UNIT OPERATIONS (ENCH3UO)

Mr E M Obwaka

5. DRYING

5.1 Introduction

The drying of a solid generally refers to the removal of relatively

small amounts of water or other liquid from a solid material to

reduce the quantity of residual liquid to an acceptably low

quantity. Evaporation, on the other hand, refers to the removal of

relatively large amounts of water from a material. Drying is often

the final step in a series of operations, and the product from a

dryer is often ready for final packaging.

It is generally cheaper to remove liquids mechanically than

thermally. A product that contains no liquid is said to be bone dry.

Now dried table salt contains about 0.5 % water, dried coal about

4 %, and many food products about 5 %. Reducing the water

content in foods to below about 10 wt % will allow for them to be

stored for an extended period of time.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRYERS
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Dryers can be classified in several ways. The two most useful

classifications are based on:

1. The method of transferring heat to the wet solids

2. The handling characteristics and physical properties of the

wet material

The first method reveals differences in dryer design and

operation, while the second is most useful in the selection of a

group of dryers for preliminary consideration in given a drying

problem. Based on the first method, the major divisions of dryers

are thus:

1. Direct dryers – in which the solid is directly exposed to a

hot gas (usually air);

2. Dryers that are heated by dielectric, radiant, or microwave

energy;

3. Indirect dryers – in which heat is transferred to the solid

from an external medium such as condensing steam.

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Fig. 5.1: Classification of dryers based on method of HT [Perry]

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SOLIDS HANDLING IN DRYERS

Most industrial dryers handle particulate solids during part of or

all the drying cycle. In adiabatic dryers, the solids are exposed to

the gas in the following ways:

1. Gas is blown across the surface of a bed or slab of solids or

across one or both faces of a continuous sheet or film in a

process referred to as cross-circulation drying (see Fig 5.2a)

Fig. 5.2: Patterns of gas-solid interaction in dryers [McCabe].

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2. Gas is blown through a bed of coarse granular solids that

are supported on a screen in a process termed through-

circulation drying – see Fig. 5.2b. This process and the

previous one require a low gas velocity to prevent the

entrainment of solid particles.

3. Solids are showered downward through a slow-moving gas

stream – Fig. 5.2c.

4. Gas passes through the solids at a velocity sufficient to

fluidise the bed. Some entrainment of finer particles is

inevitable. Process illustrated in Fig. 5.2d.

5. The solids are all entrained in a high-velocity gas stream and

are pneumatically conveyed from a mixing device to a

mechanical separator. See Fig. 5.2e.

6. Drops of solution or slurry are evaporated by suspending

them briefly in a hot gas stream, as in spray dryers

illustrated in Fig. 5.3.

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Fig. 5.3: A spray dryer with parallel flow [McCabe]

5.2 Principles of Drying

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The principle of “one theory fits all” does not apply to dryers due

to the variety of materials to be dried and types of equipment.

TEMPERATURE PATTERNS IN DRYERS

The way in which temperatures vary in a dryer depends on

factors such as:

- nature of the feedstock

- liquid content of the feedstock

- temperature of the heating medium

- drying time

- allowable final temperature of the dry solids

The pattern of variation of temperature for various dryers is,

however, very similar. Typical patterns are depicted in Fig. 5.4.

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Fig. 5.4: Temperature patterns in dryers: (a) batch dryer; (b)

continuous counter-current adiabatic dryer. [McCabe]

In a batch dryer with a heating medium at constant temperature,

see Fig. 5.4a, the temperature of wet solids rises rather quickly

from its initial value Tsa to the initial vaporisation temperature,

Tv. In a non-adiabatic dryer with no sweep gas, T v is the boiling

point of the liquid at the pressure prevailing in the dryer. If a

sweep gas is used or if the dryer is adiabatic, T v is at or near the

wet-bulb temperature of the gas. Drying may occur at T v for a

considerable amount of time after which the temperature of the

wet solids gradually rises as a zone of dry solids forms near the

surface until some temperature Tsb.

In an ideal continuous dryer, each particle or element of the solid

passes through a cycle similar to that shown in Fig. 5.4a on its

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way from the inlet to the outlet of the dryer. In steady-state

operation, the temperature at any given point in a continuous

dryer is constant whereas it varies along the length of the dryer.

This temperature variation with length is illustrated in Fig. 5.4b.

The solids inlet and gas outlet are on the left. The solids are

quickly heated from Tsa to Tv. The vaporisation temperature may

change as drying proceeds but the wet-bulb temperature will

remain constant. Hot gas enters the dryer at T hb, usually with low

humidity.

HEAT TRANSFER IN DRYERS

Drying of wet solids is a thermal process. Dryers are most often

designed on the basis of heat-transfer considerations alone

though mass transfer, e.g., diffusion, is sometimes a factor.

Calculation of heat duty

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Heat must be applied to a dryer to accomplish the following:

(i) Heat the feed to the vaporisation temperature

(ii) Vaporise the liquid

(iii) Heat the solids to their final temperature

(iv) Heat the solids to its final temperature

(v) Heat the air or other added gas to its final temperature.

A lot of energy is often required to vaporise a liquid. The amount

of heat for item (ii) is very often much more than that required

than the other four items.

Consider Fig. 5.5 below:

Q
Ha, Tha
G, Hb, Thb
(a) DRYER Gas
(b)
Solid
ms, Xa, Tsa Hb, Tsb

Fig. 5.5: A dryer

q=  s cps(Tsb-Tsa)
m +  s XacpL(Tv
m – Tsa) +  s (Xa
m – Xb) +  s XbcpL(Tsb
m –

Tv) +  s (Xa
m – Xb)cpv(Tva – Tv) (5.1)
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where

q = quantity of heat transferred from the gas to the solid and

water in the solid

m
s = mass of bone-dry solids per unit time

Xa = initial liquid concentration, mass of liquid/mass of bone-dry

solid

Xb = final liquid concentration, mass of liquid/mass of bone-dry

solid

Tsa = initial solids temperature

Tv = vaporisation temperature

Tsb = final solids temperature

Tva = final vapour temperature

 = heat of vaporisation

cps, cpL, cpv = specific heats of solid, liquid and vapour respectively.

G = mass flow rate of the gas, kg air/h

Ha, Hb = humidity of the gas at points (a) and (b) respectively

Tha, Thb = Temperature of the heating medium (gas)

In an adiabatic dryer, the heat transferred to the solids, liquid

and vapour, as provided for in equation (5.1), comes from the

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cooling of the gas. For a continuous adiabatic dryer, the heat

balance gives:

q=  gc
m
sb (Thb – Tha) (5.2)

where m
g = mass flow rate of the dry gas

csb = humid heat of the gas at inlet humidity

(Compliments MEN, 2008)

EQUILIBRIUM AND FREE MOISTURE

Equilibrium moisture refers to the portion of water in a wet solid

which cannot be removed by air because of the humidity of the

air.

Free moisture refers to the moisture contained by a solid in

excess of equilibrium moisture. Only free moisture can be

evaporated under the given operating conditions.

X = XT – X* (5.3)

where X = free moisture content

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 XT = total moisture content

X* = equilibrium moisture content

Also consider the following definitions:

kg H 2 O
Xwet = kg wet solid

kg H 2 O
= kg dry solid  kg H O
2

kg H 2 O / kg dry solid
= kg dry solid / kg dry solid  kg H O / kg dry solid
2

X
=1 X

X wet
It can similarly be shown that X = 1  X
wet

5.3 Cross-Circulation Drying

With respect to drying, solids can be classified as:

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  Crystalline – its particles contain no interior liquid

and drying only occurs on the surface of the solid;

 Porous – its particles contain liquid in interior

channels, e.g., catalyst pellets;

 Nonporous – examples include colloidal gels such as

soap, glue and plastic clay, dense cellular solids such

as wood and leather, and many polymeric materials.

Constant Drying Conditions

- A large excess of air is used so conditions remain constant.

- The temperature, humidity, velocity and direction of flow of

air are constant.

- Only the conditions in the air stream are constant while

those in the solid, e.g., moisture content, change with time.

RATES OF DRYING

With the passing of time, the total moisture content, X T, typically

falls as shown by graph A in Fig. 5.6.

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Fig. 5.6: Typical plots of total moisture content and drying rate

versus drying time [McCabe]

The feed material will be heated to the vaporisation temperature

and the graph will be linear in this period. The graph will then

curve towards the horizontal and finally level off.

The drying rate is provided for in graph B. It is fairly horizontal

for a section of its length in what is referred to as the constant-

drying-rate period. This is followed by the falling-rate period in

which the drying rate curves downwards to a final value of zero,

i.e., the equilibrium moisture content.

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During the constant-rate period, the interface temperature, T i,

can be assumed equal to the wet-bulb temperature, T wb.

Alternatively, Ti can be calculated by factoring radiation and

conduction. During this period, the drying rate per unit area, R c,

can be estimated from empirical correlations. The necessary

calculations can be provided for by equations of mass transfer,

e.g., equation (5.4), or heat transfer, e.g., equation (5.5).

M v k y ( yi  y) A
v 
m
(1  y ) L
(5.4)

h y (T  Ti ) A
or v 
m
i
(5.5)

where m
v = rate of evaporation

A = drying area

hy = heat-transfer coefficient

ky = local mass-transfer coefficient

Mv = molecular weight of vapour

T = temperature of gas

Ti = temperature at interface

y = mole fraction of vapour in gas

yi = mole fraction of vapour at interface

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 i = latent heat at temperature Ti
(1  y) L = log mean value of 1-y and 1-yi

The heat-transfer coefficient for gas in turbulent flow parallel

with the surface of the solid, as in a tray dryer, may be

approximated as follows:

h y De
Nu = = 0.037 Re0.8Pr0.33 (5.6)
k

Where De = equivalent tube/channel diameter

When the flow is perpendicular to the surface (through-

circulation?), at air velocities between 0.9 and 4.5 m/s, the

equation is:

hy = 24.2G0.37 (5.7)

Where G = mass velocity of gas, kg/m2.h

The constant drying rate, Rc is:

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 m
v h y (T  Ti )
Rc = = i
(5.8)
A

CRITICAL MOISTURE CONTENT

The point at which the constant-rate period ends is referred to

as the critical moisture content. This point is sometimes clearly

identifiable, as shown by point B in Fig. 5.7.

Fig. 5.7: Drying rate curves for a porous ceramic plate [McCabe]

If the initial moisture content of the solid is below the critical

value, there will be no constant-rate period.

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The critical moisture content, Xc, varies with thickness of

material, rate of drying, and the resistances to heat and mass

transfer within the solid.

DRYING IN THE FALLING-RATE PERIOD

Methods of estimating drying rates in the falling-rate period

depend on whether the solid is porous or non-porous.

Nonporous solids

The rate of drying in a nonporous solid can be described using the

equation below:

k y ( y Ai  y A )
NA  (5.9)
(1  y A ) L

Where NA = mass-transfer flux of component A across a plane or

boundary, kgmol/m2.s.

Porous solids

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In a porous material, diffusion of internal moisture to the top

surface may limit the rate of drying. Moisture flows through

porous solids by capillary action or surface diffusion. The rate of

drying curve presented in Fig. 5.7 would apply. The distinct break

in the falling-rate curve at point C is referred to as the second

critical point. The type of behaviour shown in the diagram is not

common; the constant rate is rarely truly constant.

DRYING UNDER CONSTANT DRYING CONDITIONS

Drying rate curves derived from experimental work are often the

means by which the time required for drying is established.

By definition,

dmv m s dX
R=- =- (5.10)
Adt A dt

Integrating the above equation:

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 t X1
ms dX
 dt
t 0
=- A  R
(5.11)
X2

Where R = constant = Rc, the above equation becomes:

ms
tc = AR (X1 – X2) (5.12)
c

In the falling rate period, three scenarios are possible:

1. The entire falling rate period is curved

2. Straight line and curve

3. Straight line through the origin

Scenario 1: Curve

R - 21 -
B
 A

Fig. 5.8: The curve as the falling-rate period

Reference will now be made to equation (5.11) where our limits of

integration will be XB and XD.

XD
ms dX
tF =- A 
XB
R
(5.13)

XB
ms dX
= A 
XD
R
(5.14)

The equation above can be evaluated by plotting a graph of 1/R

versus X for the given limits and determining the area under the

curve.

Scenario 2: Straight line and curve

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Reference here is made to Fig. 5.7.

For the portion which can be considered a straight line BC:

R = mX + b

X1
ms dX
Given t = - A 
X2
R

X1
ms dX
 tf1 = - A X2
mX  b

Where tf1 = the time for drying in the first falling-rate period.

ms  mX 1  b 
 tf1 = mA ln mX  b 
 2 

By definition R1 = mX1 + b and R2 = mX2 + b

 (R1 – R2) = m(X1 – X2)

R1  R2
m= X X
1 2

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This further implies that:

ms ( X 1  X 2 ) R1
tf1 = A( R1  R2 )
ln
R2

For the curved portion, graphical integration can be performed by

plotting 1/R versus X and evaluating the integral between limits

XC and XD.

XC
ms dX
tf2 = A 
XD
R

Where tf2 = the time for drying in the second falling-rate period.

Scenario 3: Straight line through origin

R B
A

C - 24 -
 D

Fig. 5.9: The straight-line as the falling-rate period

It can be shown that:

m X R
tF = AR ln R
s c c

c 2

(Compliments SMM, 2008)

REFERENCES

1. McCabe, W. L., J. C. Smith and P. Harriott, Unit Operations

of Chemical Engineering, 7th Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2005.

2. Perry, R. H. and D. W. Green (Eds.), Perry’s Chemical

Engineers’ Handbook, 7th Ed., McGraw-Hill, 1997.

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