Graduate Studies and Research

Master of Arts in Education

Advanced Educational Sociology

1
Socialization

_____________________________

A Report/Research

Presented to

JULIUS A. VILLAVICENCIO, Ed. D.

Professor

Rizal College of Taal

Taal, Batangas City

___________________________

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Completion of

Advanced Educational Sociology

Socialization

___________________________

By:

MA. ANTONETTE D. ONDO, LPT

(July 2, 2020)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Page

I. TITLE PAGE …………………………………………………… 1

2
II. TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………… 2

III. INTRODUCTION …………………………………………… 3

IV. OBJECTIVES ………………………………………………… 3

V. BODY OF REPORT …………………………………………… 4

VI. SUMMARY …………………………………………………… 35

VII. REFERENCES …………………………………………………… 35

VIII. CURRICULUM VITAE ……………………………………………………. 35

INTRODUCTION:

Socialization is the lifelong process of preparing an individual to live within his

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 or her own society. Graduate Studies and Research

Socialization refers to the lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating

norms, customs and ideologies that provide an individual with the skills necessary for
3
participating within society. Socialization is a process that continues throughout an

individual’s life. Some social scientists say socialization represents the process of

learning throughout life and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs and actions

of adults as well as of children.

George Herbert Mead (1902–1994) developed the concept of self as

developed with social experience. Since social experience is the exchange of

symbols, people find meaning in every action, and seeking meaning leads people to

imagine the intention of others from the others’ point of view. In effect, others are a

mirror in which we can see ourselves. Charles Horton Cooley (1902-1983) coined

the term “looking glass self” the self -image based on how we think others see us.

According to Mead, the key to developing the self is learning to take the role of the

other. With limited social experience, infants can only develop a sense of identity

through imitation. Children gradually learn to take the roles of several others. The

final stage is the generalized other; the widespread cultural norms and values we

use as a reference for evaluating others.

OBJECTIVES:

Discuss the concept of socialization throughout the life span which begins in
infancy and continues into late adulthood. Evaluate the importance of childhood in
terms of socialization and acceptance in society, influences of adolescent
socialization and significance of transitional adulthood and implications of old age.

BODY OF REPORT:
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 Features of Socialization: Graduate Studies and Research

Socialization not only helps in the maintenance and preservation of social values and

norms but it is the process through which values and norms are transmitted from one
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generation to another generation.

1. Inculcates basic discipline:

Socialization inculcates basic discipline. A person learns to control his

impulses. He may show a disciplined behavior to gain social approval.

2. Helps to control human behavior:

It helps to control human behavior. An individual from birth to death

undergoes training and his, behavior is controlled by numerous ways. In order to

maintain the social order, there are definite procedures or mechanism in society.

These procedures become part of the man’s/life and man gets adjusted to the

society. Through socialization, society intends to control the behaviour of its-

members unconsciously.

3. Socialization is rapid if there is more humanity among the- agencies of

socialization:

Socialization takes place rapidly if the agencies’ of socialisation are more

unanimous in their ideas and skills. When there is conflict between the ideas,

examples and skills transmitted in home and those transmitted by school or peer,

socialisation of the individual tends to be slower and ineffective.

4. Socialization takes place formally and informally:

Formal socialization takes through direct instruction and education in schools

and colleges. Family is, however, the primary and the most influential source of

education. Children learn their language, customs, norms and values in the family.

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Socialization is a life-long process. It does not cease when a child becomes

an adult. As socialization does not cease when a child becomes an adult,

5
internalization of culture continues from generation to generation. Society

perpetuates itself through the internalization of culture. Its members transmit culture

to the next generation and society continues to exist.

Stages of Socialization Throughout the Life Span

The socialization process can be separated into two main stages: primary

socialization and secondary socialization. Socialization is a life process, but is

generally divided into two parts: primary and secondary socialization.

1. Primary Socialization: The nuclear family serves as the primary force of

socialization for young children. Primary socialization occurs when a child learns the

attitudes, values and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular

culture. This is mainly influenced by the immediate family and friends.

Primary socialization takes place early in life, as a child and adolescent.

Secondary socialization refers to the socialization that takes place throughout one’s

life, both as a child and as one encounters new groups that require additional

socialization.

2. Secondary Socialization: Secondary socialization is the process of learning what

is the appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society.

It is the behavioral patterns reinforced by socializing agents of society like schools

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and workplaces. For example, as new employees become socialized in an Studies and Research

organization, they learn about its history, values, jargon, culture and procedures. By

the time individuals are in their preteen or teenage years, peer groups play a more
6
powerful role in socialization than family members.

Mortimer and Simmons outline three specific ways these two parts of socialization

differ:

 Content: Socialization in childhood is thought to be concerned with the

regulation of biological drives. In adolescence, socialization is concerned with

the development of overarching values and the self-image. In adulthood,

socialization involves more overt and specific norms and behaviors, such as

those related to the work role as well as more superficial personality features.

 Context: In earlier periods, the socializee (the person being socialized) more

clearly assumes the status of learner within the context of the initial setting

(which may be a family of orientation, an orphanage, a period of

homelessness, or any other initial social groups at the beginning of a child’s

life), the school (or other educational context), or the peer group. Also,

relationships in the earlier period are more likely to be affectively charged, i.e.,

highly emotional. In adulthood, though the socializee takes the role of student

at times, much socialization occurs after the socializee has assumed full

incumbency of the adult role. There is also a greater likelihood of more formal

relationships due to situational contexts (e.g., work environment), which

moderates down the affective component.

 Response: The child and adolescent may be more easily malleable than the

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adult. Also, much adult socialization is self-initiated and voluntary; adults Studies and Research
can

leave or terminate the process at any time if they have the proper resources

(symbolic, financial, and social) to do so.

7

Socialization is, of course, a social process. As such, it involves interactions

between people. Socialization, as noted in the distinction between primary and

secondary, can take place in multiple contexts and as a result of contact with

numerous groups. Some of the more significant contributors to the socialization

process are: parents, guardians, friends, schools, siblings or other family members,

social clubs (like religions or sports teams), life partners (romantic or platonic), and

co-workers. Each of these groups include a culture that must be learned and to

some degree appropriated by the socialize in order to gain admittance to the group.

Forms of Socialization Throughout the Life Span

1. Group Socialization 

Group socialization occurs throughout all stages of life

2. Organizational Socialization 

Organizational socialization occurs within an institution or organization to

familiarize a person with its norms, values, and practices.

3. Anticipatory Socialization 

Anticipatory socialization comes from an individual’s desire to join a group

while resocialization is imposed upon an individual by a group.

4. Forced Socialization 

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Forced socialization takes place in institutions such as prisons, Studies and Research
mental

hospitals, military units, and some boarding schools. In these settings, coercion is

used to re-socialize people into individuals who behave in a manner fitting of the

8
norms, values, and customs of the institution. .

5. Resocialization

Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behaviour patterns

and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one’s life. Such re-socialisation

takes place mostly when a social role is radically changed. It involves abandonment

of one way of life for another which is not only different from the former but

incompatible with it. For example, when a criminal is rehabilitated, he has to change

his role radically.

Resocialization involves a break with past experiences and the learning of

new values and norms.

A. Voluntary Resocialization

 Individuals choose to assume a new status

 Examples include going to college

B. Involuntary Resocialization

 Often occurs in total institutions or a setting in which people are isolated from

 the rest of society

 Examples include joining the military

1. Socializing the Individual

Case Study: Identical Strangers

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 To understand the effects of “nature and nurture” on human Graduate Studies and Research
development,

some scholars have studied identical twins separated at birth and adopted by

different families. One important study by Peter Nubauer used adopted twins without
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their knowledge. These studies revealed that even twins separated at birth share

some characteristics with their sibling years later. This proves that while some traits

are genetically inherited, others are learned from the environment in which a child is

raised.

Nature VS Nurture

A personality is the sum total of behaviors, attitudes, beliefs and values that

are characteristic of an individual.

Nature

 Heredity is the transmission of genetic characteristics from parents to

children.

 Instinct is an unchanging biologically inherited behavior.

 Sociobiology searcher\s for the biological basis of all social behavior.

Nurture

 Social environment can imprint characteristics on a child.

 Pavlov’s experiments showed that behavior could be right.

 Most social scientists believe personality arises from a mixture of both nature

and nurture.

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People develop their personalities over the course of their lives.

While scientist have debated for years whether nature or nurture plays a
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bigger role in personality development, most social scientists today believe

that environmental factors have the biggest influence.

According to social scientists, the principal factors that influence personality

and behavior are heredity, birth order, parental characteristics and cultural

environment.

Studies of isolated children suggest the importance of environment in

personality development.

Factors in Personality Development

1. Heredity

 Characteristics present at birth include hair type, eye color and certain

aptitudes (capacity to learn or do).

 Biological needs include hunger and thirsty.

 Culture decides you will use or satisfy heredity characteristics.

2. Birth Order

 Personalities are influenced by brothers and sisters.

 Early-born siblings have different traits than later-born siblings.

3. Parental Characteristics

 Age, level of education, religious orientation, economic status, cultural

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of children.

4. Cultural Environment
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 Each culture has set “model personalities”.

 Individual experiences a culture indifferent ways.

Influence of Social Environment

 Feral children and those with very little contact with a social environment do

not develop skills such as walking or language.

 In some instances, remedial therapy can allow isolated children to develop

language and social skills.

 Children who have been institutionalized may share some characteristics of

those who have been isolated.

 Studies show that a lack of human contact can result in developmental

abnormalities as well as death.

B. The Social Self

 Through socialization, people learn the basic values and behavior patterns of

a culture and develop a sense of self.

 John Locke believed that humans were blank slates that could be socialized

to have any type of character.

 According to Charles Horton Cooley, we develop our sense of self through an

interactive process based on how we think we appear to others.

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Socialization is the interactive process through which people learn the

basic skills, values, beliefs and behavior patterns of a society. There are many
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theories of how individuals gain a self, or distinct identity that separates you from

other members of society.

1. John Locke: The Tabula Rasa (Each person is born as a blank slate. Humans,

who acquire their personalities through interaction, can be molded into any type of

character.)

 A “clean slate” onto which anything can be written

 Believed adults could shape newborn’s personality

 Absorb the aspects of the culture they are in contact with

2. Charles Horton Cooley: The Looking-Glass Self (Humans form images of

themselves based on how they seem to others. We imagine how we appear to

others, judge whether they see us as we see ourselves, and use our judgments to

form our sense of self.)

 Process by which we develop an idea of self based on how we think we

appear to others

 Three-step process (imitation, play, organized games)

 Begins in infancy but continues throughout life

3. George Herbert Mead: Role-Taking (Beyond seeing ourselves as others do, we

begin to anticipate what others expect. After a three-step, we take on the roles of
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 Seeing ourselves as others see us is first step

 Eventually take on, or pretend to take on, the roles of others (role-taking)
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 Significant others are the people who are closest to us: parents, siblings and

others who directly influence our socialization

 As an individual ages, significant others grow less important

 Generalized other is the internalized attitudes, expectations and viewpoints of

society

 Children under three can only imitate the actions of others

 Self consists of “I” and “me”

 The “I” is the not socialized, spontaneous, self-interested component of

personality

 The “me” is the part that is aware of the expectations and attitudes of

society- the socialized self

The Presentation of Self

Erving Goffman’s theory suggests that an individual’s can be changed

according to audience. Social interaction is like performing for an audience. We

change our personalities based on what impression we want to convey.

Dramaturgy

 Theory suggested by Erving Goffman

 States that social interaction is similar to a drama performance

 Suggests people are an audience, judging each other’s performances, trying

to determine each individual’s true character

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 Attempt to play the role well and manage the impressions that the audience

receives
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 States that much of our time with others is spent trying to manage their

impressions

C. Agents of Socialization

 The primary agents of socialization are the family, peer group, school and

mass media.

 As the principal socializer of young children, the family is the most important

agent of socialization in most societies.

 As children grow older, forces outside the family- such as friends, school and

mass media- increasingly influence them.

 Resocialization or the process of learning new values and norms, can be

voluntary or involuntary.

Primary Agents

1. The Family

 Most important agent in most societies

 Usually first agents

 Can be intentional or intentional

 Reflects the social groups family belongs to

2. The Peer Group

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Composed of individuals of roughly equal age and similar social

characteristics

 Particularly important during pre-teen and early teen years

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 Socialization focuses on values of the peer group

3. The School

 Planned activities for the deliberate purpose of teaching skills

 Extracurricular activities intended to prepare for a life in society

 Transmit cultural values

 Unintentional socialization comes from teachers and peer groups

4. The Mass Media

 Mass media: instruments of communication that reach large audiences

without personal contact between those sending and those receiving the

information such as films television and radio

 Television is most common mass media

 Both positive and negative behaviors and beliefs are learned from television

Childhood

Childhood has been constructed in different ways over time, though modern

childhood is often defined by play, learning and socializing.

Childhood is the age span ranging from birth to adolescence. In

developmental psychology, childhood is divided up into the developmental stages of

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toddlerhood (learning to walk), early childhood (play age), middle childhood (schooland Research

age), and adolescence ( puberty through post-puberty).

16 Ranges of Childhood
Age

The term childhood is non-specific and can imply a varying range of years in

human development, depending on biological, personal, religious, cultural, or

national interpretations. Developmentally and biologically, it refers to the period

between infancy and puberty. In common terms, childhood is considered to start

from birth. Some consider that childhood, as a concept of play and innocence, ends

at adolescence. In the legal systems of many countries, there is an age of majority at

which point childhood officially ends and a person legally becomes an adult.

Globally, the age of majority ranges anywhere from 15 to 21, with 18 being the most

common.

Developmental Stages of Childhood

Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development considers the impact of

external factors, parents and society on personality development from childhood to

adulthood. According to Erikson’s theory, every person must pass through a series

of eight interrelated stages over the entire life cycle.

1. Infancy: Birth-18 Months Old

Basic Trust vs. Mistrust – Hope

During the first or second year of life, the major emphasis is on the mother

and father’s nurturing ability and care for a child, especially in terms of visual contact

and touch. The child will develop optimism, trust, confidence, and security if properly

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cared for and handled. If a child does not experience trust, he or she Studies and Research
may develop

insecurity, worthlessness, and general mistrust to the world.

17Toddler / Early Childhood Years: 18 Months to 3 Years

2.

Autonomy vs. Shame – Will

The second stage occurs between 18 months and 3 years. At this point, the

child has an opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as he or she learns new

skills and right from wrong. The well-cared for child is sure of himself, carrying

himself or herself with pride rather than shame. During this time of the “terrible twos”,

defiance, temper tantrums, and stubbornness can also appear. Children tend to be

vulnerable during this stage, sometimes feeling shame and and low self-esteem

during an inability to learn certain skills.

3. Preschooler: 3 to 5 Years

Initiative vs. Guilt – Purpose

During this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and

take initiative in creating play situations. We make up stories with Barbie’s and

Ken’s, toy phones and miniature cars, playing out roles in a trial universe,

experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it means to be an adult. We also

begin to use that wonderful word for exploring the world—”WHY?” The most

significant relationship is with the basic family.

4. School Age Child: 6 to 12 Years

Industry vs. Inferiority – Competence

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During this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable of Studies and Research
learning,

creating and accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a

sense of industry. This is also a very social stage of development and if we

18
experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy and inferiority among our peers, we

can have serious problems in terms of competence and self-esteem. As the world

expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the school and neighborhood.

Parents are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although they are still

important.

5. Adolescent: 12 to 18 Years

Identity vs. Role Confusion – Fidelity

Up until this fifth stage, development depends on what is done to a person. At

this point, development now depends primarily upon what a person does. An

adolescent must struggle to discover and find his or her own identity, while

negotiating and struggling with social interactions and “fitting in”, and developing a

sense of morality and right from wrong. Some attempt to delay entrance to adulthood

and withdraw from responsibilities (moratorium). Those unsuccessful with this stage

tend to experience role confusion and upheaval. Adolescents begin to develop a

strong affiliation and devotion to ideals, causes, and friends.

6. Young adult: 18 to 35

Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation – Love

At the young adult stage, people tend to seek companionship and love. Some

also begin to “settle down” and start families, although seems to have been pushed

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back farther in recent years.Young adults seek deep intimacy and satisfying

relationships, but if unsuccessful, isolation may occur. Significant relationships at this

stage are with marital partners and friends.

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7. Middle-aged Adult: 35 to 55 or 65

Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation – Care

Career and work are the most important things at this stage, along with family.

Middle adulthood is also the time when people can take on greater responsibilities

and control. For this stage, working to establish stability and Erikson’s idea of

generativity – attempting to produce something that makes a difference to society.

Inactivity and meaninglessness are common fears during this stage.

8. Late Adult: 55 or 65 to Death

Integrity vs. Despair – Wisdom

Erikson believed that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage

and the last stage involves much reflection. As older adults, some can look back with

a feeling of integrity — that is, contentment and fulfillment, having led a meaningful

life and valuable contribution to society. Others may have a sense of despair during

this stage, reflecting upon their experiences and failures. They may fear death as

they struggle to find a purpose to their lives, wondering “What was the point of life?

Was it worth it?”

2. Adolescence

Adolescence is a period of significant cognitive, physical and social

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development, including changes in family and peer relationships. Adolescence is and Research

usually determined by the onset of puberty. However, puberty

may also begin in preadolescents. The end of adolescence and the beginning of
20
adulthood varies by country. Even within a single nation- state or ethic group there

may be different conceptions of when an individual is considered to be

(chronologically and legally) mature enough to be entrusted by society with certain

tasks.

Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological human

development, generally occurring between puberty and legal adulthood. Though the

period of adolescence is most closely associated with the teenage years,

chronological age provides only a rough marker of adolescence, and scholars have

found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition. Thus, a thorough understanding of

adolescence depends on information from various perspectives, most importantly

from the areas of psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and

anthropology. Within all of these disciplines, adolescence is viewed as a transitional

period between childhood with the purpose of preparing children for adult roles.

The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country and

by function. Even within a single nation-state or culture, there can be different ages

at which an individual is considered to be (chronologically and legally) mature

enough to handle certain tasks. In the west, such “coming of age” milestones include

driving a vehicle, having legal sexual relations, serving in the armed forces or on a

jury, purchasing and drinking alcohol, voting, entering into contracts, completing

certain levels of education, and marrying. Adolescence is usually accompanied by

increased independence and less supervision by parents or legal guardians.

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The study of adolescent development often involves interdisciplinary

collaborations. For example, researchers in neuroscience or bio-behavioral health

might focus on pubertal changes in brain structure and its effects on cognition or
21
social relations. Sociologists interested in adolescence might focus on the acquisition

of social roles (e.g., worker or romantic partner) and how this varies across cultures

or social conditions. Developmental psychologists might focus on changes in

relations with parents and peers as a function of school structure and pubertal

status.

Peer Relationships

Peer groups are especially important during adolescence, a period of

development characterized by a dramatic increase in time spent with peers and a

decrease in adult supervision. Adolescents also associate with friends of the

opposite sex much more than in childhood and tend to identify with larger groups of

peers based on shared characteristics.

Peer groups offer members the opportunity to develop various social skills like

empathy, sharing and leadership. They can have positive influences on an individual,

including academic motivation and performance. They can also have negative

influences and lead to an increase in experimentation with drugs, drinking,

vandalism, and stealing. Susceptibility to peer pressure increases during early

adolescence, peaks around age 14, and declines thereafter.

During early adolescence, adolescents often associate in cliques; exclusive,

single-sex groups of peers with whom they are particularly close. Toward late

adolescence, cliques often merge into mixed-sex groups as teenagers begin

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 romantically engaging with one another. These small friend groups Graduate Studies
break down and Research
even

further as socialization becomes more couple-oriented. Despite the common notion

that cliques are an inherently negative influence, they may help adolescents become
22
socially acclimated and form a stronger sense of identity.

Romance and Sexual Activity

Romantic relationships tend to increase in prevalence throughout

adolescence. By age 15, 53 percent of adolescents have had a romantic relationship

that lasted at least one month over the course of the previous 18 months.

As individuals develop into mature adolescents, there is an increase in the likelihood

of a long-term relationship, which can be explained by sexual maturation and the

development of cognitive skills necessary to maintain a romantic bond (e.g.

caregiving, appropriate attachment). Long-term relationships allow adolescents to

gain skills necessary for high-quality relationships later in life and contribute to

development of feelings of self-worth.

Adolescence marks a time of sexual maturation, which impacts the types of

social interactions adolescents maintain. While adolescents may engage in casual

sexual encounters, most sexual experience during this period of development takes

place within romantic relationships.

Autonomy

Adolescents strive for autonomy. According to McElhaney et al., there are

three ways in which autonomy can be described:

Emotional autonomy is the development of more adult-like close relationship

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with adults and peers.Behavioral autonomy, is the ability to make independent

decisions and follow through with them.Cognitive autonomy is characterized as the

manifestation of an independent set of beliefs, values and opinions

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3. Transitional Adulthood

Coming of age traditions, while different across the world, are seen in almost

every society.

“Coming of age” refers to a young person’s transition from childhood to

adulthood. The age at which this transition takes place varies among different

societies, as does the nature of the transition. It can be a simple legal convention or

can be part of a larger ritual. In some societies today, such changes are associated

with the arrival of sexual maturity in early adolescence; in others, it is associated with

the arrival of an age at which point one carries religious responsibilities. In western

societies, legal conventions stipulate points in late adolescence or early adulthood

that mark the age of maturity are the focus of the transition. Still, many cultures

retain ceremonies to confirm the coming of age and benefits come with the change.

Religion

Religion is often a determinant of when and how individuals come of age.

When members of the Baha’i faith turn 15, they reach the “age of maturity”

and are considered spiritually mature, and are responsible for individually

determining whether they wish to remain members of Baha’i. Those who declare that

they wish to remain members of Baha’i are expected to begin observing certain

Baha’i laws, such as obligatory prayer and fasting.

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In many Christian churches, a young person celebrates his or Studiesofand Research
her coming

age with the Sacrament of Confirmation. Some traditions withhold the rite of Holy

Communion from those not yet at the age of accountability on the grounds that
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children do not understand what the sacrament means. In some denominations, full

membership in the church, if not bestowed at birth, often must wait until the age of

accountability, and is frequently granted only after a period of preparation known as

catechesis. The time of innocence before one has the ability to understand truly the

laws of God, and during which God sees one as innocent, is also seen as applying to

individuals who suffer from a mental disability which prevents them from ever

reaching a time when they are capable of understanding the laws of God. These

individuals are thus seen as existing in a perpetual state of innocence by the grace

of God.

In Hinduism, coming of age generally signifies that a boy or girl are mature

enough to understand his responsibility towards family and society. Hinduism also

has the sacred thread ceremony for Dvija (twice-born) boys that marks their coming

of age to do religious ceremonies. Women often celebrate their coming to age by

having a ceremony. This ceremony includes dressing themselves in saris and

announcing their maturity to the community.

In Islam, children are not required to perform any obligatory acts of Islamic

teachings prior to reaching the age of puberty, although they should be encouraged

to begin praying at the age of seven. Before reaching puberty it is recommended to

pray in obeisance to Allah and to exemplify Islamic customs, but as soon as one

exhibits any characteristic of puberty, that person is required to perform the prayers

and other obligations of Islam.

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In the Jewish faith, boys reach religious maturity at the age of Studiesby
13, signified and Research

their bar mitzvah ceremony. Girls are believed to mature earlier and can have their

bat mitzvah at the age of 12. Once the ritual is done, the new men and women are
25
looked upon as adults and are expected to uphold the Jewish commandments and

laws.

Marriage and Responsibility

People marry for love, for socioeconomic stability, to start a family, and to

create obligations between one another.

Marriage is a governmentally, socially, or religiously recognized interpersonal

relationship, usually intimate and sexual, that is often created as a form of contract.

The most frequently occurring form of marriage is between a woman and a man,

where the feminine term wife and the masculine husband are generally used to

describe the parties to the contract. Some countries and American states recognize

same-sex marriage, but gaining recognition for these unions is a legal battle

occurring around the world.

The ceremony in which a marriage is enacted and announced to the

community is called a wedding. The reasons people marry vary widely, but usually

include publicly and formally declare their love, the formation of a single household

unit, legitimizing sexual relations and procreation, social and economic stability, and

the education and nurturing of children. A marriage can be declared by a wedding

ceremony, which may be performed either by a religious officiator or through a

similar government-sanctioned secular process. The act of marriage creates

obligations between the individuals involved and, in some societies, between the

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parties’ extended families. Marriages are perpetual agreements with legal Studies and Research

consequences, terminated only by the death of one party or by formal dissolution

processes, such as divorce and annulment.

26 Schwartz and Mare examined trends in marriage over time and found that the

old maxim “opposites attract” is less accurate of marriage than the maxim “birds of a

feather flock together. ” Their research focused on one specific similarity in marital

partners: education. They found that the correlation of educational levels of

American married couples decreased in similarity slightly after World War II, but has

since increased substantially. As of 2003, one’s level of educational attainment was

a significant predictor of the educational attainment of one’s spouse. People without

a high school diploma are unlikely to marry someone with more educational

attainment and people with a college degree are likely to marry people with a similar

level of educational attainment. Part of the reason why education is so influential in

determining the level of education of one’s spouse is because people tend to form

groups based on levels of education. First, there are the groups formed in the

process of becoming educated; many people meet their spouses at school. But jobs

after one completes his or her education also tend to be grouped by level of

education. As a result, people spend more time with individuals of a similar level of

educational attainment. As most people tend to marry or partner with individuals with

whom they spend a lot of time, it is not surprising that there is significant educational

similarity between spouses.

One well-known attribute of marriage is that it tends to have health benefits.

Happily married people tend to be healthier than unmarried people. However,

unhappily married couples may not receive the same health benefits and may

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 actually be less healthy than their single peers. Graduate Studies and Research

The Middle Years

27 Middle adulthood is generally accompanied by a decline in physical health

and fertility, and an increase in ability to cope with stress.

Middle age is the period of age beyond young adulthood but before the onset

of old age. Various attempts have been made to define this age, which is around the

third quarter of the average life span. The U.S. Census lists middle age as including

people aged from 35 to 54, while developmental psychologist Erik Erikson argues

that middle adulthood occurs from the age of 40 until 65.

Middle-aged adults often show visible signs of aging such as the loss of skin

elasticity and the graying of hair. Physical fitness usually wanes, with a 5–10 kg (10-

20 lb) accumulation of body fat, reduction in aerobic performance and a decrease in

maximal heart rate. Strength and flexibility also decrease throughout middle age.

However, people age at different rates and there can be significant differences

between individuals of the same age.

Both male and female fertility declines with advancing age. Advanced

maternal age increases the risk of a child being born with some disorders, such as

Down syndrome. Advanced paternal age sharply increases the risk of miscarriage,

as well as Down syndrome, schizophrenia, autism, and bipolar disorder. Middle aged

women will experience menopause, which ends natural fertility, in their late 40s or

early 50s.

In developed countries, mortality begins to increase more noticeably each

year from age 40 onwards, mainly due to age-related health problems, such as heart

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 disease and cancer. However, the majority of middle-age people inGraduate Studies and Research
industrialized

nations can expect to live into old age. In general, life expectancy in developing

countries is much lower and the risk of death at all ages is higher.
28 However, well-being involves more than merely physical factors, and middle

age is not experienced as a “time of decline” for healthy people. Middle-aged people

benefit from greater life experience than they had when they were young; this

contributes to happiness and makes emotional responses to stress less volatile.

Parenthood

Parenting is the process of supporting the physical, emotional, social, and

intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood.

Parenting is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional,

social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting

refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship.

Parenting is usually carried out by the biological parents of the child in question,

although governments and society take a role as well.

Social class, wealth, and income have the strongest impact on what methods

of child rearing parents use. Understanding parenting styles help us understand how

those styles contribute to the behavior and development of children.

Parenting Styles

Developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind identified three main parenting

styles in early child development: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. These

parenting styles were later expanded to four, including an uninvolved style. These

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four styles of parenting involve combinations of acceptance and responsiveness and Research

the one hand, and demand and control on the other.

1. Authoritarian parenting styles can be very rigid and strict. If rules are not
29
followed, punishment is most often used to ensure obedience. There is usually no

explanation for punishment except that the child is in trouble and should listen

accordingly.

2. Authoritative parenting relies on positive reinforcement and infrequent use

of punishment. Parents are more aware of a child’s feelings and capabilities, and

they support the development of a child’s autonomy within reasonable limits. There

is a give-and-take atmosphere involved in parent-child communication, and both

control and support are exercised in authoritative parenting.

3. Permissive or Indulgent parenting is most popular in middle class families

in Western culture. In these family settings, a child’s freedom and autonomy are

valued and parents tend to rely mostly on reasoning and explanation. There tends to

be little if any punishment or rules in this style of parenting and children are said to

be free from external constraints. An uninvolved parenting style is when parents are

often emotionally absent and sometimes even physically absent. They have no little

to no expectation of the child and regularly have no communication. They are not

responsive to a child’s needs to do not demand anything of them in their behavioral

expectations.

There is no single or definitive model of parenting. What may be right for one

family or one child may not be suitable for another, although research shows that the

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authoritative parenting style is extremely effective and yields self-reliant, Studies and Research
cheerful,

and friendly children.

30
Various Parenting Practices

 Attachment Parenting: working strengthen the intuitive, psychological, and

emotional bond between the primary caregiver and the child

 Helicopter Parenting: over-parenting; parents are constantly involving

themselves, interrupting the child’s ability to function on their own

 Narcissistic Parenting: parents are driven by their own needs; their children

are an extension of their own identity; use their children to live out their dreams.

 Positive Parenting: unconditional support, guiding them and supporting them

for healthy development

 Slow Parenting: allowing the child to develop their own interests and allowing

them to grow into their own person; lots of family time; allowing children to make

their own decisions; limit electronics, simplistic toys

 Spiritual Parenting: respecting the child’s individuality; making space for

child to develop a sense of their own beliefs through their personality and their

own potentials

 Strict Parenting: focused on strict discipline; demanding, with high

expectations from the parents

 Toxic Parenting: poor parenting; complete disruption of the child’s ability to

identify one’s self and reduced self-esteem; neglecting the needs of the child and

abuse is sometimes seen in this parenting style

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  Graduate Studies and Research
Unconditional Parenting: giving unconditional positive encouragement

Parenting across the Lifespan

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Family planning is the decision whether and when to become parents,

including planning, preparing, and gathering resources. Parents should assess

whether they have the required financial resources. They should also assess

whether their family situation is stable enough and whether they themselves are

responsible and qualified enough to raise a child. Reproductive health and

preconceptional care affect pregnancy, reproductive success, and maternal and child

physical and mental health. During pregnancy, the unborn child is affected by many

decisions that his or her parents make, particularly choices linked to their lifestyle.

The health and diet decisions of the mother can have either a positive or negative

impact on the child in utero.

It is important to realize that parenting doesn’t end when a child turns 18.

Support is needed in a child’s life well beyond the adolescent years and continues

into middle and later adulthood. Parental support is crucial in helping children figure

out who they are and where they fit in the world. Parenting is a lifelong process.

Career Development: Vocation and Identity

A vocation is an occupation to which an individual is particularly drawn.

A vocation is a term for an occupation to which a person is especially drawn

or for which he or she is suited, trained, or qualified. Though now often used in non-

religious contexts, the meanings of the term originated in Christianity.

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Use of the word “vocation” before the sixteenth century referred firstlyStudies
to theand Research

“call” by God to the individual, or calling of all humankind to salvation, particularly in

the Vulgate, and more specifically to the “vocation to the priesthood,” which is still
32 usual sense in Roman Catholicism.
the

The idea of vocation is central to the Christian belief that God has created

each person with gifts and talents oriented toward specific purposes and a way of

life. This idea of vocation is especially associated with a divine call to service to the

Church and humanity through particular vocational life commitments, such as

marriage to a particular person, consecration as a religious, ordination to priestly

ministry in the Church, and even a holy life as a single person. In the broader sense,

Christian vocation includes the use of one’s gifts in their profession, family life,

church, and civic commitments for the sake of the greater common good.

Since the origination of Vocational Guidance in 1908, by the engineer Frank

Parsons, the use of the term “vocation” has evolved to include the notion of using our

talents and capabilities to good effect in choosing and enjoying a career. This

semantic expansion has meant some diminishment of reference to the term’s

religious meanings in everyday usage.

4. The Older Years

Old age cannot be exactly defined, but it is often associated with certain

activities, such as becoming a grandparent or entering retirement.

The boundary between middle age and old age cannot be defined exactly

because it does not have the same meaning in all societies. People can be

considered old because of certain changes in their activities or social roles. For

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example, people may be considered old when they become grandparents, Studies
whenand Research

they begin to do less or different work (retirement). Traditionally, the age of 60 was

generally seen as the beginning of old age. Most developed world countries have
33
accepted the chronological age of 65 years as a definition of an “elderly” or older

person.

According to Erik Erikson’s “Eight Stages of Life” theory, the human

personality is developed in a series of eight stages that take place from the time of

birth and continue on throughout an individual’s complete life. He characterizes old

age as a period of “Integrity vs. Despair,” during which a person focuses on reflecting

back on their life. Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their

life has been wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with

feelings of bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments

will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back

with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain

wisdom, even when confronting death.

Age discrimination is a prevalent social problem facing the elderly. While

discrimination toward the young is primarily visible through behavioral restrictions,

discrimination toward the elderly ranges from behavioral restrictions to physical

abuse. Abuse of the elderly is a serious problem in the U.S. There are nearly two

million cases of elder abuse and self-neglect in the U.S. every year. Abuse refers to

psychological/emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and caregiver neglect

or financial exploitation, while self-neglect refers to behaviors that threaten the

person’s own health and safety.

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 Cultural Diversity and Sociology Graduate Studies and Research

Sociology Around the World

Primary agents of socialization- the family, peer groups, school and the
34
media- tend to be the same in different cultures. The importance of each can vary

across the cultures, however.

SUMMARY:

Socialization is important because it helps uphold societies and cultures; it is

also a key part of individual development. Research demonstrates that who we are

affected by both nature (our genetic and hormonal makeup) and nurture (the social

environment in which we are raised). Sociology is most concerned with the way that

society’s influence affects our behavior patterns, made clear by the way behavior

varies across class and gender.

REFFERENCES:

1. Electronic Sources
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/socialization-throughout-the-life-
span/

https://www.centrallyon.org/vimages/shared/vnews/stories/48c823b73d5e2/ch%204%20-
%20socializing%20the%20individual%20-%20notes%20-%20pp.pdf

https://www.thoughtco.com/socialization-in-sociology-4104466

https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/socialisation-the-meaning-features-types-stages-and-
importance/8529

CURRICULUM VITAE

MA. ANTONETTE D. ONDO

Campus: G. Marella St., Buliran Complex,
Taal, Batangas
 #79 Luntal Tuy, Batangas Graduate Studies and Research
CP no. 09061652232
Email: mariah.always1115@gmail.com

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

35
COLLEGIATE Rizal College of Taal
Taal, Batangas
Bachelor of Science in Education
Major in Mathematics
2018-2019

HIGH SCHOOL Bilaran National High School

Bilaran, Nasugbu, Batangas
2013-2014

ELEMENTARY Luntal Elementary School

Luntal, Tuy, Batangas
2009-2010

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Place of Birth Lemery, Batangas

Date of Birth April 15. 1997
Age 23 years old
Religion Roman Catholic
Civil Status Single
Citizenship Filipino
Father Jose A. Ondo
Mother Virginia I. Dela Rosa

WORK EXPERIENCE

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL FACULTY

Rizal College of Taal
Taal, Batangas
June 2019 up to present

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 Graduate Studies and Research

36

Campus: G. Marella St., Buliran Complex,

Taal, Batangas