as follows
- My aim is to resituate the rule-of-law dilemma by
121
exploring societal experiences that arise in the context
of political transformation (Transitional Justice).
- This chapter approaches the rule-of-law dilemma in an

inductive manner by resituating the question as it
actually arises in its legal and political contexts.
- Resituating the problem should illuminate our

understanding of the rule of law. (Transitional Justice).
- If under repressive rule the administration of justice

was conducted purely as an exercise of political will,
this understanding is most clearly disavowed when
the successor regime adopts the overriding rule-of-law
value that most clearly expresses a principled
normative vision independent of transitory politics.
- Let us dwell on (Think, speak, or write at length

about (a particular subject, especially one that is a
source of unhappiness, anxiety, or dissatisfaction))
- the article discusses the implications for attending to

the problem statement.(Attend to: deal with)
- What would an economic analysis of law turn up

(reveal)?
- What a pornography of the future might look like

is hinted at in some of Harper’s book.
- There are some good insights to be had into

censorship in the Kamin’s book.
- At the core of every research argument is the

answer to your research question.
- No argumentative task is harder than making

arguments that challenge the others’ warrants
- The title suggests the gist of its argument... (How

to Thrive...)
- The American writer Linda Stone coined the
122
phrase ‘continuous partial attention’ to describe
the idea of... (How to Thrive...).
- … the German sociologist Robert Michels dubbed

the iron law of oligarchy… (Dub: to give
something or someone a particular name,
especially describing what you think of it, him,
or her. Iron law: a law or controlling principle
that is incontrovertible and inexorable) (Why
Nation’s Fail).
- The study’s authors were Sergei Brin and Larry

Page, and their proposal was for a product they
christened Google… (christen: to call a baby
through the Christian ceremony of baptism) (How
to Thrive).
- The analysis proposed here focuses on law’s

phenomenology in periods of political change,
termed “transitional jurisprudence.” (Transitional
Justice).
- It is everywhere and nowhere: part of an organic

´landscape´ or ´ecosystem´, to use two of the most
commonly deployed terms in the new-media
vocabulary. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
-
- What soon became clear during the course of
these conversations was that... (How to Thrive)
- For example, look at figure 15.4 in the context of

the explanatory sentence before it. (The Craft of
Research).
- But pie charts have their place, especially to

communicate qualitative impressions about the
comparative size of data, either to show that one
segment is disproportionately larger than the rest or
that the data is divided into many small segments.
- There are, however, two particular areas of

concern for those aiming to do more than simply
drift within culture’s new direction. (How to Thrive
123
- Because the consequences of such actions depend
on uncertain events such as the weather or the
opponent’s resolve, the choice of an act may be
construed as acceptance of a gamble that can yield
carious outcomes with different probabilities. (to be
construed: to understand the meaning of
something in a particular way) (Thinking, Fast and
Slow...)
- In these times of massive political movement from

illiberal rule, one burning question recurs. How
should societies deal with their evil pasts?
- Transitional Justice adopts a largely inductive

method, and, exploring an array of legal
responses… (array: a large group of things
positioned in a particular way) (Transitional
Justice).
- When relevant, the book draws on (to use

information of something to help you do
something) historical illustrations, from ancient
times to the Enlightenment, from the French and
American Revolutions through this century’s
postwar periods up to the contemporary moment.
- The interpretive inquiry proceeds on a number of

levels. (Transitional Justice).
- Chapter 2 concerns criminal justice in transition.

- The third chapter explores the workings of

historical justice (workings: the way something
does what is intended to do)(Transitional Justice).
- Probing the language of the successor cases

exposes a conception of the rule of law peculiar to
the transitional moment. (Probe: to examine
something with a tool, especially in order to find
something that is hidden. To search into or
examine something.) (Transitional Justice).
124
- …if there is hope, it lies in examining technology
not in isolation, but rather as part of the particular
social and cultural arenas in which it operates.
- … It is instructive to understand how this

worked… (Why Nations Fail).
- My aim is to trace two interwoven stories
- I have traced eight interwoven strands of

argument in this book, moving outwards from
individual experiences or time, attention and
sharing to the structures that surround these…
- Quite the contrary

To express the
opposite idea - Someone… disavows her earlier subscription to the
idea that
- The reverse is also true
- The situation, in particular the holding of

advantage, has reversed.
- The poverty of the Kongo was therefore the result of

extractive economic institutions that blocked all the
engines of prosperity or even made them work in
reverse.
- While for… the opposite holds true.
- The chapter acknowledges some of the reservations

expressed in relation to
- X… marks a turning point.
- To advance the debate…
- The question remains about…
- Be that as it may: Despite that. Nevertheless.
125
- the boot is on the other foot
(North American the shoe is on the other foot)
PHRASE
- The flip-side of this right is the obligation to

- But let´s flip the coin once more
- We find ourselves impaled on a paradox
- Paradoxical as it might seem,
- Let´s go even further and venture that (contrary to all

public verdicts on adultery), the real fault might consist
in the obverse –that is in the lack of any wish
whatsoever to stray
- The opposite is true.
- The rest of your argument more than balances the

flaw
- In England this motivation had been in play, too, as

reflected in the Statute of Laborers. But workers had
sufficient power that they got their way. Not so in
Eastern Europe. (Why Nations Fail).
- Trade wasn’t just monopolized; it was monopolized by

the Spanish monarchy.
- Classifying information… is a fine lesson for the realm

of work and productivity -but the exact inverse of what
it takes to develop a well-stocked human mind. (How
to Thrive)
- My onscreen writing, by contrast, is more about

re-reading and the architecture of paragraphs and
arguments. (How to Thrive).
126
To add - But, if it is right to say that…, it is not less so to say
emphasized that…
information -
- More tellingly still is…
- Indeed
- This has sparked considerable interest in…
- In view of the importance of…
- It appears reasonable to state that
- This too is of importance.
- She has more to say about…
- These type of question is even worth asking
- … warnings eminently worth heeding (to pay attention
to something, especially advice or a warning) (How to
- This represent a step forward in that direction

- The meaning throw a light on words.
- The jurisprudence of the Court raised serious concerns
over the lack of investigations.
- Consideration should be given to…
- Special mention should be made of
- …what gives real memory it’s richness and its

character, not to mention its mystery and fragility, is its
contingency… (How to Thrive…)
- … And even when complex thought does require a

complex a complex style (which is les often than we
think), every sentence profits from a second look (and
truth be told, Kant and Hegel would have benefited
from a good editor) (The Craft of Research).
- It is worth adding that
- It’s worth remembering that, though, that unless some

scrutiny is brought to bear on the intentions and
limitations encoded encoded within our tools, we can
only expect fewer improvements and more abuses to
occur. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- But experienced writers know that time spent planning
127
a first draft more than pays off when they start writing
it. (The Craft of Research).
- Convenience and security are part of the charm of such

devices, and the loss of certain kind of control may well
be a price worth paying. (How to Thrive…).
- But if there were hardships to be borne, they were

partly offset by the fact that life nowadays had a
greater dignity than it had had before… (Animal Farm).
- This has brought X TOPIC to the forefront of the

debate.
- The rule reminds us that
- Take on board: Fully consider or assimilate a new idea

- The case needs to be assessed on its own.
- This problem is crying out for solutions (or in-depth
analysis)
- The particular value of these legal framework lies in

the fact that
- The Court places a great deal of weight on the fact

that… (also give more weight)
- Rations, reduced in December, were reduced again in

February, and lanterns in the stalls were forbidden to
save Oil. But the pigs seemed comfortable enough, and
in fact were putting on weight (becoming heavier) if
anything. Animal Farm).
- Host of: great deal of

- Stacks of: a large quantity of something.
- Perhaps, understandably, scores of people went mad.
(Scores of: a large number of something). (Why Nations
Fail?)
- Similarly, the internet now positively bristles with
applications and advice…(bristle with: have a large
amount of something) (How to Thrive).
- The windmill, however, had not after all been used for
generating electrical power. It was used for milling
corn, and brought in a handsome ( large in amount)
128
money profit.(Animal Farm).
- ...Like the Bushong under Shyaam, societies
reorganized to take advantage of the greater
opportunities created by the glut of wild plants and
animals...(Glut: a supply of something that is much
greater than can sold or is needed or wanted) (Why
Nations Fail).
- Africa shares this trajectory of lack of state

centralization with countries such as …, which have also
failed to impose order over resembling stability to
achieve even a modicum (a small amount of
something good) of economic progress. (Why Nations
Fail)
- …the digital realm has already amply proved itself

a cornucopia (a large amount or supply of
something) for high as well as low. It may be a
lean time (a period during which there is not
enough of something) for seasoned professionals
and media production… however, the opportunities
have never been greater. (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age)
-
- …yet the passion and quantities of comment, debate
and practical expertise in evidence offer a sobering
comparison to the dearth of such popular, positive
input around most issues in mainstream politics.
(Dearth of: lack of). (Ho to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- The Committe takes note of the fact that
- The pivotal role of the rule of law has

constantly been stressed in international
instruments
- What has sparked government’s interest is

the drug trafficking.
- The stripping or rain forests in the service of

short-term economic interests could result in
damage to the earth’s biosphere. (The Craft
of Research)
129
- It places special emphasis on...
- Kant promoted the idea of duty for its own

sake
- But the fact remains that we are all making a

difference all the time.
- Anyone could do it , but to be able to get

along with people like she does… she is one
of a kind (unique).
- The account of moral relationships brings to

prominence something that is ignored or
marginalized in most theories of justice
- The crux of the matter is not the identity of

the agent, but continuity of responsibility.
- Evidence is the bedrock of every argument

(the fundamental principles on which
something is based).
- To take part, all you need to do is check off the

ideological touchstones, deploy digital and
conventional means to organize your action, and
launch it under the banner of the movement…
(check off: mark names in a list as having dealt
with; touchstone: an established principle or
standard by which something is judged). (How to
-
- All too: used to emphasize that something is the

case to an extreme or unwelcome extent. Example:
recent evidence confirms what we know about the
all too often famines in Korea.
- Colombia’s murder rate is at an all-time low but

its activists keep getting killed. (all-time low: An
130
all-time high, low, best, etc. is the
highest, lowest, best, etc. level that
has ever been). (IISS 2019 Survey)
- However, some other studies suggest that

other factors may be as important, if not
more so.
- The central point made at the beginning of

this paper is …
- It is no exageration to say that...
- Our thoughts and actions are routinely

guided by System 1 and generally are on the
mark (Correct; accurate; fact-based).
- ...people are often confident in predictions
that are quite likely to be off the mark (not
correct) (Think, Fast and Slow)
- Most of us have more than enough interests
- We need a structural -if you will, an

anthropological- analysis of the officer corps
like that offered here for enlisted personnel.
- Of course, it pays to meet busy librarians

halfway by preparing in advance. (it pays to:
To be profitable or advantageous. Be of
benefit)
- A blanket refusal to entertain adulterous

possibilities would seem to represent a
colossal failure of the imagination. (Blanket:
covering all cases. Total).
- Explain how what you have learned bears on

your question and helps you resolve your
problem. (bear on: Be relevant to something)
131
- As in the Soviet Union in its heydays, China is
growing rapidly... (The period of greatest
success). (Why Nations Fail?)
- If anyone was entitled to be assertive, it was

Crick and Watson
- How I feel about what’s happened is likely to

colour my impressions of the rest of the day.
- They also point to a blurring of ANSAs key motivations and

modus operandi, with the political and the criminal
intersecting in more ways than one.
- We know the distinction between evidence

and report of evidence must seem like a fine
one, but it emphasizes two important issues.
- But this wasn’t the reason The Wireless Age

lavished so much attention to the event
(bestow something in a generous or
extravagant quantities).
- Why the Fuss over Honest Mistakes? (to give

too much attention to small matters that are
not important, usually in a way that shows that
you are worried and not relaxed) (The Craft of
Research).
-
- For this was the first time that the live

mediated audience for a major event had
outnumbered those watching in person.
- Yet, more than ever, we all also need some

time in our lives for thinking our own
thoughts without distraction.
- … Reason… is now a property of our tools,
132
too: machines of ever-increasing complexity
that we have made, and that are helping to
remake us in turn. (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age)
- This proposal plausibly has some merit,

but...
- Within this term (multitasking) is encoded a

set of assumptions that underpins many
modern lives –the assumption that one of
technology’s greatest boon is the ability to
perform several kinds of task simultaneously,
and that thanks to this we are at our best
and most efficient when we are weaving
several streams of activity together. (boon:
blessing) (How to Thrive...)
- The culmination of the institutional struggles

of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
were two landmark events: the English Civil
War between 1642 and 1651, and
particularly the Glorious Revolution of 1688
(watersheds, turning points) (Why Nations
Fail)
- For what are at stake here are not simply

different modes of attention and memory
(How to Thrive…).
- The real question at stake is not so much

what is taking place as how much it matters.
- For example, the judge may be asked to

select a number, X90, such that his
subjective probability that this number will
be higher than the value of the Dow Jones
average is .90. (Think, Fast and Slow)
133
- A subjective probability distribution for the
value of the Dow Jones average can be
constructed from several such judgments
corresponding to different percentiles.
(Think, Fast and Slow)
- ...the subjects state overly narrow

confidence intervals which reflect more
certainty than is justified by their knowledge
about the assessed quantities. (narrow: a
narrow result is one that could easily have
been different because the amount by which
someone failed or succeeded was very
small.) (Think, Fast and Slow).
- Sex claims the headlines -and become a

running joke in classrooms- while less
sensational concerns go unaddressed. (How
to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- Sexual abuse, trafficking and illegal forms of
pornography are just one aspect of the
digital network’s dark side, but they are
among its most disturbing and headline-
grabbing manifestations, and must be both
legislated and guarded against... (How to Thrive
in the Digital Age)
- Diamond says, "The histories of the Fertile

Crescent and China ... hold a salutary lesson
for the modern world…”. (The Craft of
Research).
- Almost anything and everything is now in

front of the world’s gaze, sifted not by
gatekeepers but by public taste. Indeed, this
is the beating heart of most digital business
models (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- Keen’s argument is a version of an ancient
134
concerns over democratization writ large (in
a stark or exaggerated form. Similar to
something but larger or more obvious) (How
- The writer then disrupts it with a problem,

saying in effect: Reader, you may think you
know something, but your knowledge is
flawed or incomplete. (The Craft of
Research).
- The way the world experienced the end of

David’s story, though, could not have been
more different to its beginnings. (How to
Thrive in the Digital Age)
- For example, look again at the pairs of

sentences (2) and (3) below. (Words naming
actions are boldfaced…) (The Craft of
Research)
- ...This means that an ineffably lowest-

common-denominator business has
generally become still cheaper, nastier, and
more ingenious in outdoing itself... (How to
- Fewer than ten ‘adult’ sites make the top

one hundred. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
- In 2007, … the American publisher, blogger and leading

light of the free-software movement... proposed a
‘bloggers’ code of conduct’... (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- This is above all a question about the strength and

integrity of our communities... (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- … And we can think of no way to prepare for that

responsibility better than doing research of one’s own
(of one‘s own: belonging to oneself alone). (The
135
Craft of Research)
- Rations, reduced in December, were reduced again

in February, and lanterns in the stalls were
forbidden to save Oil. But the pigs seemed
comfortable enough, and in fact were putting on
weight if anything. (Used to suggest tentatively
that something may be the case (often the opposite
of something previously implied)(Animal Farm).
- In 2006, the American psychologist Geoffrey

Miller used an essay magazine to explore the
question known as Fermi’s Paradox after the
Italian -American physicist Enrico Fermi… (How
- …Moreover, as writers and theorists like Jane

McGonigal have argued, this principle can be
taken one stage further, in using the lessons of the
best games and technologies to make reality itself
‘better’. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- When it comes to learning… we are already

beginning to see in the habits and skills of the
emerging generation of ‘digital natives’ how
lessons drawn from games, in time (early
enough), transform both the inclusiveness and the
effectiveness of education systems. (How to a
- It was not that these creatures did not work, after

their fashion. There was, as Squealer was never
tired of explaining, endless work in the
supervision and organisation of the farm. (Animal
Farm).
- It was a source of great satisfaction to him, he

said — and, he was sure, to all others present — to
feel that a long period of mistrust and
misunderstanding had now come to an end.
(Animal Farm).
- The transitional justice dilemma arises during

periods of substantial political change. When a
legal system is in flux, the challenge to ordinary
understandings of the rule of law is surely at its
136
greatest. (Transitional Justice).
- Although the Communist era constitutions

enumerated rights, these were largely rights on
paper that were rarely enforced. So it was that,
after Communism, the mere passage of new rights
charters would not produce a sense of
transformation in the rule of law. (Transitional
Justice).
- …Not for nothing did Time magazine declare ‘the

protestor’ it’s person of the year for 2011… (How
- Extractive institutions, by their very logic, must

create wealth so that it can be extracted. (Why
Nations Fail).
- One could fill many pages with examples of

the perverse incentives these schemes
generated… (Why Nations Fail).
- … And we must try harder than ever to find

times and means of being entirely
ourselves… (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- …This kind or freedom has its siren call…

- … Wired magazine… is a essential stop for

the look and feel of the future as geeks
would love to know it (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age).
- The conclusions to be drawn therefrom are…

To make - This assumptions yields to the conclusion that
conclusion
- The present contribution allows to conclude as follows.
 This permits the conclusion that...
 Returning to the question posed at the beginning of

this study, it is now possible to state that ...
137
 He made calculations and drawn up arguments
 If you still draw a blank, try these steps. (Elicit no
successful response)
 Less than a century later, it is safe to say that even the
wildest of these speculations have been exceeded.
- The concluding chapter brings together and analyzes

the various ways in which new democracies respond to
legacies of injustice. (Transitional Justice).
- In varying contexts, scholars come to disparate

conclusions, suggesting that variations in interpretive
strategies, whether of positivist or natural law, do not
in and of themselves explain the judiciary’s role under
repressive rule. (Disparate: different in every way)
(Transitional Justice)
To compare two - This inquiry appears to be much like the…
ideas - Step into shoes of…
- A new idea has been likened to a shy woodland

creature (point out the resemblance of something.
Compare).
- Part-Whole contradiction. You can show that a source

mistakes how the parts of something are related.
Example: source claims that ____________is a part of
__________, but it’s not.
- Just as the Arthur legends helped to forge a definitively

English social and political identity (Weiman 1998), so
the legend of Alamo.
- No one nation or organization has the ability to control

this yet, just as no one service or trend –no matter how
potent its appeal or lobbyist- has yet managed to
colonize our every digital experience. (How to Thrive
in the Digital Age)
- Interwoven stories
- Media had moved from saturating leisure time at home

to something still more significant: not so much the
saturation of daily life as a complete integration into its
routines.
138
- We are already as distant from that past as readers
then were from the pre-Gutenberg world.
- You will face a Goldilocks moment: acknowledge too

many and you distract readers from the core of your
argument; acknowledge too few and you seem
indifferent to or even ignorant of their views
(Goldilocks: Denoting or referring to the most desirable
or advantaegous part of a range of values or conditions
–typically the centre-.)
- A cold Fourth of July in Florida does not disprove a

claim about global warming, any more than a warm
New England Christmas prove it.
- Against their most decent instincts, law students must

learn to argue that justice is not the outcome they
believe to be ethical but the one that the law and the
courts support. (The Craft of Research).
- Children aged 12-16 today are significantly more

violent than their counterparts from a generation ago
(The Craft ofResearch).
- A critical juncture is a double-edged sword that can

cause a sharp turn in the trajectory of a nation. On the
one hand it can open the way for breaking the cycle of
extractive institutions... Or it can intensify the
emergence of extractive institutions... (Why Nations
Fail?).
- The implications of the study are double-edged. (How

- In any event, know that every researcher

compromises on perfection to get the job done
(Compromise: to allow your principles to be
less strong or your standards or morals to be
lower). (The Craft of Research).
- Yet most adult social-network users would fall

down on many of the tasks in question (fall down
on something: not to be good at something in
comparison with another thing) (How to Thrive…)
139
- What is needed… is something credible and
engaging that can get across a general lesson for
online Behaviour: along the lines of ‘be smart, and
take a moment to think about the consequences of
what you’re doing’ (get across: to communicate a
message successfully; along the lines: similar in
type) (How to Thrive…)
- There is no such thing as something for nothing,

even online. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- … Such a representation would avoid the violations

of invariance illustrated in the previous problems,
but the advice is easier to give than to follow…
- Much as online authority has increasingly become

divorced from expertise, so, it seems, cultural
production is becoming divorced from talent. (How
to Thrive in the Digital Age)
- Where once the number of objects competing for

an audience’s attention numbered in the
thousands, it now runs beyond the millions. (How
- We are, however, increasingly able to … share not

only trivia, but also evidence that values other
than mob euphoria are meaningful to the many as
well as the few. (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age).
- For as we begin to take it for granted that owning

data and pixels can be every bit as (quite, just,
equally) serious a business as trading oil,
regulating unreal transactions becomes an
increasingly real concern… (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- Yet just over a decade on, it’s becoming

increasingly clear that the future of online pleasure
may look less like The Matrix than something at
once simpler and broader in its reach. (How to
140
- Your task is to help the birds recover these by
demolishing several hundred screens’ worth of the
pigs’ rickety fortifications… (worth of: equivalent
to) (How to Thrive…).
- …Each wicked problem is a unique set of

circumstances, themselves entwined with other
sets of problems. (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age).
- … Yet the seductive believe that access to the

internet can simply be equated with democratic
freedom does little justice to the complexities of
this situation. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- As for the others, their life, so far as they knew,

was as it had always been. (Animal Farm).
- …They had… caused ‘panic and revulsion in local

communities as rumours of anticipated violence
spread -a curious mirror image of the more
familiar story of ‘good’ anti-government protestors
elsewhere being jailed for their attempts to
organize political actions or spread information.
- Much like words, our individual identities have

little meaning without context… (much like: in a
similar way) (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- A theory like this cannot afford such luxury.
To criticize a
theory - Assumptions that need to be made explicit
- Ring hollow: Sounds insincerely.
- It is a cuckoo in the nest: An unwelcome intruder in a

place.
-
- If one can call it that
- This sparked criticism
- It has been criticised on the grounds that
141
- The approach is open to the objection that.
- It proceeds in fits and starts: intermittently. With

irregular bursts of activity.
- The thought seems to be…
- Worries in this vicinity have been around (have a lot of

varied experience and understanding of the world).
- I am not as sure.
- Her stance cannot withstand criticism.
- This stance belies the problems lurking at the

foundations of any such inquiry (the approach fail to
justify the problems underlying in the most basic
premises of the inquiry).
- …Miller, however, represents a more subtly troubling

strand of utopian speculation (strand: a thin thread of
something, often one of a few twisted around each
other to make a string or a rope) (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- … a host of ´unknown unknowns´ lurked behind every

media experience... (Lurk: to exist although it is not
always noticeable) (How to Thrive...)
- The Court has battled with concepts such as what

constitutes an effective remedy
- In a dissenting opinion, X has stated that…
- We consider two principal sources of doubt concerning

the legal character of international law.
- In considering this argument we shall give it the

benefit of every doubt concerning the facts of…
- They are required in order that those who would

voluntarily submit to the restrains of law shall not be
mere victims of malefactors who would, in the absence
of such sanctions, reap the advantages of respect for
law on the part of others.
142
- Perhaps…the fruits of this process may be reaped not
chiefly by the wealthy or the current elite, but by those
people and nations who have not historically been at
the forefront of development (reap: cut and collect a
crop).
- Industrial growth in the Soviet Union was further

facilitated because its technology was so backward
relative to what was available in Europe and the United
States, so large gains could be reaped by reallocating
resources to the industrial sector… (Why Nations Fail).
- To initiate a war is to risk much for an outcome which

is rarely predictable.
- The Great Recession of 2008-2011 was caused largely
by negligent financial regulation thath let banks take
on too much risk
- You run that risk when you do any of the following.
- But the increasing demand for more land for

agricultural use and for wood products for construction
worldwide now threatens these forests with
destruction. (The Craft of Resesarch)
- There can be no standing assurance that…
- …This was, in essence, the pattern of activity that

defined the beginning of the Arab Spring uprisings in
Tunisia and Egypt -a pattern characterized not so much
by its unimpeachable moral standing as by it by
novelty and effectiveness in regions for so long so
tightly controlled. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- These theories fail completely to explain…
- Again, we emancipate ourselves from the assumption

that..
- However, it remains weakness that…
- This author is guilty for using vague and broad notions

of..
- TAR WITH THE SAME BRUSH: Consider certain
143
people to have the same faults.
- This conclusion is subjected to a reservation
- under colour of: Under the

pretext of.
- It is now trite to observe that
- We need to revisit the assumption of
- One must exercise caution in inferring from this that
- march to (the beat of) a

different drummer: informal
Consciously adopt a different approach or attitude
from the majority of people; be unconventional.
- This issue is crying out for a more in-depth analysis

(Demand as a self-evident requirement or solution.)
- The Security Council seems to adopt the policy of

‘sitting on the fence’ (Avoid making a decision or
choice.)
- the present Declaration does not endorse

such a threshold.
- The case of Sri Lanka warns us against the

instrumental use of transitional justice.
- This runs contrary to the concept of

restorative justice
- Sherry have thrown into question the notion
144
that we are rational
- This bears no relation to the real reason
- To describe international humanitarian law as the

human rights law of armed conflict is apt to mislead
- In any case, when more closely scrutinized, the

obligation to keep the treaties made by our predeces-
sors is not as beyond question as it first appears
- But we know that circumstances change and that our

ideas about justice are not above criticism.
- There are, however, reparative claims of another kind

that an account of historical entitlement must
encompass.
- In any case, there is a lack of fit between this way of

reasoning about past injustices and the argument
offered in the last chapter for why we should keep the
agreements of our predecessors
- In other words, sufficient wrong can be attributed to

the American nation to give descendants of slaves a
case for reparation (though whether their claims can
be justified remains to be seen).
- take something with a pinch (or grain) of salt

PHRASE. Regard something as exaggerated; believe
only part of something.
- Take with a grain of salt. Regard something as

exaggerated; believe only part of something.
- The economic performance of the economy leaves

much more to be desired.
- It sounds like a recipe for economic disaster and

stagnation, if not outright collapse (Why Nations Fail).
- It wasn’t differences in knowledge or intentions

between John Smith and Cortés that laid the seeds of
145
divergence...
- In the late summer yet another of Snowball’s

machinations was laid bare. The wheat crop was full of
weeds, and it was discovered that on one of his
nocturnal visits Snowball had mixed weed seeds with
the seed corn. (Animal Farm).
- Even those who are not committed to equality of

outcomes harbour ideas about fairness that are in
conflict with rights of inheritance. (Keep secretly a
feeling or idea).
- One evening, over a good bottle of wine, she and

her friend Adam, a statistically oriented
management consultant who has worked with
supermarket chains, hatched an interesting idea.
(Hatch: to create or decide on a plan, esp. a secret
plan.) (Nudge)
- This is a half-baked idea that so many charlatans try to

impose. (Not fully developed or thought through ideas)
- The report falls short if it is seen as just a pile of related

facts.
- Most readers would think that the link between steps 2

and 3 is a bit of a stretch (a mild exaggeration beyond
the truth or what is likely the case).
- We would have to fear for the state of mind of the

man who did not respond to this picture of youth,
health, and energy.
- Unless you are reading “against the grain” of the

writer’s intention –to expose hidden tendencies, for
example- do not report minor aspects of a source as
though they were major. (against the grain: contrary to
the natural inclination or feeling of someone)
- ‘Betrayed’ spouses are often encouraged to accuse

their ‘betrayers’ of being morally in the wrong for
finding fault with them (make and adverse criticism or
objection, sometimes u fairly)
- The bourgeois ideal rendered taboo a host of faults
146
and behaviours.
- But when you address serious issues, readers expect

you to base each reason on its own foundation of
evidence, because careful readers don’t accept reasons
at face value (To accept someone or something
without considering whether they really are what they
claim to be).
- A common mistake –falling back on what you know.

(fall back: have recourse to when in difficulty).
- From the idealist perspective, by contrast, the question

of transitional justice generally falls back on
universalist conceptions of justice. (Fall back on: to use
something as a support, especially when other things
have failed). (Transitional Justice).
- But guard against uncritically imposing familiar

methods on new problems.
- But in the humanities, such a claim might seem a bit

thin (lacking of substance or quality)
- It might be representative but, then again, it might

not. If your claim depends on one or two examples,
however well-chosen to be representative, there is a
risk that your evidence will be dismissed as a form
of cherry-picking (The action or practice of
choosing and taking only the most beneficial
or profitable items, opportunities, etc., from
what is available).
- What has gone almost unnoticed compared to

these shifts… is that
- Beginning researchers sometimes think that their

goal is to have the last word on a topic, that is, to
make an argument that allows for no response
but total assent.
- Writers also shy away from acknowledging and

responding to objections and alternatives because
they don´t know how to do those things in writing
(shy away from: to avoid something that you
147
dislike, fear, or do not feel confident about) .
- But as insightful as that may be, it does not bear

on the issue at hand (Bear on: to be connected or
related to something) (The Craft of Research)
- But the argument overlooks/ignores/misses key

factors (The Craft of Research)
- But law students have to learn that legal warrants

may trump such commonsense ideas (to be better
, or have more importance than. The Craft of
Research).
- Texting’s importance embodies an easily

overlooked truth… (How to Thrive…)
- This doesn’t mean the kind of all-too-basic ‘how

to’ guides that leave media-savvy students cold…
(How to Thrive…)
- But recent research has called this orthodoxy into

question, suggesting that there is little or no
relationship between a country's regime type and
its level of human development… (The Craft of
Research).
- [Pie charts are c]ommon in popular venues,

frowned on by professionals. (Frown on: to
disapprove of something or someone) (The
Craft of Research).
- Few sociological concepts have fallen out of

favor as fast as Catholicism's alleged protective
influence against suicide. (Fall out of favor: to no
longer be supported or regarded) (The Craft of
Research).
- But the field of critical thinking has been taken

over by fads (Fad: a style or activity that
suddenly becomes popular but which usually
does not stay popular for very long) and special
interests. (The Craft of Research).
- Many writers find the first sentence or two
148
especially difficult to write, and so they fall into
clichés (The Craft of Research).
- Some inexperienced researchers skimp on (use less

of something than is necessary) common ground,
opening their paper as if they were picking up a
class conversation where it left off. (The Craft of
Research).
- Yet to claim them as the whole truth seems to me

to be both too pessimistic and too passive a
perspective… (How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
- And though no one cared to mention it in the

hearing of the pigs or the dogs, it was felt that the
killings which had taken place did not square with
this (Animal Farm).
- ...the British philosopher Roger Scruton memorably

characterized this process of ‘hiding behind the
screen’ as ‘a process of alienation whereby people
learn to... make their lives into playthings over
which they retain complete, though in some way
deeply specious control’ (specious: seeming to be
right or true but really wrong or false) (How to
- ...sex -which had spread like wildfire across a

virgin digital landscape- would lose its edge, due
in large part to its lack of potential for
sophistication (lose its edge: To no longer have and
advantage that you used to have) (How to Thrive in
the Digital Age).
- Colleages tell us... that no one but ivory-tower

academics does research anymore (The Craft of
Research)
- It is easy to reduce formal structure to empty drill

(repetition of activities to get certain skills). (The
Craft of Research)
- Maybe then they can move toward the kind of

sound research and reasoned decision- making that
our society so badly needs but too seldom gets.
149
- While, in the abstract, certain legal ideals may be

thought necessary to liberal transition, such theorizing
does not account well for the relation of law and
political change. (Transitional Justice).
- For, contrary to the prevailing idealist accounts, law

here is shaped by the political circumstances, but, also
challenging the prevailing realist accounts, law here is
not mere product but itself structures the transition.
- But before doing so, there were a few words that he

felt it incumbent upon him to say.
- But before doing so, there were a few words that he
felt it incumbent upon him to say. (Animal
Farm).
- On the natural law view of the rule of law, Fuller’s

approach appears more nuanced,… (Transitional
Justice).
- … Proclaimed trust in politicians is close to an all-

time low, while the traditional custodians of public
political debate -newspapers and broadcasters- are
faring little better in public affections or interest
(fare: to progress in a particular condition) (How to
- Theories of adjudication associated with

understandings of the rule of law in ordinary times
are inapposite to transitional periods (inapposite:
not suitable and right for the occasion)
- … This is a political question that many legislators

and citizens alike are ill equipped to answer.
- Though widely accepted, the evidence from

the Natufians suggests that this traditional
150
explanation puts the cart before the horse
(To do things in the wrong order) (Why
Nations Fail).
- Option 4 might appeal to a corrupt

person in Carolyn’s job, and manipulating
the order of the food items would put
yet another weapon in the arsenal of
available methods to exploit power.
(Nudge).
- Transitional Justice “toolkit” (toolset).

To refer to the - to take the law into her own hands
specific topic of
transitional
justice - The whole of the big pasture, including the windmill,
was in the hands of the enemy. (Animal Farm).
- it takes due account of the factual

impediments to transitional justice
- The peace talks were bogged down (deadlocked, got

stuck)
- Humanity, it seemed, was reaching an inexorable

plateau in the amount of media it was possible to
consume (plateau: a state of little or no change
following a period of activity).
- efforts to search for disappeared persons have run up against

formidable challenges (Meet (a difficulty or problem)
- Soviet growth ran out of steam, and the economy

began to collapse. (Lose impetus or enthusiasm)
- The early growth of the Natufians did not become
sustained for the same reason that Soviet growth
fizzled out (fizzle out: to gradually end, often in a
disappointing or weak way) (Why Nations Fail)
- The State should step up its efforts to ensure that all allegations
regarding acts of intimidation, threats or attacks are investigated
promptly, thoroughly and impartially, and that the perpetrators
stand trial and are held accountable for their acts. (step something
151
up: Increase
the amount, speed, or intensity of
something.)
- … this can happen either because of infighting over the

spoils of (goods, advantages obtained by winning a war
or being in a particular position) extraction… or
because the inherent lack of innovation… (Why Nations
Fail).
- In its ordinary social function, law provides order and

stability, but in extraordinary periods of political
upheaval (great change, especially involving much
difficulty, activity, or problem), law maintains order
even as it enables transformation.
- The cases illustrate the dilemmas implied in the

attempt to effect substantial political change through
and within the law. (Transitional Justice).
- In periods of political flux, international law offers an

alternative construction of law that, despite substantial
political change, is continuous and enduring. (Flux:
continuous change) (Transitional Justice).
- The constitutional courts assist in the transformation

to rule-of-law systems in a number of ways.
- The present writer…

To use the first - The observer has noted that…
person
- Reparative ventures: measures of reparation
Reparation
- Restore the recipient (of compensation) to a position
akin to what existed prior to the offence.
- Atone: Make reparation for
- remedial purpose measures.
- Reparation of harm brought about by the violation of

an international obligation.
- The Court expanded the spectrum of reparations.
152
- Influence the discourse on reparations at the national
level.
- Policy-oriented recommendations for reparations.
- The Court has issued comprehensive reparations.
- 3. States Parties shall take all feasible measures to

ensure that persons within their jurisdiction
recruited or used in hostilities contrary to the
present Protocol are demobilized or otherwise
released from service. States Parties shall, when
necessary, accord to (Give or grant) such persons
all appropriate assistance for their physical and
psychological recovery and their social
reintegration.
- The Court has set a benchmark for reparations.
- Vindicate rights
- political wrangling of reparations during transition
- Wrest (take from) the violations silence and oblivion
- Reparative claims or demands.
- The attacks claimed between four and six victims

Victims and - I have no wish to take life...
conflict
- … The formulation of Problem 1 implicitly adopts as a
reference point a state f affairs in which the disease is
allowed to take its toll of 600 lives (if something takes
its/a toll, it causes suffering, deaths, or damage.
- How can playing in agony imorove the individuals’ lot?

(lot: the quality of someone’s life and experiences that
they have) (Thinking, Fast and Slow).
-
- Dire Strait of victims (Extremely serious situation).
- For at least the last one thousand years, outside of
153
small pockets (having less money than you should
have or than you intended) and during limited periods
of time, Africa has lagged behind (to move or advance
so slowly that you are behind other people or things)
the rest of the world in terms of technology… (Why
Nations Fail)
- … When such intellectual thievery becomes common,

the community grows suspicious, then distrustful, then
cynical: Everyone does it. I’ll fall behind if I don’t... (The
Craft of Research).
- The simple fact that each one of us now leaves behind

a series of digital footprints visible for all eternity poses
profound legislative and ethical questions -and ones
that most nation states remain many years behind in
addressing. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- Among the groups of defenders hardest hit are those

who work for justice
- In the grip of: dominated or affected by

something undesirable or adverse. Example:
We have (at most) an obligation to repair the
violations of our predecessors if we think that
they were basically upright people who made
mistakes or were in the grip of the prejudices
of the times, but not if we think that they were
wicked or irresponsibles
- Because in 1600 the grip of the Crown was
weaker in England than in France and Spain,
Atlantic trade opened the way to the creation
of neww institutions with greater pluralism in
England (the grip of: control of something or
someone)… (Why Nations Fail?)
- … the Time magazine ‘the protestor’ it’s

person of the year… ‘for steering the planet
on a more democratic though sometimes
more dangerous path for the 21st century’.
- …sufficiently misguided legislation or

malicious corporate practice may derail many
of the open internet’s current virtues; or drive
consumers seeking safety and convenience
154
straight into the hands of censors and
monopolies. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- Defenseless population caught in the middle
- Rights ascribed to victims
- Right bearer
- Transferring their rights into reality
- Handling a mobile phone … it’s hard to hold in mind the

snaking chains of supply and manufacture that have
brought into being... (How to Thrive in a Digital Age)
- Responsibility of state must be established vis-à-vis

victims (in relations to)
- Empty-handed.
- Back to square one: Back to where one started, with

no progress having been made. Example from
Sandoval: Either they will obtain less compensation
than they would have obtained a decade ago from
the Court or, as a consequence of deferring to
DRPs to redress such violations, the role of the
Inter-American Court will be diminished and victims
will be back to square one in terms of the
protection of their rights
- Many societies with extractive political institutions will

shy away from inclusive economic institutions because
of fear of creative destruction. (avoid doing or
becoming involved in something due to nervousness
of a lack of confidence)
- Paper solution.
- In order to prevent new encroachment on her dignity

- War-torn victims (or countries)
- They bear the brunt of war (The worst part or chief
impact of a specified action.)
155
- The Colombian society underwent mass violations
- Slave owners have long ago departed from the scene.

- There other persons affected by conflict who may also
be in need of protection.
- In dire need of
- Plan Colombia allowed the state to regain the upper

hand in the war vis-à-vis FARC.
- The Gulf Clan remains one of the most powerful

organised-crime group in Colombia, but has suffered
several setbacks. (IISS 2019 Survey)
- Santos opted for a bargained solution to the inflict with

FARC.
- …Single, centralized solutions will not save or safeguard

us. New bargains are there to be struck, and new
forms of inclusiveness ripe to be explored (strike the
bargain: to successfully reach an agreement on a price)
- iron something out

Solve or settle difficulties or problems.
- I´ll also talk about those challenges that almost all of us

grapple with every day (struggle to deal with or
overcome a difficulty).
- In seeking a way out of the conflict, national

government attempt the peace negotiation with FARC.
- It is those gestures that remind each party of the

other’s fundamental humanity that are key to any
attempt to make peace take hold.( Start to have an
effect.)
- Rank-and-file members: ordinary members.
-The second-in-command and the third-in-command men

have been killed. (IISS 2019 Survey)
156
- Conquistadors adapted the institutional framework of
Guarani’s, with themselves at the helm (at the
leadership position)
- Unlike property, which can in most cases be sold,

bequeathed or given away according to the desire of
the owner, we generally suppose that the territory
possessed by a nation cannot be disposed of as leaders
or citizens please. T
- The conflict began in earnest with the assassination of

Gaitán (1Occurring to a greater extent or more
intensely than before.)
- A Civil war then raged between the Reds (the

Bolsheviks) and the Whites. (rage: to happen in a
strong or violent way)(Why Nations Fail).
- Conflict-related violence
- The country was riven by guerrilla war (split or torn
apart violently)
- Fierce dispute.
- … there was a great deal of lawlessness and banditry as

armed groups vied (to compete with other people to
achieve or get something) for local control. (Why
Nations Fail).
- Violent methods
- Land seizures
- The order was to kill every civilian in sight (close to
being realised, visible)
- In plain sight: companies should not make smaller

letters in contract, thus hiding information to
customers’ plain sight.
- Couples got married because they found they could

stand the sight of each other (tolerate, accept, endure)
157
- A terrible sight had met their eyes. The windmill was in
ruins. (Animal Farm)
- The conflict could have been averted in the simplest

way possible.
- for two days there had been a lull in the fighting (A

temporary interval of quiet or lack of activity.)
- The indigenous people are still dependent on

fishing for their livelihood
- A mighty cry for vengeance went up, and without

waiting for further orders they charged forth in a
body and made straight for the enemy (approach
someone to attack) (Animal Farm).
- But the men did not go unscathed either

(unscathed: unharmed). Three of them had their
heads broken by blows from Boxer’s hoofs;
another was gored in the belly by a cow’s horn;
another had his trousers nearly torn off by Jessie
and Bluebell. (Animal Farm).
- And when the nine dogs of Napoleon’s own

bodyguard, whom he had instructed to make a
detour under cover of the hedge, suddenly
appeared on the men’s flank, baying ferociously,
panic overtook them. (Animal Farm).
- … you will find it difficult not to come across

political actions involving remarkable numbers of
disparate people: global protest railing against a
particular injustice; darker organisations sowing
terror and dissent… (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age).
- Frederick shouted to his men to get out while the

going was good, and the next moment the
cowardly enemy was running for dear life. (Animal
Farm).
158
- Napoleon appeared to be somewhat better, and
the following morning Squealer was able to tell
them that he was well on the way to recovery
(Animal Farm).
- Boxer’s split hoof was a long time in healing. They

had started the rebuilding of the windmill the day
after the victory celebrations were ended. Boxer
refused to take even a day off work, and made it a
point of honour not to let it be seen that he was in
pain (Animal Farm).
- The others said, ‘Boxer will pick up when the

spring grass comes on’; but the spring came and
Boxer grew no fatter. (Animal Farm)
- …At such times his lips were seen to form the

words, ‘I will work harder’; he had no voice left.
(Animal Farm).
- Authoritarian regimes, if they know what they’re

doing, may indeed muster enough force to
overcome most digital protest… (muster: to
produce or encourage something such as an
emotion or support) (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age).
- …and the best results, for both individuals and the

world, are only likely to emerge from a negotiation
which all players are able to fight their corners
with equal force and knowledge (fight their
corner: to defend something that you believe in by
arguing). (His to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- … Anyone travelling between two or even

venturing into the forest to collect food was liable
to be attacked or kidnapped… (Why Nations Fail).
- The k’uhul ajaw raised tribute from farmers and
159
organized labor to build the great monuments (…)
Looking across all the Maya cities, archaeologists can
this count how many buildings were finished in
particular years. (Why Nations Fail).
-
Responsibility
-The black Americans would be duly alleviated if the
government owns up to slavery (own up: Admit to having
done something wrong or embarrassing.
-Hold responsibility
- Pass the buck: Shift the responsibility for something to
someone else.
- The state had failed its positive duty to protect the life
of victims.
- Relieve the state from responsibility for
- State scapes the reach of international rules
- The government eschews responsibilities by arguing

that this is not an internal armed conflict but a terrorist
threat. (Deliberately avoid. Abstain from)
- Divest themselves of responsibility (free themselves)
- It Absolves from responsibility for some of the actions

of the dictator.
- Nevertheless, the presumption of continuity means

that members of a nation cannot shrug off
(dismissomething as unimportant)
responsibilities incurred by their leaders simply
by changing their political orientation and declaring
that they are starting afresh
- Convoluted and indirect prose is not what good writers

aim for, but what thoughtless ones get away with (to
escape blame or punishment when you do something
wrong, or to avoid harm or criticism for something
you did/to do something successfully although it is
not the best way of doing it). (The Craft of Research)
- The international community is called upon
160
to provide assistance in (is required to)
- article 12(1) appeals to the international

community to
- The appeals to imagination is boundless (an

attempt to persuade someone to do
something by calling on a particular quality).
- The Organization is tasked with ruling …

- Colleages tell us.. That students aren’t up to
the task... (up to: capable of or fit for) (The
Craft of Research)
- He saw ahead of him the heavy labour of

rebuilding the windmill from the
foundations, and already in imagination he
braced himself for the task (brace prepare
for something unpleasant). (Animal Farm).
- The requirements must be cumulative

satisfied
- This is a crucial choice, because it creates

your social contract with your readers. If you
state your main point toward the end of your
introduction, you put your readers in
charge… (The Craft of Research).
Conduct Obligation/Result Obligation
Obligations and
Rights Accrue obligations
Bestow obligations.
-This obligation is implicit in the obligation to protect and is reinforced

by
the general duty to ensure the rights recognized in the Covenant, which
is articulated in
article 2, paragraph 1, when read in conjunction with article 6,
paragraph 1
161
- As highlighted throughout the report, ANSAs legal personality and
possession of human rights obligations do not mean that there is an
equality of obligations between States and ANSAs, or amongst
ANSAs.
Obligatory status
Injunction: an authoritative warning or order.
Give effect to the general obligation to
Pass the buck: Shift the responsibility for something to

someone else.
To live up to the promise: undertake the fulfillment of a

promise.
The question now is to whom this obligation is owed.
Civilians must refrain from becoming combatants on pain of

losing their protection.
State remains responsible for the obligations incumbent upon

it under international treaty law.
-The right to reparations might be triggered by internationa

treaty law
- Right holder
- Lay claim: 1Assert that one has a right to (something).

Natural law theorists believed that laws governing
relations between nations had to be based on moral
premisses which could lay claim to universality
-Obligated parties
-The Committee could not find a definite answer as

to whether Article 25 of the ILC Draft Articles on
State Responsibility is a sufficient legal basis to
justify the non-performance of the obligation to
make full reparation in post-conflict-situations
- The agreement provides a historic opportunity to

curb human rights abuses
162
- 7Rather than protecting people’s rights, the
Amparo provides a loophole in equality before the
law (1An ambiguity or inadequacy in the law or
a set of rules.)
- drivers over who had the right-of-way.

-
Others legal Direct object/Side Effect

vocabulary
Agree to differ: cease to argue about something because
neither party will compromise or be persuaded.
- They lacked the means to enforce compliance.
- Break the law

- Breach the law
- Is an abridgment of law
- Incorporate victims’ rights elements
- Applicability of law.
- Issue a decision
- Manufacture significant economic reforms.
- Declare void a decision (decree)

- To be nullified (legal provision)
- The Court struck down many resident’s decrees during
the nineties.
- Norm-setting basis for the chapter.
- This undermines the credibility of international law.
- Legal landscape
- These are actions taken under the auspices of the
Protocol
- Abridge the right (curtail or restrict rights)
- This renders the rights meaningless.
- Although the Communist era constitutions enumerated

rights, these were largely rights on paper that were
rarely enforced. So it was that, after Communism, the
163
mere passage of new rights charters would not
produce a sense of transformation in the rule of law.
- Quest for justice
- Loosely worded provisions.
- The treaties encapsulate obligations.
- We could enshrine the treaty in the constitution of our

political society.
- Making treaties into law is in fact a standard practice.
- Such crimes may be prosecuted by the International Criminal
Court (ICC), ad hoc tribunals and national courts that have
domesticated these crimes.
- As of right (As a result of having a moral or legal claim

or entitlement.)
- By right of natural law (in Justice, with the entitlement

of)
- The Treaty was founded on

- The claimants were seeking to invoke alleged
violations of article 52 of the 1977 Additional
Protocol I to the 1949 Geneva Conventions
during NATO’s bombing against the former
Yugoslavia as basis for compensation claims
against members of the Dutch Government.
- Statutes of limitation set forth a specific

period of time within which claims have to
be lodged in order to succeed (formally
presented)
- The importance of ascertaining when human

rights law applies is that... ( Find (something) out
for certain; make sure of.)
- To be riddled (be permeated by something

undesirable). The task is riddled with
164
different dilemmas. the existing law is
riddled with loopholes.
- Much like the traditional political arena,

those digital spaces within which new forms
of political and social contract are being
forged are themselves sure to be endlessly
fraught with conflicts, negotiations and
compromises (fraught with: full of
unpleasant things such as problems or
dangers) (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- Time limits: A limit of time within which

something must be done.
‘with this pass you can use the rail system as
much as you like within a certain time limit’
- Despite the passage of time since these

crimes were committed, the law would have
lifted statutes of limitations for treason and
other serious crimes,18 effectively reviving
these offenses. Similar legislation reviving
the time bars elapsing during the
Communist regime was also enacted
elsewhere in the region, as in the Czech
Republic. (Time elapse: of time) to go past.
Time-bar: with object To disallow or
invalidate on the grounds that a time limit
has expired (usually in pass.). Stoppage
placed on the exercise of a claim, judgment,
or right after passage of a certain period as
established by law (such as statute of
limitations) or custom. Read more:
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definitio
n/time-bar.html) (Transitional Justice).
- In elevating a law that would have extended

the time for prosecution of crimes
committed under prior rule, the Czech
165
Constitutional Court upheld it on the basis
that it would serve the goal of undoing past
politicized punishment policy and
administration of justice. The law would
suspend the time limitations for forty-one
years (the time between February 25, 1948,
and December 29, 1989) for acts previously
not prosecuted or punished for “political
reasons”. (Transitional Justice).
- The conditions imposed on pragmatic

argument are therefore likely to be easier to
satisfy when issues of war and national
security are at stake, but even in such cases
the onus of proof falls on the pragmatists.
- Enabling laws (leyes estatutarias)
- Arrest Warrant: A court order, issued on a probable

cause, authorizing a law enforcement officer to arrest an
individual and present him or her before the court. Also
called warrant for arrest.
Read more:
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/arrest-
warrant.html
- It is the only offense that mandates death.

(The Craft of Research)
- For all the cacophony, what I found on my

screen was not incoherence or mob rule (the
state of large groups of people acting
without the consent of government or
authorities) (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- Sexual abuse, trafficking and illegal forms of

pornography are just one aspect of the digital
network’s dark side, but they are among its
most disturbing and headline-grabbing
manifestations, and must be both legislated
166
and guarded against... (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age)
-
- In defending ourselves and our societies against
these, the best digital models echo the effective
policing of urban space, combining the ethos of a
community in which members look out for one
another with external standards enforced from
within (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- The presidential elections of Colombia were held in

2018. No candidate reached more than 50% of
turnout and a second round were held. (turnout:
In an election, the turnout is the
number of people who vote). (IISS 2019
Survey)
- …He had, he said, only one real ambition left — to

see the windmill well under way before he
reached the age for retirement. (Animal Farm).
- …Liberal old-age pensions had been agreed upon.

As yet no animal had actually retired on pension,
but of late (recently) the subject had been
discussed more and more. (Animal Farm).
- He did not care what happened so long as a good

store of stone was accumulated before he went on
pension. (Animal Farm).
- Now that the small field beyond the orchard had

been set aside for barley, it was rumoured that a
corner of the large pasture was to be fenced off
and turned into a grazing-ground for
superannuated (old, almost not suitable for work
or use) animals. (Animal Farm).
- In its discussion of the meaning of security, the

court analogized the right of repose at issue to
personal property rights. Although protection of
personal property rights could generally be
overridden by competing state interests, such
interests, the court maintained, ought not
override an individual’s criminal process rights to
repose. (Right to repose-statute of repose: A
167
statute of repose focuses on immunizing the
alleged injuring party from long-term liability, and
thus may even be based on elapsed time from an
event, even if the potential cause of action cannot
reasonably be discovered until a later date (from
Wikipedia). (Transitional Justice).
- The rule of law required continuity. Such

continuity was considered to exist in international
legal norms, such as the postwar Geneva
Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian
Persons in Time of War, which norms overrode
domestic law. (Transitional Justice).
- The notion that international law took

precedence over domestic law was by no means
clear, as Hungary’s Constitution was silent on the
relative priorities of domestic and international
law. (By no means: not at all) (Transitional Justice).
- …Some constitutions explicitly provide for such

priority ranking… (Transitional Justice).
- Considered together, the two decisions present an

interesting puzzle. For the Berlin court, the
controlling rule-of-law value was what was
“morally” right, whereas for the Hungarian court,
the controlling rule-of-law value was protection of
preexisting “legal” rights. (Transitional Justice).
- In Germany’s border guards cases, the judgment

explicitly rests on international law. (Transitional
Justice).
- Moreover, in its circumscription of the most

heinous abuses, international law offers a source
of normative transcendence.
(Circumscription:restriction of something within
limits).(Transitional Justice).
- In one case, the rule of law requires security

understood as prospectivity, with the consequence
of forbearance in the criminal law. (Forbearance:
The action of refraining from exercising a legal
168
right, especially enforcing the payment of a debt)
- Where persecution is systematically perpetuated

under legal imprimatur, where tyranny is
systematic persecution,28 the transitional legal
response is the attempt to undo these abuses
under the law. (Imprimatur: official permission to
do something that is given by a person or group in
a position of power) (Transitional Justice).
- A jurisprudential debate arose, particularly in the

United States, over whether postwar trials
convened at Nuremberg and Tokyo were in
keeping with the rule of law. (Transitional Justice).
- For example, in its review of a law proposing to

reopen political cases related to the 1956 uprising,
the Constitutional Court of Hungary reasoned that
reopening such cases was discontinuous with prior
law. Such discontinuity, the Constitutional Court
said, threatened the understanding of legality in
the successor period; there was no principled way
to break selectively with prior law. (Principled:
based on moral rules or principles) (Transitional
Justice).
- In a second round of judicial review, the court

upheld a new statute authorizing 1956
prosecutions based on offenses constituting “war
crimes” and “crimes against humanity” under
international law. (Uphold: to defend or keep a
principle or law, or to say that a decision that has
already been made, especially a legal one, is
correct) (Transitional Justice).
- …to the extent the constitutional courts have

explicit mandates to engage in judicial review
they are the guardians of the new constitutional
order. (Transitional Justice).
- By cabining politicized uses of the law, this rule-

of-law principle guides interim legal decision
making on the road to democracy. (Cabin: confine
169
within narrow bounds) (Transitional Justice).
- Beyond adjudication, normative change

constructive of a new legality is also effected
through other forms of law. (Transitional Justice).
- Any comprehensive legislation will be many

years-if not decades-in the making. (In the
making: it takes that long to do or achieve it)
Other - Chances are.

Useful
expressi - Stand a chance of... have a chance of success
ons
- At the graveside Snowball made a little speech,
emphasising the need for all animals to be ready to die
for Animal Farm If need be (Animal Farm)
- Like Cloney’s political animals, we may find that we are
ranking the ‘needs’ of our machines above our owns.
- Out-of-the-box thinking: creative thought

- Digital devices and services work out of the box
(something that can be used immediately without
effort) (How to Thrive…).
- Get past the point of…
- Thoughts weigh heavily in my mind.

- In preliminary thoughts
- ...Now we want to share with you the underlying
ethical issues that shape our advice, hoping that when
you close this book, you’ll give them more thought.
- And when Squealer went on to give further graphic

details of Boxer’s death-bed, the admirable care he had
received, and the expensive medicines for which
Napoleon had paid without a thought as to the cost,
their last doubts disappeared and the sorrow that they
felt for their comrade’s death was tempered by the
thought that at least he had died happy. (Animal Farm).
170
- But a little thought reveals that this is a difficult
option to implement. (Nudge).
- Turn something into a carbon copy of…
- Close (or mind) the gap between
- The Committee recommends to assess the

implementation of the Convention and to narrow the
gap between the law and its practice
- It is well-grounded in… law
- On the ground that/On the footing that
- On foot
- Who will believe that I did not do this on purpose?
- Up to the point where: to the extent that
- So much so that (To such an extent that).
- The only game in town: The only thing worth

concerning oneself with.
- I can afford not to say much more about that: I am not

be able to say something about x topic without risk of
adverse consequences.
- This has moral and psychological reverberations.
- This could be a line-drawing question (A drawing done

using only narrow lines, without blocks of shading)
- Throw a light/bring to light
- The petitioners be able to file cases directly to the

court, pending whether the state party in question
deposited a declaration to this effect.
- Gradual shift
171
- In this instance, fate takes an unusual turn.
- Would a rational adult man really turns his life upside

down because he caught a glimpse of a pair of
beguiling female knees of elbows?
- State of play: the current situation in an ongoing

process.
- Linkages between
- World community
- Silicon Valley at sunset: even world-spanning digital
services are born from a particular place and time
(world-spanning: world-length) (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age)
- In all honesty
- But when the animals saw the green flag flying, and
heard the gun firing again — seven times it was fired in
all — and heard the speech that Napoleon made,
congratulating them on their conduct, it did seem to
them after all that they had won a great victory.
(Animal Farm).
- A change for the better
- Better-than-average opportunity
- For better or worse
- If ever there was: an assertion that the person or thing

referred to is a perfect example of its kind.
- It is amenable to change: susceptible to change.
- From the scratch: From the very beginning and without

any prior assistance.
- Thrive on hierarchy
- vis-à-vis : In relation to; with regard to.

- The present writer
- It can vary across a wide spectrum
- In Tandem: Alongside each other.
172
- Map something out: Plan a route or course of
action in detail.
- Road maps are common in the social sciences, but

many in the humanities find them clumsy. (The
Craft of Research).
- Square the circle
- there is currently no sign that the other pieces of

the puzzle are in place.
- Sometimes the long hours on insufficient food

were hard to bear, but Boxer never faltered. In
nothing that he said or did was there any sign
that his strength was not what it had been.
(Animal Farm)
- The time is ripe for: A suitable time has arrived

- Down the road (in the future), you will need to
create a community of readers
-To have an axe to grind: Have a private reason for

doing or being involved in something.
- Over time, an ‘authority’ came also to mean

someone steeped in book learning… (steep in: to
be Y in something) (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age)..
-make inroads in/into/on: An instance of something

being encroached on (Advanced gradually beyond
usual or acceptable limits.) or reduced by something
else.
-Guarantees of non-repetition, which are dealt

with in article 10, may also amount to a form of
satisfaction.
- The strong version of…
- Time and again: repetaedly
173
- throw the baby out with the bathwater: Discard
something valuable along with other things that are
undesirable.
- In March 2009, I reported for The Observer newspaper

on the efforts of the British Broadcaster Chanel 4´s
education arm to create an online game (How to
Thrive...)
- Arm’s length: 2Avoiding intimacy or close contact.(‘he

has long fought to keep the government at arm's
length from big business’)
- Options range from just mentioning an objection and

dismissing it to addressing it at length.
- I watched the debate ripple and resound, passing

on the best insights I found to those who follow me
in turn. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
-
- He was running as only a pig can run, but the dogs

were close on his heels.
- The weakest link: The point at which a system,

sequence, or organization is most vulnerable; the least
dependable element or member.
- The blind spot
- Even when they have a plan and are ready to draft,

though, experienced writers know that they won't
march straight through to a finished product. They
know they'll go down blind alleys… (The Craft of
Research).
- …be sure to follow the prescrip- tions of the style

you use down to the last comma, space, and cap-
ital letter. (The Craft of Research
- This is beyond someone’s intellectual grasp.
- We can read million of reports written by researchers

who have posed questions beyond number.
- Policing in the modern sense of the word … first arose
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in the
context of the challenges that expanding cities posed
174
to law, public health and happiness alike. (How to
- Thought experiment.
- trade unions are in an enfeebled state (weak)
- The gradual encroachment of paramilitary forces into

the Colombian conflict was facilitated by Law.
(intrusion).
- The state can hardly operate at the fringes of its

territory
- And so within five minutes of their invasion they were

in ignominious retreat by the same way as they had
come
- In its fits and starts: with irregular burst of activity.

Intermittently. the economy was recovering in fits and
starts
- If your readers agree, you are in business (able to begin

operations).
- President invited people of all walks of life to

participate in the peace talks. (A person's occupation or
position within society.)
- A left-of-Centre newspaper published the report
- The president’s attitude might convey the false

impression that peace is not important for him.
- True-to-life: Adjective. Accurately representing real

events or objects.
- Words carry a great deal of impact.
- Shore something up. Support or assist something that

would otherwise fail or decline. The government needs
to approved more Public funds to shore up the victims’
law.
- Stumbling block. A circumstance that causes difficulty

or hesitation. the institutional development of the
175
new Constitution soon hit a stumbling block with an
unexpected political crisis that required an oiling of its
gears and shoring up of its foundations.
- The problem is that this wonderful thing can get in the

way of some other important and precious concerns of
ours, such as God and life. (Get in the way of: make it
difficult for something to happen)
- A plan not communicated with your team is bound to

fail.
- Compliments can work wonders as long as they are

sincerely expressed.
- It is better to err on the side of being too detailed
- Pull out of your comfort zone
- Make the most out of your years in grad school.
- …Manu of those most fervently embracing the digital

age’s possibilities are not its pioneers, but those who
stand to gain the most from the chance to leapfrog a
technological generation (leapfrog: to improve a
position by going past others quickly or by missing
some stages of a process) (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age).
- Those controlling political power will eventually find it

more beneficial to use their power to limit competition,
to increase their share of the pie. (Why Nations Fail?)
- South Korea threw the weight of the state behind

rapid economic growth. (Use one’s influence to help
support).
- The job was not at the end my cup of tea (Not what
one likes or is interested in.)
- Not everyone will march to the tune of your drum
- In most cases in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, the

governments simply took the page out of Michel’s
book…( Take a page out of someone’s book:
To do something in the way someone else
would do it; to behave or act like someone
else.) (Why Nation’s Fail).
176
- And the like
- Political elites feather their nests at expense of society

(made money at expense of)
- ruffle someone's feathers. Cause someone to become

annoyed or upset.
They believe deeply in getting on around other people.
It is not that they are afraid of ruffling anyone’s
feathers per se – but they just doubt whether it is ever
really a constructive move and they are not interested
in merely symbolic victories.
- You must have to grease palms to start a business

here.
- That memory brings tears to my eyes.

- In his speeches, Squealer would talk with the tears
rolling down his cheeks of Napoleon’s wisdom...
(Animal Farm)
- The sight of their dead comrades stretched upon the
grass moved some of them to tears.
- The message spread by word of mouth
- No one stirred in the farmhouse before noon on the

following day, and the word went round that from
somewhere or other the pigs had acquired the money
to buy themselves another case of whisky. (Animal
Farm).
- It is just an article I happened to read.
- income bracket. NOUN. A section of the population

classified according to their level of income.
- There was not an animal on the farm that did not take
vengeance on them after his own fashion (To a certain
extent but not perfectly)
- Composed, edited and re-composed at the sender’s

own pace, a text’s final appearance gives away nothing
of its making. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- It was surmounted by a portrait of Napoleon, in profile,
177
executed by Squaler in white paint (In profile: (in
reference to someone's face) as seen from one
side.) (Animal Farm)
- For this was the first time that the live

mediated audience for a major event had
outnumbered those watching in person.
-
- In the flesh: in person. In its actual state.
- Flesh-and-blood: Used to emphasize that a person is a

physical, living being with human emotions or frailties,
often in contrast to something abstract, spiritual, or
mechanical.
‘the customer is flesh and blood, not just a sales statistic’
- level playing field: A situation in which everyone has a

fair and equal chance of succeeding.
‘they are still not providing a level playing field in
terms of opportunities for women’
-To settle a bet
- The concept of ‘play’ is an emblem of much of our

digitally mediated lives-and of the deep-seated
pleasure we take in being able to exit, temporarily,
life’s unbounded problems, for arenas offering
certainty and resolution. (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age).
-Get one’s head down: work hard.
-Now and then we may cross paths with individuals who are
not appalled by our longing for urgent sexual congress
- There is nothing robust enough in our psychological

makeup to arrest our passionate desire to renounce all
other priorities
- But suppose you were bullied into the date and would
rather be anywhere else.
- Beth might also have responded that owning a gun
would make her home less safe (rather than more)
178
- It’s easy to recognize a good problem when we bump
into it, or it bumps into us.
- Don´t go easy on yourself with this one: the time to fix

a problem with your argument is when you find it.
- This scholar was being at least a bit tongue in cheek

(ironic)
- Jumping through these hoops may feel like

bureaucratic make-work. (Jump through hoops: Go
through an elaborate or complicated procedure in
order to achieve an objective/Make-work:
Denoting an activity that serves mainly to keep
someone busy and is of little value in itself.)
- Some writers think that once they have an outline

or a storyboard, they can just grind out sentences
(Grind out: to produce the same thing,
especially a boring thing, again and again)
- Some new researchers think that once they've

churned out a draft, they're done (churn out: to
produce something automatically, without
much thought, and in large amounts) (The
Craft of Research).
- Adultery is seen as providing ample grounds for

the cheated-upon party to feel incensed, as well as
abundant cause for the cheating party to
apologize in extreme ways for his or her horrid
actions.
- Outside affairs: stray, being unfaithful in a

relationship.
- … adultery in fact suggests a conviction that we might
somehow magically rearrange the shortcomings of our
marriage through an adventure on the side (secretly).
- The betrayed might begin by saying sorry for

forcing their partners to lie by setting the bar of
179
truthfulness forbiddingly high.
- Give free rein to our impulses
- … this kind of awareness is often in short supply…

(How to Thrive…).
- A portable, personal supply of applications and social-

media services is permanently on tap (freely available
whenever needed).
- The aggregated information is at your fingertips (How

- At leisure: free or in an unhurried

manner.
- With the correct software installed,

it can reproduce images and text at
will
- Instead, we skip at whim across the

trivial and the profound alike… (How
- For a while the state may be able to

create rapid economic growth by
allocating resources and people by
fiat, but this process is intrinsically
limited. By fiat: an arbitrary order.
- Pursue erotic and emotional

entanglements.
180
- Starvation seemed to stare them in
the face (Animal Farm)
- A tragic truth we should calmly face head on
(involve direct confrontation. Face to face), before
life drives it home to (Make something clearly
understood by the use of direct arguments) us in
its own brutal way.
- We will face no fewer dangers if we attempt

always to bring our outer life into line with our
inner one.
- … how to bring a new principle of discernment to

bear on the world’s increasingly massive, diverse
online repositories of information. (How to Thrive)
- It seems a miracle when eventually someone takes

pity on us and gives us a chance.
- All prospective spouses should be forced to watch

this
- It takes a deft touch (deft: Neatly skillful and quick

in one’s movements)
- Listen to music or talk radio
- Unplugged, we can think without the constant

sense of an audience breathing down our necks
- Vacations ‘off-grid’ has become a fashionable form

of indulgence (off-grid: not depending on public
utilities, especially the supply of electricity)
- When a nation’s labor force shrinks, the economic

future is grim (The Craft of Research).
- That works out at around 133 text every day (to

be calculated at. How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
- Existing political and economic institutions create

the anvil upon which future change will be forged.
(Why Nations Fail?)
181
- When, for example, I am sitting in a train checkin
my email, texting, tweeting and listening to music,
I am at once present and yet not all there. (Hoe to
Thrive).
- A new public propriety has evolved around this

kind of partial attention… the stock role of… self-
sufficient citizen… (propriety: correct moral
Behaviour/action) (How to Thrive).
- …it’s no coincidence… that a hard day’s play

revolves around crop harvesting or trade skills,
minus (without) the gruelling bother of back-
breaking labour. (Hoe to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- Despite the supplementary blogs, Facebook,

photos and network updates, these new arrivals
seem barely to have impinged on my
consciousness (impinge: have an effect on
something by limiting) (How to Thrive…)
- It makes perfect sense for me to keep records like

this, on a device that is almost always switched on
in my pocket (switched on: quick to know about/
fashionable) (How to Thrive)
- We must (…) take control of our attention,

apportioning our time knowingly rather than
allowing always-on devices to dictate the texture
of every moment. (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age)
- My onscreen writing, by contrast, is more about

re-reading and the architecture of paragraphs and
arguments. (How to Thrive).
- At my computer, typing, I find it easy to let present

distractions push an anxious backlog of other ideas
to the edges of my attention. (Backlog: a large
amount of things waiting to be done; push to edge
of…to make somebody start to behave in a crazy
way). (How to Thrive…)
182
- This is a place of extraordinary cultural fertility...
where users’ needs and whims are pre-empted
with a commitment to elegance that borders on
the pathological... (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age)
- When it comes to many of the most basic

components of the digital world… there is often no
physical entity to visualize, and no easy human
story to unearth. (How to Thrive…).
- Blink and you’ll miss them: understanding

technologies’ problems and potentials is getting
tougher all the time (blink and you miss: to be
barely visible because it is gone too quickly) (How
to Thrive…)
- Some students wonder why teachers are so

unforgiving of honest slip- ups. (The Craft
Research).
- The stories of Google’s and others search engines’

increasingly advanced statistical analysis, and their
arms race with those attempting to bias results,
are fascinating tales on their own right (because of
your own ability, effort, or situation and not
because of anyone or anything else) (How to
- Increasingly, though, questions like ‘ Was Picasso

the greatest artist of the twentieth century?’ Have
also taken on an empirical tinge (take on: to begin
to have a quality; tinge: a very slight amount of
colour or of a quality) (How to Thrive in the Digital
Age).
- (…) the internet has gifted power to human nature

in its mob form (uncontrollable because of being a
large group of people): drowning out (prevent
something else from being heard) dissenting or
exceptional voices, sweeping along (makes
somebody very involved in something) a passive
majority with easily digestible arguments and
pandering to popular culture. (How to Thrive in the
183
Digital Age).
- So it “farmed” them out (to give work to other

people to do) to individuals, selling off the right to
others to collect taxes in whatever way they
could… (Why Nations Fail).
- If you fall in love with stories about the Battle of

the Alamo, you can pursue them to your heart's
content, without having to answer to anyone but
yourself… (The Craft of Research).
- If you are struggling to start, prime your pump by

paraphrasing it, but when you revise, rewrite it.
(Prime the pump: to provide ideas to help
something get started). (The Craft of Research)
- In the other examples, the community is too

broad: those writers are groping for a context that
all of humanity could agree to. (Grope for: try to
think the right words or answers) (The Craft of
Research).
- He intended to take the whole burden upon his

own shoulders. (Animal Farm).
- … these theses do not provide a satisfactory

account for … the transitions from stagnation to
growth and the sometimes abrupt end to growth
spurts (A spurt is also a sudden and brief period
of increased activity, effort, or speed) (Why
Nations Fail).
- This very morning we begin rebuilding the

windmill, and we will build all through the winter,
rain or shine. (Animal Farm).
- In the teeth of every difficulty (directly against (the

wind). In spite of difficulty), in spite of
inexperience, of primitive implements, of bad luck
and of Snowball’s treachery, the work had been
finished punctually to the very day! (Animal Farm).
- The animals were taken aback (shock or surprise
184
someone) (Animal Farm)
- Once you revise your paper so that readers will

judge its argument to be sound and well
organized, find time to make the last pass to make
your sentences as easy to read as the complexity
of your ideas allows. (The Craft of Research)
- This problem especially afflicts those just starting

advanced work because they are hit by double
trouble… But new researchers compound (to
make a problem or difficult situation worse) that
problem when they believe that complex style
bespeaks (to suggest or show) academic success
and they imitate the tangled prose they read. (The
Craft of Research).
- When you turn adjectives and verbs into nouns,

you can tangle up (get involved and trapped in a
complicated or unpleasant situation) your
sentences in two more ways… (The Craft of
Research).
- Spit and polish: careful cleaning and shining (The

Craft of Research).
- The animals’ blood boiled with rage when they

heard of these things being done to their
comrades, and sometimes they clamoured to be
allowed to go out in a body and attack Pinchfield
Farm… (Animal Farm).
- They took refuge in the farm buildings and peeped

cautiously out from chinks and knot-holes. (Peep
out: come gradually into view) (Animal Farm).
- … For (conjunction: because), while I may choose

at times to visit pornographic sites, porn tends at
best to be a source of limited usefulness and
interest when it comes to the active enjoyment of
digital media. (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- Next best are assignments that simulate such

situation, in which students assume that other
185
students… have a problem that the student
researcher can resolve. (Next best:best except for
another thing that has been mentioned) (The Craft of
Research).
- Colleages tell us... that in any event the dead-tree

research paper is a relic of pre-digital days, (dead-
tree: Being the print version of a work available in
both print and electronic formats) and even that
no one but ivory-tower academics does research
anymore (The Craft of Research)
- If Pilkington and his men would help them, the day

might yet be won. (Animal Farm).
- But at this moment the four pigeons, who had been

sent out on the day before, returned, one of them
bearing a scrap of paper from Pilkington. On it was
pencilled the words: ‘Serves you right’ (Be
someone’s right: Be someone's deserved
punishment or misfortune) (Animal Farm).
- Research is messy, so it does no good to march

students through it lockstep (March: to forcefully
make someone go somewhere by taking hold of
that person and pulling them there or going there
together. Lockstep: 1Close adherence to and
emulation of another's actions) (The Craft of
Research).
- … They need time for false starts and blind

alleys, for revision and reconsideration. (The Craft
of Research).
- We have had to learn to be patient with students, as

we wait for the delayed gratification that comes
when the learners arrive at genuine originality-
knowing it will likely come when we are no
longer there to see it (The Craft of Research).
- I am most grateful to Brenda Davis Lebron for

wordprocessing assistance and to Belinda Cooper
and Leszek Mitrus for translation assistance.
- None of the animals could form any idea as to what

186
this meant, except old Benjamin, who nodded his
muzzle with a knowing air, and seemed to
understand, but would say nothing. (Animal Farm).
- There were many more mouths to feed now…

(Animal Farm).
- On the same day it was given out that fresh

documents had been discovered which revealed
further details about Snowball’s complicity with
Jones… (give out: … (Give out: to give something
to each of a number of people.) (Animal Farm).
- There lay Boxer, between the shafts of the cart, his

neck stretched out, unable even to raise his head.
His eyes were glazed, his sides matted with sweat.
A thin stream of blood had trickled out of his
mouth. Clover dropped to her knees at his side.
(Animal Farm).
- We must get help at once,’ said Clover. ‘Run,

somebody, and tell Squealer what has happened.’
(Animal Farm).
- ‘Come at once! They’re taking Boxer away!’

(Animal Farm).
- …And it suggests, to my mind, the extent to which

digital play offers a window into the evolving
future of our wants and behaviors… (How to
- …From the creation of products we can be proud

of to the pleasures of successful collaboration
around a common challenge, certain emotional
satisfactions are not on offer in many working
lives in the real world. (How to Thrive in the
Digital Age).
- I’m not someone who spends -or earns- hard

currency in virtual worlds… (valuable money
which is not likely to go down in value).
- …yet I find it difficult to draw a firm distinction

between a friend spending £50 on a pair of labelled
jeans and their using that money instead to buy
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their in-game avatar a virtual designer outfit. (How
- To take just one example, mobile phone access in

Bangladesh… was by 2010 considered to have
reached 100 per cent ‘virtual’ penetration…
- When it comes to unreality, immersion in ersatz

medieval labour is no longer the only game in
town. (Ersatz: used instead of something else,
usually because the other thing is too expensive or
rare) (How to Thrive in the Digital Age).
- Today, we have began to engage in an

extraordinary kind of reverse engineering:
building artificial worlds and spaces… free form
nature’s complexities and disappointments (reverse
engineering: the act of copying the product of
another company by looking carefully at how it is
made) (How to a Thrive in the Digital Age).
- Fill your glasses to the brim. Gentlemen, here is

my toast: To the prosperity of The Manor Farm!’
(to the brim: the very top edge of a container)
(Animal Farm).
- There was the same hearty cheering as before, and

the mugs were emptied to the dregs. (Dregs: the
small solid pieces that sink to the bottom of some
liquids, such as wine or coffee, that are not usually
drunk. She had drunk her coffee down to the dregs
(= finished it)) (Animal Farm).
- … ‘politics’ is not so much a selection of discrete

acts as part of the daily ebb and flow of living
(ebb and flow: coming and going. The way in
which the level of something regularly becomes
higher or lower in a situation) (How to Thrive in
the Digital Age).
- …For example, because the size of the innovation

bonus fund was limited by the wage bill of a firm,
this immediately reduced the incentive to produce
188
or adopt any innovation that might have
economized on labour. (Why Nations Fail).
- … Our digital selves may be uniquely vulnerable,

but we are also rarely more than a click away
from something or someone that might help us…
- …Rather, we should be driven still further in

asking what it is that makes us uniquely human,
and that binds us to each other (bind someone to:
to cause someone to feel strongly attached to a
person or place) (How to Thrive in the Digital Age)
- …One of the great tributaries of the River Congo

is the Kasai. Rising in Angola, it heads north and
merges with the Congo northeast of Kinshasa…
(Why Nations Fail).
- The crops that had previously been the staples

were replaced by new, higher-yield ones from the
Americas…(staple: a main product or part of
something) (Why Nations Fail).
- Although Carolyn is a figment of our

imagination, many real people turn out to be
choice architects, most without realizing it. (To
be a figment of one’s imagination: something that
seems real but is not) (Nudge).
- Napoleon ended his speech with a reminder of

Boxer’s two favourite maxims, ‘I will work harder’
and ‘Comrade Napoleon is always right’ —
maxims, he said, which every animal would do
well to adopt as his own. (Animal Farm).
Proverbs. The adage often goes that...
-Haste makes waste: used to say that doing

something too quickly causes mistakes that result in
time, effort, materials, etc., being wasted.
189
-Look before you leap: You shouldn't act without first
considering the possible consequences or dangers.
-One swallow does not make a summer: A single

fortunate event doesn't mean that what follows will
also be good.
-serve oysters in the months ending with ‘r’.
-Out of sight, out of mind: you soon forget people or things

that are no longer visible or present (Oxford Dict.)
-Old age and guile will overcome youth and skill.
- Like father, like son.
Apendix B. Useful Tips for Applications.

1. Cover Leters for Open Application Grant
https://www.thebalancesmb.com/how-to-write-a-cover-letter-for-your-grant-proposal-2501949
How to Write an Effective Grant Proposal Cover Letter

Make It Brief but Inviting
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•••
BY JOANNE FRITZ
190
Updated February 15, 2019
Although the main parts of your grant proposal will take up most of your time and energy,
don't shortchange your cover letter. Attention to the subtler points of putting the proposal
package together can make or break a funding request. Don't turn off your funder with a
sloppy cover letter.
Mim Carlson and Tori O'Neal-McElrath, authors of Winning Grants, Step by Step, point out
that the cover letter should:
 Introduce your organization to the correct person.

 Assure the funder that this project has the support of your board of directors.
 State what you are asking for - how much and for what.
When Do You Include a Cover Letter?
Use a cover letter for proposals to corporations and foundations, but not for federal or
state grant applications. Those funders only want what they ask for, and they rarely ask
for a cover letter.
Attributes of a Good Cover Letter
Your cover letter should:
 Be brief
 Get to the point quickly
 Does not repeat the information that is in the proposal
 Tell the reader how well you understand the funder and how your grant fulfills the
funder's requirements
Beverly A. Browning, the author of Grant Writing for Dummies, suggests that you write
the cover letter after you've completed the entire proposal, and when you are in a
reflective mood. Browning says:
"As you consider your great achievement (the finished funding request), let the creative,
right side of your brain kick in and connect your feelings of accomplishment to the person
who will help make your plans come true."
191
Formatting Your Cover Letter
 Use your organization's letterhead. Put the same date on the cover letter that is on
the completed grant application. That is the date you will send the grant proposal
to the grantor. Using the same date makes all the documents in your proposal
package consistent.
 For the inside address (goes at the top of the letter) use the foundation or
corporate contact person's name and title, followed by the funding source's name,
address, city, state, and zip code. Double check this information with a telephone
call or an email. Such information changes frequently, so make sure you have the
current name and address. Additionally, when you submit an electronic grant
application, you may not know a particular name.
 In your salutation, use "Dear" plus the personal title (Mr., Ms., Mrs., Dr., Messrs.,
etc.), followed by the last name. It is critical that you address the letter to a
particular person. Call the foundation or corporate office to make sure you have
the right person and the correct personal title. These details may seem
unimportant, but they do matter.
 Your first paragraph should be short and focused. Introduce your organization (its
legal name) and tell the funder how much money you are requesting and why.
Include a sentence or two about what your organization does, and then include
one research-based point that shows there is a need for what your organization
does.
 Write one or two more brief paragraphs. State your project's purpose and how it
fits with the funder's mission or funding priorities. Include the fact that your board
of directors fully supports the project.
 End your letter with a summarizing paragraph. Add what this funding partnership
can mean for your project's target audience. You might want to include an
invitation for a site visit as well.
 Use a closing such as "Sincerely."
 The letter should be signed by the executive director or the board president, or
both. Below the signature, type the signer's first name, middle initial, last name,
and job title. Although the ED or board president should sign the letter, include the
192
contact information for the best person to answer questions at the end of the last
paragraph.
 At the bottom of the letter, include the word, "ENCLOSURE" (in all caps).
How Long Should the Cover Letter Be?
Most experts suggest that you limit your cover letter to one page with three or four
paragraphs.
The tone and specifics of your cover letter may vary depending on whether you've been
invited to submit a full proposal after sending a Letter of Inquiry (LOI), or if this project is
your organization's first approach to this particular foundation.
Cover Letter:
Sample Cover Letter
Mary Smith, PhD
Program Officer
Community Foundation
4321 Common Lane
Some City, YZ 55555
Dear Dr. Smith:
The Some City Senior Center respectfully requests a grant of $50,000 for our Senior Latino
Community Outreach Pilot Project.
As the largest senior center in Any County, serving over 450 seniors every day, we are
aware of the changing demographics in our service area. And we are committed to
growing and adapting our center to meet emerging needs. The Senior Latino Community
Outreach Pilot Project will allow us to pilot a one-year effort to determine if our center
can effectively:
 Provide comprehensive access to health and social services to seniors in the Latino
communities served by our center, and
193
 Raise and fully integrate the cultural competency of the board, staff, and
volunteers of the Some City Senior Center.
Our board of directors is enthusiastic about this program and eager to launch it so we can
become the most inclusive and culturally competent center for seniors in all of our
communities that need these services. Should we find at the end of our pilot year that this
program is, in fact, successful, our board has committed to including a portion of the
project's yearly expenses into our annual operating budget so that the program becomes
an integral part of our core services.
Through this project, the Center will become the primary referral given by Health Access
Latinos, Families of Any County, and three community clinics within a fifteen-mile radius
of our center. We will also accept referrals of Spanish-speaking seniors from any other
community agency in our immediate service area.
Thank you for your consideration of our request. I will follow up with you in the next week
to answer any questions you might have, as well as to learn whether we might meet with
you to discuss the merits of our proposal. Meanwhile, should you have any questions,
please feel free to contact Connie Jones, our Director of Development, at (555) 555-5555,
x555, or cjones@scsc.org.
Sincerely,
Jane Lovely
Executive Director
ENCLOSURE
*Letter reprinted (with modifications) with permission from Winning Grants, Step by Step,
Second Edition, Tori O'Neal-McElrath, Jossey-Bass, 2009.
3 Mistakes to Avoid in Your Cover Letter
 Writing too much. A cover letter is not a dissertation, nor is it a full proposal. Keep
it short and to the point Tip: Have someone else read it. Do they understand it?
 Using big words. If you've been to graduate school, you learned to write in a
complicated way. Don't do that here. You're not trying to impress someone with
194
your erudition. You only want to state your case as naturally as possible. If you
don't know when you're overcomplicating your writing, use an app such as
Hemingway. It will tell you when your sentences are hard to read and when you
are too wordy.
 Making Grammatical Mistakes. If you're not sure of your grammar, don't take
chances. Use the grammar check in WORD, and, also run your draft through an app
such as Grammarly. There is a free version, but the paid version goes well beyond
the necessary grammar check.
Make Your Cover Letter Stand Out
Sad to say, but your grant proposal may be among hundreds or thousands that a typical
foundation will see during an average year. Your cover letter can make the difference in
getting to the next step towards funding. But how can you make it stand out?
Expert Tip: Important:
Don't try anything "cute," as foundation officials will not be impressed.
The cover letter would not be appropriate for a story about a client, although you should
have a story for other parts of your proposal, such as the description of the problem. You
should, however, include a paragraph about why your organization is the one that can
best accomplish this mission. Survey your competitive organizations and assess just how
and where you excel. That may be in the strength of your staff and volunteers, your
experience with this particular problem, or the community support you enjoy.
You don't need to mention the names of competitors or criticize them. Just highlight your
strengths. This would be a good time to consult with others around the office. Pull a few
people together and brainstorm how your nonprofit excels.
Fundamentally, the cover letter should be forward moving, easy-to-read and compel the
reader into the larger proposal. Don't put any obstacles in the way of the reader that
might deter them from reading further
2. Cover Leters for Scholarship
https://www.sampletemplates.com/letter-templates/cover-letter-for-scholarship.html
195
Tips in Writing an Effective Cover Letter for
Scholarship
In writing your scholarship application letters, you must be able to give a justifiable reason why
you should be chosen to be granted a scholarship to aid you financially with your studies. Here are
a few tips you can follow when writing your letters.
 Use language that is easy to understand and formal in tone.

 Explain in detail why you have considered applying for a scholarship.
 Write all your credentials that showcase you as being an achiever. Make sure you
cover all the essential details needed to let them know why you are a good match
to be granted a scholarship.
 You may also include the organizations you were part of to showcase that you are
a team player.
 Your letter should show that you are confident and that you are looking forward to
getting the scholarship grant.
 Always check and review your letters for any grammatical errors or misspelled
words. You may also opt to have someone else proofread your letter.
Your scholarship application letters will pave the way to quality education that could bring your
future career to new heights. You can look into Cover Letters for Job Application if you are looking
into applying for a job.
MedCrave Group Scholarship Cover Letter
Name of the applicant

University
Address
Date
To,
The Grants Commission
Editorial Office
MedCrave Group
2327 Boardwalk Cir
Bartlesville
Oklahoma- 74006
196
Subject: Request for scholarship for (reason)
Specify the journal name
Dear Sir,
I request you to provide scholarship (specify the reason) to aid my publication entitled “Title of
manuscript”. I am associated with MedCrave Group as mention your relationship with MedCrave
(Editor/Reviewer/Author etc.) for (Specify the journal name).
 Describe the impact of your research towards scientific development.

 Describe the importance of this grant in propagating your scientific research.
 The way MedCrave Group will benefit by offering a grant to you.
 Mention the reason to offer you this scholarship.
Kindly contact me at the following address for any correspondence.
Best Regards,
Signature of the applicant
Name
Affiliation
E-mail:
Tel:
Authorized signature by HOD

Address
E-mail:
Tel:
197

GRAMMAR POINTS and USEFUL ENGLISH

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1. The difference between MANDATORY and COMPULSORY

What does Mandatory mean?

It is mandatory to mention the annual income of the parent.

80% of attendance is compulsory for the students to take the examination.

Wearing uniform is compulsory.

‘Wearing uniform is compulsory’

• Anything that is compulsory has to be essentially done without postponement.

• The word compulsory often refers to things or requirements.

• The word mandatory is often used in the field of law.

1. United Nations loan application form by Alex Goldmark (CC BY 2.0)

4. Linking positives and negatives

Happy "Veterans' Day," "Veteran's Day," or "Veterans Day"?

Which rendering is correct in each of the following groups?

1. Veterans' Day, Veteran's Day, Veterans Day

To ask which rendering is "correct" in these groups is actually to pose a trick

In deciding whether to use an apostrophe in such constructions, we cannot

On the other hand, Webster's tells us that in the United States, November 11 is

In the absence of a ruling by a reputable style manual or dictionary, then, we

We would not, therefore, use an apostrophe in "South Carolina Bankers School,"

1. See if the title or name appears in a reputable style manual or dictionary

8. Think of or think about?

9. First person (voice) in academic writing.

10. Order of Adjectives

Sometimes we use more than one adjective in front of a noun:

good bad lovely strange

beautifu nice brilliant excellent

awful important wonderful nasty

Food: tasty; delicious

We usually put a general opinion in front of a specific opinion:

Usually we put an adjective that gives an opinion in front of an adjective that

We often have two adjectives in front of a noun:

Sometimes we have three adjectives, but this is unusual:

It is very unusual to have more than three adjectives.

Adjectives usually come in this order:

afraid alive alone asleep

content glad ill ready

sorry sure unable well

Some of the commonest -ed adjectives are normally used only after a link verb:

annoyed; finished; bored; pleased; thrilled

Our teacher was ill.

but we do not say:

He seemed to be a very annoyed policeman

A few adjectives are used only in front of a noun:

but we do not say:

The district he lives in is eastern

11. However and Nevertheless

We can use either of the adverbs however or nevertheless to indicate that the

 Rufus had been living in the village of Edmonton for over a

12. Nonetheless and Nevertheless

Nonetheless vs. Nevertheless

Etymologically, the word ‘nonetheless’ sounds pretty close to

In summary, the following are the differences between

1. ‘Nonetheless’ is less frequently used when compared to

2. ‘Nonetheless’ provides a tangible sense to the sentence

3. The word ‘nevertheless’ appeared earlier in history than the

Read more: Difference Between Nonetheless and Nevertheless |

13. People or Persons?

She’s a person I have a lot of respect for.

Persons (plural) is a very formal word. We only use it in rather legalistic contexts:

Any person or persons found in possession of illegal substances will be

To refer to groups of human beings or humans in general, we use people: