FLIGHT

MECHANICS
GATE AEROSPACE

Prateek Tyagi Third Edition

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 Flight Mechanics
Syllabus
Core Topics:

Basics: Atmosphere: Properties, standard atmosphere.

Classification of aircraft. Airplane (fixed wing aircraft)
configuration and various parts.

Airplane performance: Pressure altitude; equivalent, calibrated,

indicated air speeds; Primary flight instruments: Altimeter, ASI,
VSI, Turn-bank indicator. Drag polar; takeoff and landing; steady
climb & descent, absolute and service ceiling; cruise, cruise climb,
endurance or loiter; load factor, turning flight, V-n diagram;
Winds: head, tail & cross winds.

Static stability: Angle of attack, sideslip; roll, pitch & yaw controls;
longitudinal stick fixed & free stability, horizontal tail position
and size; directional stability, vertical tail position and size.

Special Topics:
Dynamic stability: Euler angles; Equations of motion;
aerodynamic forces and moments, stability & control derivatives;
decoupling of longitudinal and lateral-directional dynamics;
longitudinal modes; lateral-directional modes.

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Flight Mechanics Year Wise Analysis

No of Total
Year Topics (1 marks + 2 marks)
Questions Marks
 Steady, state and level
flight (2 + 1)
 Dynamic Stability (1 + 1)
1M : 5
2019  Aircraft Speeds (1 + 0) 15
2M : 5  Gliding (1 + 0)
 Static Stability (0 + 2)
 Endurance (0 +1 )
 Atmosphere (0 + 1)
 Steady state & Level Flight
(1 + 4)
1M : 4
2018  Accelerated Flight 18
2M : 7 Performance (3 + 0)
 Static Stability (0 + 1)
 Equations of motion(0+ 1)
 Steady state & Level Flight
(0 + 2)
1M : 3  Accelerated Flight
2017 15
2M : 6 Performance (1 + 1)
 Static Stability (2 + 2)
 Dynamic Stability (0 + 1)
 Steady state & Level Flight
(3 + 2)
 Accelerated Flight
1M : 5 15
2016 Performance (1 + 0)
2M : 5  Static Stability (0 + 1)
 Dynamic Stability (1 + 1)
 Equations of motion(0+ 1)
 Atmosphere (1 + 0)
 Steady state & Level Flight
(2 + 2)
1M : 5  Accelerated Flight
2015 Performance (1 + 0) 13
2M : 4
 Static Stability (0 + 1)
 Dynamic Stability (1 + 0)
 Equations of motion(0+ 1)
 Steady state & Level Flight
(3 + 2)
1M : 4
2014  Accelerated Flight 14
2M : 5 Performance (0 + 2)
 Static Stability (0 + 1)

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  Dynamic Stability (1 + 0)
 Steady state & Level Flight
(2 + 3)
1M : 5  Accelerated Flight
2013 19
2M : 7 Performance (0 + 1)
 Static Stability (2 + 3)
 Dynamic Stability (1 + 0)
 Steady state & Level Flight
(1 + 2)
 Accelerated Flight
1M:6
2012 Performance (1 + 2) 18
2M:6  Static Stability (2 + 2)
 Dynamic Stability (1 + 0)
 Equations of motion(1 +0)
 Steady state & Level Flight
(2 + 2)
1M:3  Accelerated Flight
2011 13
2M:5 Performance (0 + 2)
 Static Stability (1 + 0)
 Dynamic Stability (0 + 1)
 Steady state & Level Flight
(2 + 0)
1M:4  Accelerated Flight
2010 14
2M:5 Performance (2 + 1)
 Static Stability (0 + 2)
 Dynamic Stability (0 + 2)
 Steady state & Level Flight
(2 + 1)
1M:4
2009  Static Stability (2 + 2) 18
2M:7  Dynamic Stability (0 + 2)
 Equations of motion(0 +2)
 Atmosphere (0 + 1)
 Steady state & Level Flight
(3 + 4) 30
2008 1M:4  Accelerated Flight
(Total 150
(85 questions) 2M:13 Performance (1 + 1)
 Static Stability (0 + 5) marks)

 Dynamic Stability (0 + 1)
 Equations of motion(0 +1)
 Atmosphere (0 + 0)
 Steady state & Level Flight
(2 + 4) 29
2007 1M:5  Accelerated Flight
(Total 150
(85 questions) 2M:12 Performance (0 + 0)
 Static Stability (3 + 7) marks)

 Dynamic Stability (0 + 1)
 Equations of motion(0 +0)

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TABLE OF CONTENT

1. Atmosphere 1–6

2. Airplane Performance in Steady and Level Flight 7 – 34

3. Airplane Performance in Accelerated Flight 35 - 53

4. Airplane Static Stability 54 – 87

5. Dynamic Stability 88 – 107

6. Equations of Motion 108 – 113

 Solved GATE and Additional questions

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GOODWILL GATE2IIT GATE AEROSPACE – FLIGHT MECHANICS

Chapter 2
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE IN STEADY
& LEVEL FLIGHT
For equilibrium, T = D and L=W
1
Since, L = 2ρV2SCL

𝟐𝑾
Therefore, 𝑽=√
𝝆𝑺𝑪𝑳

𝟏
i.e. 𝑽 ∝ √
𝑪𝑳

2.1 STALLING SPEED (Vstall)

It is the minimum speed with which an airplane can fly without losing its control, called as
the stalling speed, occurs at CLmax.

𝟐𝐖
𝐕𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐥 = √
𝛒𝐒𝐂𝐋𝐦𝐚𝐱

2.2 WING LOADING (w)

It is the ratio of the weight of an airplane to its wing area.

𝑾
𝒘=
𝑺
2.3 DRAG
The drag polar equation is given as

CD = a + bCL2 or CD = CD0 + kCL2

Where CD is Total drag coefficient.

a or CD0 is zero lift drag coefficient/ Profile drag coefficient/ parasite drag coefficient

bCL2 or kCL2 is induced drag coefficient/ Lift dependent drag coefficient/ Trailing vortex drag
coefficient, Where b = k = 1/πeAR

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1
Now, D = ρV2SCD
2

1
D = ρV2S (a + bCL2)
2

1 𝑏𝑊 2 1
D = ( ρaS) V2 + ( 1 )
2 𝜌𝑆 𝑉2
2

𝑩 𝟏 𝒃𝑾𝟐
D = AV2 + 𝟐
where, A = ( ρaS) and B = 𝟏
𝑽 𝟐 𝝆𝑺
𝟐

NOTE: Minimum drag occurs when the profile drag is equal to the induced drag.

2.4 MINIMUM DRAG CONDITION (DMIN)

Let D=D
𝐿
D=𝐷 × 𝐿

For steady state and level flight, L = W

𝐷
D =𝑊 × 𝐿 ,
𝐶𝐷
D =𝑊 × ,
𝐶𝐿

a + bC2L
D=𝑊 × ,
𝐶𝐿

a + bC2L
Therefore, for drag to be minimum, ( ) should be minimum,
𝑪𝑳

a = bCL2
This is the condition for minimum drag. i.e.

{Parasite drag coefficient} = {induced drag coefficient}

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OR, {Parasite drag} = {Induced drag}

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Example 2.1: The drag polar equation of an advanced light twin airplane is CD = 0.0358 +
0.0405 CL2. Its weight is 2180kg and wing area is 15m2. Calculate:

1. Maximum lift to drag ratio

2. Minimum drag speed

3. Minimum power required with corresponding flight speed. Assume standard sea level
conditions. Assume standard sea level conditions.

Solution: Given: W =2180kg = 21385.8N, S = 15m2, CD = 0.0358 + 0.0405CL2

1. To find Maximum lift to drag ratio

(L/D) max occurs under minimum drag condition, i.e. a = b CL2

𝑎
∴ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑑 = √ = 0.94
𝑏

𝐶𝐷𝑚𝑑 = 2𝑎 = 0.0716
𝐿 𝐶 𝐶
(𝐷) max = (𝐶 𝐿 ) max = (𝐶 𝐿 )md = 13.13
𝐷 𝐷

2. To find Vmd

2𝑊 2 × 21385.8
𝑉𝑚𝑑 = √ =√ = 49.75 m/s
𝜌 𝑠 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑑
1.2256 × 15 × 0.94

3. To find PRmin
1
The condition for power required to be minimum is a = 3 b CL2

3𝑎
∴ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑝 = √ = 1.6285
𝑏

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𝐶𝐷𝑚𝑑 = 4𝑎 = 0.1432

2𝑊
𝑉𝑚𝑝 = √𝜌 𝑠 𝐶 = 37.798 m/s
𝐿 𝑚𝑝

𝐶
Dmp = W ( 𝐶𝐷)mp = 1880.53N
𝐿

∴ 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑, 𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐷𝑚𝑝 𝑥 𝑉𝑚𝑝 = 𝟕𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟎. 𝟒 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕

2.14 CLIMBING FLIGHT

Consider an aircraft in steady climb along a straight flight path inclined at an angle ϒ to the
horizontal, ϒ is called as angle of climb (AOC).

Resolving the forces,

L= Wcos ϒ

T = D + W sin ϒ
𝑇−𝐷
Sin ϒ = 𝑊

𝑇−𝐷
ϒ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝑊

𝑻−𝑫
𝒗𝒄 = 𝑽∞ 𝑺𝒊𝒏ϒ = 𝑽∞ ( )
𝑾

Where, 𝒗𝒄 is the climbing speed (or) Rate of Climb (ROC)

 MAXIMUM ANGLE OF CLIMB (AOC)

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𝑇−𝐷
ϒ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝑊
𝑻𝑨 −𝑫𝒎𝒊𝒏
ϒ 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝑾

Thus for Maximum Angle of Climb, Airplane should be operated under minimum drag
condition i.e. a = bCL2

 MAXIMUM RATE OF CLIMB

CASE 1: JET ENGINED AIRPLANES
𝑇−𝐷
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉∞ 𝑆𝑖𝑛ϒ = 𝑉∞( )
𝑊

2𝑊 𝑇 − 𝐷
𝑣𝑠 = √ ( )
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝑊

𝑻
On solving, 𝒃𝑪𝟐𝑳 + 𝑪𝑳 − 𝟑𝒂 = 𝟎
𝑾

This is the condition for maximum Rate of climb for Jet Engined Airplane

CASE II: PISTON ENGINED AIRPLANES-

𝑇−𝐷
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉∞ 𝑆𝑖𝑛ϒ = 𝑉∞( )
𝑊

𝑇𝐴 −𝐷
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉∞ ( )
𝑊

𝑇𝐴 𝑉∞ − 𝐷𝑉∞
𝑣𝑐 = ( )
𝑊
𝑷𝑨 − 𝑷𝑹 𝑬𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑨𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆
𝒗𝒄 = ( )= = 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝑬𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝑾 𝑾
𝑷𝑨 − (𝑷𝑹 )𝒎𝒊𝒏
(𝒗𝒄 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑹𝑶𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = Maximum Specific Power
𝑾

Thus the Maximum Rate of climb for Piston Engined Airplane occurs under Minimum
Power Condition i.e.
𝟏
a = 𝟑bCL2

Example 2.4: Estimate the rate of climb and corresponding flight speed and angle of climb if
the thrust is 27000N at all speeds. Weight of an airplane is 160000N and wing area is 42m 2.
The drag polar equation is CD = 0.014 + 0.05 CL2.

Solution: Given: W= 160000N, S = 42m2, CD = 0.014 + 0.05 CL2, T = 27000N

We know, the condition for maximum rate of climb for jet engine airplane is

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𝑇
bCL2 + 𝑊 𝐶𝐿 − 3𝑎 = 0

∴ 𝐶𝐿 = 0.2328 𝑜𝑟 − 3.6078 (neglecting negative value)

∴ 𝐶𝐷 = 0.01671(From Drag Polar equation)

2𝑊
𝑉∞ = √𝜌 𝑠 𝐶 = 163.412 m/s
𝐿

𝐶
D = W ( 𝐷) = 11.4845 x 103 N
𝐶𝐿

𝑇−𝐷
ϒ = sin-1( ) = 5.560
𝑊

Thus, the maximum rate of climb is,

𝑇−𝐷
𝑣𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ROCmax = Vꚙsinϒ = Vꚙ( )
𝑊

𝑣𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ROCmax = 15.846 m/s

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GATE QUESTIONS
Q1. For a level flight at cruise altitude, 𝐶D=0.018 with drag coefficient at zero lift, 𝐶𝐷,0=0.015.
For a 30° climb at the same altitude and speed, 𝐶𝐷 = _____×10−3. [GATE 2015]

Ans: 𝑪𝑫 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑

Given: 𝐶D=0.018, 𝐶𝐷, 0=0.015

Let 𝐶𝐿1 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐿2 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏

We know, 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2

2
0.018 = 0.015 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿1
2
∴ 𝑘𝐶𝐿1 = 0.003

2𝑊 2 𝑊 𝑐𝑜𝑠30
𝐶𝐿1 = 𝐶𝐿2 =
𝜌 𝑠 𝑣2 𝜌 𝑠 𝑣2

0.003 0.003 2 2 4
∴𝑘= 2 = 4 𝑊2 𝜌 𝑠 𝑣
𝐶𝐿

0.003 2 2 4 4 𝑊 2 3
𝐶𝐷 = 0.015 + 𝜌 𝑠 𝑣
4 𝑊2 4 𝜌2 𝑠 2 𝑣 4
3
= 0.015 + 0.003 4

∴ 𝑪𝑫 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑

Q2. A glider having a mass of 500 kg is taken to an altitude of 1000 m with a jeep moving on
ground at 54 kmph. Upon reaching the required altitude in 50 s, the glider is released and
starts its descent. Under the assumption of equilibrium glide, the range and endurance of
the glider for a constant lift-to-drag ratio of 15 are [GATE 2011]
a) 15.0 km and 1002.2 s b) 15.0 km and 301.3 s
c) 1.0 km and 1002.2 s d) 1.0 km and 50 s

Ans: a) 15.0 km and 1002.2 s

Given: m = 500kg, h = 1000m, b = 54km/hr, T =50sec

𝐿
Range = H ( 𝐷) = 1000 (15) = 15000 m

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3.6 TURNING FLIGHT

1. Turning flight, sometimes also called as co-ordinated turn or level turn or correctly
banked turn.
2. If there is no change in altitude during turn, it is known as level turn or co-ordinated
turn.
𝑚𝑉 2
Case 1: If = 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛∅; it is
𝑅
called as co-ordinated turn.
𝑚𝑉 2
Case 2: If < 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛∅; it is
𝑅
called as side-slip.
𝑚𝑉 2
Case 3: If > 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛∅; it is
𝑅
called as skidding.

3. The two performance characteristics of greatest importance in turning flight are

(i) The radius of turn
𝒅𝝍
(ii) The turn rate ω = 𝒅𝒕 , where ψ is the turning angle.
4. Consider an airplane turning steadily at correct angle of bank around point ‘O’ and
radius ‘R’ at given true air speed.

Resolving forces in the horizontal direction,

𝑚𝑉 2
= 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
𝑅
Resolving forces in the vertical direction,

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W = Lcos∅

Dividing above equations,

𝑚𝑉 2 𝑉2
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = =
𝑅 ×𝑊 𝑔𝑅

Therefore,
𝑽𝟐
𝑹=
𝒈𝒕𝒂𝒏∅

5. Load factor (n): It is ratio of lift of an airplane to its weight.

𝑳
𝒏=
𝑾
But in case of turning flight, W = Lcos∅

Therefore,
𝐿 𝐿 1
𝑛= = = = 𝑠𝑒𝑐∅
𝑊 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Hence, 𝒕𝒂𝒏∅ = √𝒏𝟐 − 𝟏

We get,
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑹= =
𝒈𝒕𝒂𝒏∅ 𝒈√𝒏𝟐 − 𝟏

Note:

a. For steady state and level flight, L=W, therefore, n = 1.

b. For climbing flight/ gliding flight
L = Wcos𝛾

𝐿 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾
=𝑛=
𝑊 𝑊
𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜸 < 1

c. In steady state and level flight, before taking a turn, let T 0 be the thrust, D0 be the
drag, L0 be the lift, V0 be the velocity and P0 be the power required.

For steady state and level flight, T0 = D0 and L0 = W

𝐿 𝐿 𝐷
Load factor, n = = =
𝑊 𝐿0 𝐷0

Assuming incidence to be constant, we can write,

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𝑪𝑳 𝐿 𝐷
= =
𝑪𝑫 𝐿0 𝐷0
𝑨𝒍𝒔𝒐, 𝑳 = 𝒏 𝐿𝑜

1 1
ρV2SCL = n 2ρ𝑉𝑜2 SCL
2

V2 = n 𝑉o2

V = √𝒏 VO
𝑉
(𝑉𝑜) 2 = n

Also, P = D x V and P0 = D0 x V0

𝑃 𝐷 × 𝑉 3
= = 𝑛 × √𝑛 = 𝑛 2
𝑃𝑜 𝐷𝑜 × 𝑉𝑜
3
𝑃 = 𝑛 2 x P0
𝑳 𝑫 𝑻 𝑽 𝑷
= = = ( ) 2 = ( )2/3 = n = sec φ
𝑳𝟎 𝑫𝟎 𝑻𝟎 𝑽𝟎 𝑷𝟎

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4.8 COMPLETE STABILITY EQUATION AND ITS

DERIVATIVES
𝑀𝑐𝑔 = 𝑀𝐹 + 𝑀𝑤 + 𝑀𝑡

𝑀𝑐𝑔 = 𝑀𝐹 + 𝑀𝑎𝑐 + 𝐿(ℎ − ℎ0 )𝐶 − 𝑙 × 𝑳𝒕

̅ 𝜼𝒕 𝒂𝒕
𝑪𝑴𝒄𝒈 = 𝑪𝑴𝑭 + 𝑪𝑴𝒂𝒄 + 𝑪𝑳 (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − (𝜶𝒘 − 𝒊𝒘 + 𝒊𝒕 − 𝝐) 𝑽

This is the complete stability equation for an airplane in the longitudinal mode.

NOTE: The pitching moment coefficient from fuselage is generally neglected as it is very
small in comparison to te other forms, i.e. 𝐶𝑀𝐹 = 0
̅ 𝜼𝒕 𝒂𝒕
𝑪𝑴𝒄𝒈 = 𝑪𝑴𝒂𝒄 + 𝑪𝑳 (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − (𝜶𝒘 − 𝒊𝒘 + 𝒊𝒕 − 𝝐) 𝑽

Differentiating wrt 𝛼𝑤
𝒅𝑪𝑴𝒄𝒈 𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝝐
= ̅ 𝜼𝒕 𝒂𝒕 (𝟏 −
(𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 )
𝒅𝛼𝑤 𝒅𝛼𝑤 𝒅𝛼𝑤

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Important points:
1. Airfoil characteristics : The effect of airfoil characteristics is negligible if the airfoil
selected for the wing and tail has constant values of the pitching moment about the
aerodynamic centre, in such case only the lift curve slope is significant but that too is
very small.
2. C.G. position: If the CG is ahead of AC , it contributes positively, if it coincides with C
induces neutral stability and if it is behind the AC , it contributes negatively for
stability.
3. Tail efficiency factor
4. Tail Volume coefficient
5. Downwash: the rate of change of downwash plays the most important role in the
longitudinal stability of an airplane.
𝑑𝜖
As long as the term 𝑑𝛼𝑤 < 1, the airplane can be stable and once it becomes more than
one, there is absolutely no chance to stabilize the airplane.

NOTE: To avoid the above phenomenon, i.e. the effect of wing downwash over the tail
plane, modern airplanes are designed with high tail plane configuration. Also, this
effect is not very serious for Canard configuration.

4.9 COMPLETE STABILITY EQUATION

𝐶𝑀𝑐𝑔 = 𝐶𝑀𝐹 + 𝐶𝑀𝑎𝑐 + 𝐶𝐿 (ℎ − ℎ0 ) − 𝑉̅ 𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝑡

Differentiating wrt𝐶𝐿 ,
𝑑𝐶𝑀𝑐𝑔 𝑑𝐶𝑀𝐹 𝑑𝐶𝑀𝑎𝑐 𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡
= + + (ℎ − ℎ0 ) − 𝑉̅ 𝜂𝑡
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿
𝑑𝐶𝑀𝑐𝑔 𝑑𝐶𝑀𝐹 𝑑𝐶
= + (ℎ − ℎ0 ) − 𝑉̅ 𝜂𝑡 𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡 ---- (1)
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝐿

NOTE: The downward deflection of elevator and tab is taken positive.

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𝑪𝑳𝒕 = 𝒂𝟏 𝛼𝑡 + 𝒂𝟐 𝜂 + 𝒂𝟑 𝛽
𝒅𝑪𝑳𝒕
𝒂𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒍, 𝒂𝟏 =
𝒅𝛼𝑡

𝜶𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒍

𝒂𝟐 𝒊𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓,

𝒅𝑪𝑳𝒕
𝒂𝟐 = 𝒄𝒂𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝒅𝜼

𝝶 or 𝜹 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆

𝒅𝑪𝑳𝒕
𝒂𝟑 = 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝜷 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒂𝒃 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
𝒅𝜷

Also,
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝑡 = 𝑎1 (𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖) + 𝑎2 𝜂 + 𝑎3 𝛽

Differentiating wrt 𝑪𝑳 ,
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡 𝑑𝛼𝑤 𝑑𝜖 𝑑𝜂 𝑑𝛽
= 𝑎1 [ − ] + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡 𝑑𝛼𝑤 𝑑𝜖 𝑑𝛼𝑤 𝑑𝜂 𝑑𝛽
= 𝑎1 [ − × ] + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝛼𝑤 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡 𝑑𝛼𝑤 𝑑𝜖 𝑑𝜂 𝑑𝛽
= 𝑎1 [1 − ] + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝛼𝑤 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡 𝑎1 𝑑𝜖 𝑑𝜂 𝑑𝛽
= [1 − ] + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑎 𝑑𝛼𝑤 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿
Substituting in equation (1)
𝒅𝑪𝑴𝒄𝒈 𝒅𝑪𝑴𝑭 𝒂 𝒅𝝐 𝒅𝜼 𝒅𝜷
= ̅ 𝜼𝒕 { 𝟏 [𝟏 −
+ (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ] + 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 }
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒂 𝒅𝜶𝒘 𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝑪𝑳
This is the complete equation for longitudinal static stability of an airplane.

4.10 STICK FIXED STABILITY

It is the condition in which the control surfaces are fixed at certain deflected position and
hence,
𝒅𝜂
𝝶 = constant, therefore =0
𝒅𝑪𝑳

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𝒅𝛽
β = constant, therefore =0
𝒅𝑪𝑳

therefore,
𝒅𝑪𝑴𝒄𝒈 𝒅𝑪𝑴𝑭 𝒂 𝒅𝜖
( )𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅 = ̅ 𝜼𝒕 { 𝟏 [𝟏 −
+ (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ]}
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒂 𝒅𝛼𝑤

4.11 NEUTRAL POINT

1. From the equation of stability, it is observed that the amount of stability changes as
the position of CG changes.
𝑑𝐶𝑀𝑐𝑔
2. If the CG is moved sufficiently backwards, at some point will become zero and
𝑑𝐶𝐿
the airplane will exhibit neutral stability, this position of CG is of a special interest
and called as Neutral Point.
3. Neutral point is that special position of CG for which the slope of pitching moment
coefficient versus angle of attack (or lift coefficient) is equal to zero, resulting in
neutral stability of an airplane.
𝑑𝐶𝑀𝑐𝑔
4. Therefore at neutral point, h = hn and =0.
𝑑𝐶𝐿

4.12 STICK FIXED NEUTRAL POINT AND STICK

FIXED MARGIN
We know, the stability equation for stick fixed condition is given as,
𝑑𝐶𝑀𝑐𝑔 𝑑𝐶𝑀𝐹 𝑎 𝑑𝜖
= + (ℎ − ℎ0 ) − 𝑉̅ 𝜂𝑡 { 1 [1 − ]_____ (1)
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑎 𝑑𝛼𝑤

𝒅𝑪𝑴𝒄𝒈
When c.g. is at neutral point, 𝒉 = 𝒉𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 =0
𝒅𝑪𝑳

𝑑𝐶𝑀𝐹 𝑎 𝑑𝜖
0= + (ℎ − ℎ0 ) − 𝑉̅ 𝜂𝑡 { 1 [1 − ]}--- (2)
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑎 𝑑𝛼𝑤

Subtracting (2) from (1), we get

𝒅𝑪𝑴𝒄𝒈
= 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒏
𝒅𝑪𝑳
𝒅𝑪𝑴𝒄𝒈
= −( 𝒉𝒏 − 𝒉) = − 𝑯𝒏
𝒅𝑪𝑳
Where, Hn is called as static margin or stick fixed static margin and it is a direct measure of
static longitudinal stability of an airplane.

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Static margin Hn is a distance by which the CG is ahead of the neutral point expressed as
fraction of chord or in terms of chord.

4.15 LONGITUDINAL CONTROL

Control of the pitch attitude of the airplane can be achieved by deflecting the elevator.
𝑿
̅ 𝜼𝒕 𝜶𝒕 (𝒅𝑪𝑳)𝒕 --------- (a)
𝑪𝑴𝒄𝒈 = 𝑪𝑴𝑭 + 𝑪𝑴𝒂𝒄 + 𝑪𝑳 ( 𝑪𝒂) − 𝑽 𝒅𝜶

Elevator power: Deflecting the elevator effectively changes an angle of attack of whole
horizontal tail plane, thereby changing its lift and producing a controlling moment about
airplane C.G.

The magnitude of the moment coefficient obtained per degree deflection of the elevator is
called as elevator power.
𝑑𝐶𝑀
𝐶𝑚 𝛿𝑒 =
𝑑𝛿𝑒
Differentiating equation (a) with respect to 𝛿𝑒
𝑑𝐶𝑀𝑐𝑔 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝛼𝑡
= − 𝑉̅ 𝜂𝑡 ( )
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝛼 𝑡 𝑑𝛿𝑒
𝑑𝛼𝑡
Where, = 𝜏 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝛼𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝛿𝑒
𝑑𝛿𝑒

𝑑𝐶𝐿
( ) = 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝑑𝛼 𝑡
̅ 𝜼𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝝉
𝑪𝒎 𝜹𝒆 = − 𝑽

This is known as elevator control power.

𝑺𝒕 𝒍 𝒅𝑪𝑳𝒕
𝑪𝒎 𝜹𝒆 = − 𝜼𝒕
𝑺 𝒄 𝒅𝜹𝒆

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𝒅𝑪𝑳𝒕
Where = 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒅𝜹𝒆

NOTE:

 Elevator effectiveness or elevator power, controls the forward most location of C.G.
 Neutral point restricts the aft most position of C.G.

The only term affected by elevator deflection is the tail angle of attack (𝛼𝑡 )

𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖 + 𝜏𝛿𝑒
𝑋
𝐶𝑀𝑐𝑔 = 𝐶𝑀𝐹 + 𝐶𝑀𝑎𝑐 + 𝐶𝐿 ( 𝐶𝑎) − 𝑉̅ 𝜂𝑡 (𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖 + 𝜏𝛿𝑒 ) 𝑎𝑡 ---------- (b)

Since 𝜏 is independent of the lift coefficient 𝐶𝐿 , if the equation (b) is differentiated with
respect to 𝐶𝐿 , the term 𝜏𝛿𝑒 vanishes, which means, the change in elevator deflection will
𝒅𝑪
not change the slope of the pitching moment curve, i.e. 𝒅𝑪𝑴
𝑳

Thus the deflection of elevator will only change the equilibrium lift coefficient
(𝐶𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ) but will not change the longitudinal static stability.

𝒅𝑪𝑴 𝒅𝑪𝑴
𝑪𝑴 = 𝑪𝑴𝒐 + 𝜶+ 𝜹𝒆
𝒅𝜶 𝒅𝜹𝒆

Elevator angle to trim

𝒅𝜹𝒆
𝜹𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎 = 𝜹𝒆𝟎 + 𝑪
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎 𝑳 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎
Where, 𝜹𝒆𝟎 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒕

This equation can be used to estimate the value of

elevator deflection required to trim a given aircraft at
a particular 𝐶𝐿 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚

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𝑑𝐶𝑀 𝑑𝛿𝑒
= −𝐶𝑀𝛿𝑒
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝑑𝐶𝑀 𝑑𝛿𝑒
= −(−𝑉̅ 𝜂𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝜏)
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝑑𝐶𝑀 𝑑𝛿𝑒
= (𝑉̅ 𝜂𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝜏)
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝑑𝐶𝑀 𝑑𝛿𝑒
= (𝑘)
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝒅𝑪𝑴
Therefore, the criteria for static longitudinal stability is, < 0, the same criteria can be
𝒅𝑪𝑳
𝒅𝜹𝒆
represented in terms of <0
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎

4.16 STICK FIXED MANEUVERING POINT

𝒅𝜹𝒆
Stick fixed manoeuvring point is the C.G. location at which =𝟎
𝒅𝒏

𝟏. 𝟏𝒈𝒍𝒕 𝝆𝑪𝒎𝜹𝒆 𝑲′
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑵𝑴 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑵𝟎 − (𝟏 + 𝟐 )
𝑾 𝒏
𝟐𝝉 ( 𝑺 )

Where ̅̅̅̅
𝑁𝑀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ̅𝑁 ̅̅0̅ are the non dimensional locations of the stick –fixed maneuver point
and stick – fixed neutral point respectively.

As 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 < 0, hence stick fixed Manoeuvring point is aft of stick fixed neutral point.
𝑊
𝑑𝛿𝑒 1 2( 𝑠 )
= − 2 (𝑥 ̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ − 𝑁 𝑀 )
𝑑𝑛 𝑉 𝜌𝐶𝑀𝛿𝑒 𝑐𝑔

Where, ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑵𝑴 − 𝒙̅̅̅̅̅
𝒄𝒈 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏

 The derivative dδe/dn varies with maneuver margin.

 For more forward C.G. location, more elevator will be required to obtain the limit
load factor. Therefore, as the C.G. moves forward, more elevator deflection is
necessary to obtain a given load factor.
 The lower positive speed (higher the CL) more elevator will be necessary to set the
limit load factor. Thus, at low speeds more elevator deflection is necessary to obtain
a desired load factor than is required to obtain at a higher speed.

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4.23 CONTRIBUTION OF WING SWEEP

𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝐲
𝑪𝑳𝜷 = = −𝐂𝐋 ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛌
𝒅𝜷 𝐛

Where λ is the sweep angle

 It is seen that the dihedral effect due to sweep back is directly proportional to the lift
coefficient𝐶𝐿 , side slip angle β and sweep angle λ.
 The sweep back wing provides a dihedral effect.
 Since λ is positive for swept back wings, sin2λ is positive and 𝐶𝐿𝛽 is negative which is
a positive dihedral effect; hence sweep back wing provides stabilizing effect in the
lateral mode.
 For swept forward wing, λ will be negative and therefore 𝐶𝐿𝛽 will be positive, which
is a negative dihedral effect, hence sweep forward wing provides de - stabilizing
effect in the lateral mode.

NOTE:

 A high wing on fuselage with negative dihedral angle stabilizes the DUTCH ROLL
mode.
 A low wing with the dihedral gives highest restoring roll moment against side slip. It
stabilizes SPIRAL MODE and hence has large roll stability.

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GATE QUESTIONS
Q1. A jet aircraft is initially flying steady and level flight at its maximum endurance
condition. For the aircraft to fly steady and level, but faster at the same altitude, the pilot
should [GATE 2018]

(a) increase thrust alone

(b) increase thrust and increase angle of attack

(c) increase thrust and reduce angle of attack

(d) reduce angle of attack alone

ANS: (c) increase thrust and reduce angle of attack

To move faster the pilot has to increase the thrust of an aircraft. But as thrust increases,
velocity increases, which in turn increases the lift. As usually the aerodynamic centre is
ahead of the c.g. of an aircraft, it will produce a nose up pitching moment. To maintain
steady and level flight, the pilot has to decrease angle of attack to compensate for the
additional lift.

Q2. A statically – stable aircraft has a 𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 5 (were the angle of attack, α, is measured in
radians). The coefficient of moment of the aircraft about the centre of gravity is given as
𝐶𝑀,𝑐.𝑔. = 0.05 − 4𝛼. The mean aerodynamic chord of the aircraft wing is 1m. The location
(positive towards the nose) of the neutral point of the aircraft from the centre of gravity is
____(in m, accurate to two decimal places). [GATE 2018]

Ans : - 0.8

𝑑𝐶𝐿
Given: = 5 /radians, 𝐶𝑀,𝑐.𝑔. = 0.05 − 4𝛼, c = 1m
𝑑𝛼

𝒅𝑪𝑴𝒄𝒈
We know, = 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒏
𝒅𝑪𝑳

𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒉 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑪. 𝑮. 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇

𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕

𝑑𝐶𝑀𝑐𝑔
= -4
𝑑𝛼

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GOODWILL GATE2IIT GATE AEROSPACE – FLIGHT MECHANICS

Q11. The trim curves of an aircraft are of the form Cm,0 = (0.05 – 0.2δe) – 0.1CL, where the
elevator deflection angle δe is in radians. The static margin of the aircraft is: [GATE 2010]
(a) 0.5 (b) 0.2 (c) 0.1 (d) 0.05

Ans: (c) 0.1

𝐶𝑀𝐶𝐺 = (−0.05 − 0.2𝛿𝑒 ) − 0.1 𝐶𝐿

𝑑𝐶𝑀𝐶𝐺 𝑑𝛿𝑒
= 0.2 − 0.1
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿
𝑑𝐶𝑀 𝑑𝐶𝑀 𝑑𝛿𝑒
For trim, =0=
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝐶𝐿

𝑑𝛿𝑒
∴ =0
𝑑𝐶𝐿

𝑑𝐶𝑀𝐶𝐺
∴ = −𝐻𝑛 = −0.1
𝑑𝐶𝐿

∴ 𝑯𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟏

Chapter 6
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
6.1 Body - fixed Coordinate system
Thus coordinate system is having origin at the center of gravity of the aircraft in which x-
axis has been taken along the length of the aircraft i.e. along the length of fuselage in the
airplane’s plane of symmetry; y-axis has been taken as perpendicular to the aircraft’s plane
of symmetry. It has been denoted as (xb, yb, zb) as shown below.

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GOODWILL GATE2IIT GATE AEROSPACE – FLIGHT MECHANICS

6.4 EULER ANGLE FORMULATION

The position of the aircraft is specified by the location of the origin of the body - fixed
coordinate frame relative to the Earth – fixed coordinate frame.

 The orientation of an aircraft relative to the Earth can be described in terms of what
are called EULER ANGLES.
 The orientation of the body fixed coordinate frame (xb, yb, zb) relative to the Earth
fixed coordinate frame (xf, yf, zf) is described in terms of three consecutive rotations
through three Euler angles, in the specific order as follows –
 Rotate the (xf, yf, zf) coordinate system about Zf axis through an angle
Ѱ to the coordinate system (x1, y1, z1)
 Rotate the (x1, y1, z1) coordinate system about y1 axis through an
angle ϴ to the coordinate system (x2, y2, z2)
 Rotate the (x2, y2, z2) coordinate system about x2 axis through an
angle ɸ to the coordinate system (xb, yb, zb)
 The three Euler angles ɸ, ϴ and Ѱ are respectively, called the bank angle, the
elevation angle and the azimuth angle or heading.
 There is a subtle but very important difference between the Euler angles and roll,
pitch and yaw.
 Roll, Pitch and Yaw are orthogonal whereas, the Euler’s angles are not.

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