CHAPTER 6

THE TRANSITIVITY OF MENTAL AND VERBAL PROCESS

6.1. Mental process
6.1.1. Senser and Phenomenon
Senser is the participant representing the one who thinks, sees, likes, wants, etc.
Phenomenon is the thing, idea, or fact which is thought, seen, liked, wanted, etc.
Ex: I saw her at the party.
Senser phenomenon

What he said pleased her a lot.

Phenomenon senser

I love teaching children.

[SENSER] [PR:MENTAL] [PHENOMENON]

6.1.2. Types of mental process

· Perception (perceiving): see, hear, notice, feel, taste, smell
· Affection (feelings): like, love, admire, miss, fear, hate, prefer
· Cognition (thinking): think, believe, know, doubt, remember, forget
· Volition (wanting): want, need, intend, desire, hope, wish
6.1.7. Two process with one subject
Ex: He enjoys being the center of attention.
I don’t want to exaggerate the danger….
- These examples involve 2 processes, a mental process followed by a process of any other types.
- With affection process, the second verb can be in the V.ing or to+V form. However, the use of the to+V
form can be interpreted as representing the shading of affection into volition.
Ex: I like swimming. = I enjoy (the activity of) swimming.
I like to swim (whenever I can). = I desire to swim.
*Exception: regret + to V is much more like a phased process of the manner type.
Ex: I regret to inform you that…
- With volition process, the second verb is normally in to+V form.
- With cognition process:
Forget/remember + to V: more like phase verb
Forget/remember + V.ing: more like full mental process verb.
Ex: He has forgotten to have his passport stamped. (failure to carry out a process)
I clearly remember agreeing with what he said… (recall of a past process)

6.1.8. The Phenomenon-Senser order of constituent (p.112)

- There are many verbs of the affection type and a few of the cognition type that take the please pattern
(Phenomenon followed by Senser)
Ex: She liked very much the way George put it.
[Senser] [Phenomenon]
The way George put it pleased her very much.
[Phenomenon] [Senser]
I don’t understand that bit about a mile apart.
[Senser] [Phenomenon]
That bit about a mile apart puzzles me.
[Phenomenon] [Senser]
· A further complication with the please type: Phenomenon is represented by a finite that clause.
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Ex: It annoys me that they do all these things without consultation.
[Senser] [Phenomenon]

6.3. Verbal process

- Participants:
· Sayer
· Saying = verbiage: the thing that is said. Participants:
· Sayer
· Saying = verbiage: the thing that is said.
· Addresses = hearer
· Verbs: say, tell, ask, reply, suggest
Ex: Could you ask Mrs. R. to bring a table back?
[Sayer] [addresses] [saying]
· With some verbs, the Addressee (if any) must be expressed in an Adjunct as a Prepositional Object.
Ex: There is something I must say to my people.
[saying] [sayer] [Addressee]
· In some cases, the Saying may be realized as a noun group representing a label for the subject matter of
the verbal process, or for a particular kind or unit of speech.
Ex: We discussed the various options.
You always talk nonsense.
Harry does tell the most awful lies.
Other examples of labels: (explain) the mistake, (ask) questions, (make) a statement, (speak) Italian, (tell) a
joke, (tell) the truth.
· Saying may be quotes (direct speech) or reports (indirect speech).
Ex: “Well, I’ve never seen one”, he said. (quoted statement)
He told me that he saw her. (reported statement)
· Reported statements (that clause) and report questions(wh-/if clause) may be compared to thought in
mental process clauses.
· Quotes and reports can also be of directives (commands, suggestions, requests)
Ex: “Be careful!” he warned. (quoted directive)
Each would be request to select… (reported directive)
· Quotes and reports can also be of offers.
Ex: “Let me help you with that” he offered (quoted offer)
Most of the students volunteered to help. (reported offer)
· The subject matter of the verbal process is often realized not as a participant (a Saying) but as part of a
Circumstantial Adjunct, most commonly after the preposition about.
Ex: We haven’t talk about that little brown blob there.

CHAPTER 7
RELATIONAL (BEING & HAVING) AND EXISTENTIAL (BE & EXISTING) PROCESS

- Relational process is about what things are, what they are like, and what they possess
- 3 subtypes of relational processes: attributive, identifying and possessive

7.1. Attributive relational processes

- The Carrier is normally mapped onto the Subject; the Attribute is normally mapped onto the Complement.
- Carrier and Attribute are linked by a relational process verb – a linking verb.
Ex: The adult female hind is considerably smaller.
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 [Carrier] [PR:Rel] [Attribute]

7.1.1. Types of Attributes

- The Attribute is some kind of quality of the Carrier. The quality type of Attribute is typically expressed by
an adjective or adjective group.
- The Attribute is the class of entity to which the Carrier belongs.The class type of Attribute is expressed by
a noun or noun group.
Ex: The adult female hind is considerably smaller. (quality)
[Carrier] [PR:Rel] [Attribute]
…the leader, who is always a hind. (class)
[Carrier] [Attribute]
· Attribute of the quality type can also be expressed by V.ing and Ved forms
Ex: The density and range of bird life along the harbor was still amazing.
· The third type of Attribute represents circumstances. Circumstance Attributes are typically expressed
by prepositional phrases.
Ex: Somebody was in the house.
The next meeting will be on Wednesday.
She seems to be sad that he’s left.
[Carrier] [PR:Relational:Attributive] [Attribute]

7.1.2. Linking verbs

7.1.2.1. Perception-type linking verbs
- Verbs: look, seem, sound, smell, taste, feel in simple present tense
- Those verbs have a semantic relationship with mental process verbs of perception.
Mental: I can see the sea.
Attributive: The sea looks very blue.
7.1.2.2. Change-type linking verbs = mutative verbs
- Verbs: become, turn into, get, grow, go, turn, fall
- Tense: present continuous, perfect
Ex: It’s getting hot here.
The beautiful town of Yixing had become a frightening place to live in.
7.1.2.3. Circumstance-type linking verbs
Some circumstantial meaning is incorporated into the verb itself rather than being expressed entirely in the
Attribute.
Ex: and the rut lasts 4 to 6 weeks. (time)
This meeting concerns teaching loads. (matter)
It weighs up to 200 kilograms. (quantity)
7.1.3. Expansion of Attributes
- Adjectives function as Attributes can be expanded into adjective groups. Such Adjectival Attributes can
be premodified (very large) or postmodified. Adjectives closely related in meaning to verbs of affection,
cognition, and volition are commonly postmodified by that/if/wh- clauses.
Ex: I am very happy that you were able to be with us today.
· Adjectives function as Attributes can be expanded for comparison. Comparisons may be completed by
postmodification with than plus a noun group, a prepositional phrase, a finite clause, or nonfinite clause.
Ex: They think that everything is better than on the mainland.
· Comparison of equality is expressed by premodifying as and postmodifying as plus a noun group, a
prepositional phrase, or a clause (finite or nonfinite).
Ex: You’re not as daft as you look.

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7.1.4. Postponed Carriers
- Postponed Carriers are nominal clauses functioning as Carriers, which have been moved away from
Subject position to a position following the Attribute.

Ex: It is practically impossible to get them to read.

Attribute Carrier
To get them to read is practically impossible.
Carrier Attribute

It is obvious that America has defaulted on this promissory note.

Attribute Carrier
That America has defaulted on this promissory note is obvious.
Carrier Attribute
- The Attributes which commonly combine with postponed Carriers in this way fall into 4 main types:
· Attribute expressing an evaluation of the state of affairs (It’s odd that nobody saw anything.)
· Attribute expressing judgements of the likelihood of the state of affairs (It’s certain that things
will get worse before they get better.)
· Attribute expressing degrees of facility and potentiality (It would be easier for you to do it
yourself.)
· Attribute expressing degrees of obligation and necessity (It is compulsory for all students to
attend tutorials.)

7.1.5. Mental process or Attribute process?

7.1.6. Action process or attribute process?

7.2. Identifying relational processes

- Identifying relational processes identify one participant by equating it with another. The identified
participant is called Identified and the participant which does the identifying is called the Identifier.
- One can think of Identifier as answering the questions: Who is X? What is X? Which is X?
Ex: I am a teacher. (Attributive)
I am the teacher. (Identifying)
Identifier Identified
Who are you? I am the teacher. (Identifying)
- Identifier must be noun groups or nominal clauses. Exception: superlative adj
Ex: John is the tallest.
- Identifier is the second participant when it contains the new or important information in the clause.
When Identifier comes first, it is usually marked with a pitch movement (in speech).
Ex: Who is the fat guy?
The fat guy is the principal.
Identified Identifier

Who is the principal?

The fat guy is the principal.
Identifier Identified

7.2.1. Linking verbs in identifying processes

- Same types as Attributive: perception, change, circumstance
- Excluding those which can only be used with adjectives and adjective groups
Ex: From where I was standing, Early Riser appeared the winner… (perception)
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 - With circumstance type, if the sequence of participants can be reversed, then it is a identifying clause,
otherwise it is an attributive clause.
Ex: The meeting took up the whole of Wednesday afternoon. (circumstance: time)
The whole of Wednesday afternoon was taken up by the meeting. (identifying clause)
- Symbolizing verb: mean, represent, signify, exemplify, define, equal
Ex: These signals mean: Go forward! Go away from me!
The electronic research library symbolizes the cutting edge….

7.3. Possessive relational processes

- In possessive process clause, two participants are related through one being the Possessor of the other (the
Possessed).
- Possession process includes relationships of part to whole and of the ownership
Ex: The stag has antlers on the top of the head. (part to whole)
Possessor Possessed
Each of them had their own porridge bowl. (ownership)
Possessor Possessed
- Verbs of possession: own, possess, have, have got
- Possession in the sense of inclusion and negative possession
Ex: The library of the future will still contain millions of books…
- Tenses: simple present and continuous tense in general.
*Have as a delexical verb: the mean of possession is not really present at all.
Ex: I have a splitting headache. (My head aches splittingly.)
Delexical verb

7.4. Existential processes

- Existential process clauses consist of just one participant, known as the existent.
Ex: Once upon a time there were three bears.
Existent
- There functions as the Subject, but it is not a participant (or circumstance) in the clause.
- Existent is commonly an event or situation, usually involving some kind of nominalization.
Ex: There has been a huge explosion and fire at a warehouse in Mexico.
- A verb other than be is used in the existential clause
Ex: There came a sudden knock at the door.
There remains the question of compensation.
- There is sometimes omitted when the clause begins with a Circumstance Adjunct.
Ex: Inside every university will be an electronic virtual university.

CHAPTER 8
REPRESENTING TIME: TENSE AND TEMPORAL ADJUNCTS

Absolute tense: essentially locates a process in time relative to the here and now. (three ab tenses: present,
past, future)
Relative tense: further locates the process relative to the absolute tense.

They arrived. → absolute tense is past, no relative tense.

They have arrived. → ab tense: present, relative: past → past in the present.
They had arrived. → ab tense: past, relative: past → past in the past.
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Continuous: present; perfect: past.

Absolute tense and relative tense selections:

Pre in pre: is walking
Past in pre: has walked
Pre in pas: was walking
Pas in pas: had walked
Pre in fut: will be walking
Pas in fut: will have walked

Pre in pas in pre: has been walking

Pre in pas in pas: had been walking
Pre in pas in fut: will have been walking

Relative future: a time later than the absolute (or the ab + rela) tense selections: be + going to
Fut in pas in pre: has been going to walk
Fut in pas in pas: had been going to walk
Fut in fut: will be going to walk
Fut in pas in fut: will have been going to walk
Other ways: be about to (immediate future), be to (predestined or arranged future), and would (fut in pas
only).

Tense and modals:

Could, might, should, would do function as past tense forms in certain contexts (in dependent clauses
following mental or verbal processes)
In other contexts, it is more accurate to treat them as separate modals.
All modals combine with relative past, present, and future
Must have been out of his mind à modal + rela pas
Might be doing it right now à modal + relapres
Could be about to come crashing down à modal + relafut
Semimodal ‘used to’ + action processes and refer to repetitive or habitual actions

Tense in nonfinite verb groups:

Nonfinite groups cannot select for absolute tense and relative tense selections in nonfinite clauses locate the
process relative to the time established by the tense selection in a finite clause.
Finite groups: has walked, had walked, will have walked; nonfinite groups have only “having walked”
(relative past).
Having worked at a number of sites en route, he was told of a stray dog. (1)
Having worked at a number of sites en route, we’ll then be well prepared. (2)
àrelative tense selection: both past. (1): its location in absolute time is also past; (2); its location in absolute
time is future.
Relative tense selection in nonfinite clauses can be past, present or present in past:
+ disillusioned by the whole thing to be talking like that (present)
+ I’d like you to at least be smiling when you greet them. (present)
+ Having been queuing all night, they were cold and hungry (present in past)

Different interpretations of tense

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Some linguists claim that English has only two tenses, based on the fact that verbs can be inflected for
present tense and past tense. (kick/kicks, kicked)

Forms such as have gone and were going à interpreted as realizing a combination of tense and aspect.
Have gone: present tense + perfect aspect; were going: past tense + continuous aspect.
Aspect: essentially a way of viewing processes rather than locating them in time.

In English, it is rather difficult to separate aspect from tense.

They have arrived (1). They arrived. (2) → both refer to complete processes in the past viewed as a whole.
(1): a process located in the past with an orientation to the present, (2): simply locates the process at a time
in the past.

Progressive for relative present: may be more useful than the term perfect for relative past, provided
progressive is interpreted as meaning in progress when viewed from the absolute tense location.
Continuous is misleading.

The distinction between simple and continuous has different implications, however, it is the continuous form
which narrows down the location of the process to the here and now and the simple form which implies that
the process will continue beyond the here and now: You are very stupid – You are being very stupid today.

All occurrences of the auxiliary will would have to be regarded as expressing not tense but modality
(because of the restriction of the notion of tense to only the forms).

In fact, it’s sometimes hard to draw a clear line between future tense and modal meanings such as likelihood
and intention because future intentions are seldom known with the same degree of certainty with which it is
possible to know past and present situations. Therefore, reference to a future situation with will can often be
interpreted as involving a judgment of likelihood on the part of the speaker: He’ll be there. He’s never let us
down before.

If a speaker makes a statement about a future situation over which he or she has control, it is natural for this
to be interpreted as a statement of intention: I’ll do it tomorrow.

It is quite possible to use ‘will’ in a statement about the future which simply states a fact with no implication
that the speaker’s personal judgment of likelihood is involved or that the speaker is expressing intention: In
the year 2000 the Olympic Games will be held in Sydney.

There is no particular reason why a verb group such as ‘will know’ should not be regarded as marked for
future tense simply because ‘will’ happens to be an auxiliary within the verb group rather than an inflection
on the head.

Circumstantial Adjuncts of time:

*Duration in time: For + a noun group with a Quantifier: For a couple of months/ sometimes no
preposition: nearly an hour.
*Location in time:Prepositional phrase: on Wednesday or adverb group: once upon a time.
Adverbs and adverb groups generally indicate relative rather than absolute location in time: now, recently,
soon.
*Frequency in time:expressed by adverbs and adverb groups and by noun groups beginning with inclusive
Referrers: every year, annually. Relative frequency: always, usually, often,…

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Conjunctive Adjuncts of time: express temporal relationships between one part of the text and another:
first, then, previously, finally.

Interpersonal Adjuncts of time: do not so much locate a process at a particular time as express an attitude
toward the time location: already, still, at last.

CHAPTER 9
INTERACTION: SPEECH ACTS AND MOOD

Speech acts: labels for the kinds of things we are doing when we act upon one another through language:
Questions, statements, directives and offers.

Mood: declarative → speech act: statement.

Interrogative (yes-no) → question
Interrogative (wh-type) → question
Imperative → directive
Exclamative → exclamation (expressing attitude) (What a mess!)

Mood:
The mood of a clause is identified from its structure. The interpretation of a speech act normally depends
upon structure, context and intonation.
àrelationships between mood and speech: indirect speech acts.

Mood structure:
*Declarative and interrogative mood:
Declarative: Sub^Finite
Wh-inter: wh-Finite^Sub
Yes-no inter: Finite^Sub
*Imperative mood: a Predicator in the V(base) form of the verb, with no explicit Subject or Finite.
*Exclamative mood:what-Object/Complement^Subject^Finite or how-
Complement/Adjunct^Subject^Finite.

Mood and polarity:

Declarative, interrogative, imperative mood can be combined with positive or negative polarity.
For negative polarity, the negative particle ‘not’ directly follows the Finite.

Questions:
Yes-no interrogative questions: Is it yours Violet?
Wh-interrogative questions: Who do ohms mean?
Tag questions: Finite^Subject: He’s still there now, isn’t he?
Declarative mood questions: You did it yourself?

Directives:
Imperative mood directives: Mind your head as you come in.
Interrogative mood directives: Could you get me a cup too?
Declarative mood directives: You must go and apologize to her now.

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 CHAPTER 10
EXPRESSING JUDGEMENTS AND ATTITUDES:
MODAL AUXILIARIES AND MODALITY

Both likelihood and requirement belong to the area of interpersonal meaning called modality.

10.1. Likelihood
Expressions of likelihood can include:
- Modal auxiliaries (e.g. might, may and should)
- Modal adjuncts (e.g. definitely and probably)
- Attributive clauses (e.g. I'm certain, it's likely, and I'm sure)
- Mental process clauses of cognition (e.g. I think and I doubt)
10.1.1. Modal auxiliaries of likelihood
Modals of likelihood can be grouped according to the levels of likelihood they express.
- High (can be glossed as certainly)
Ex: That must be Aunt Agatha. (That is certainly Aunt Agatha.)
- Mid (can be glossed as probably)
Ex: We ought to just make it, as long as traffic's not too bad at the tunnel. (We will probably just
make it...)
- Low (can be glossed as possibly)
Ex: There may have been some contaminant in the test tube. (There was possibly some contaminant
in the test tube.)
* The modals can also combine with negative polarity, which can be glossed as certainly not, probably not,
and possibly not.
- High negative: That can't be her. She is not due back for at least another week.
- Mid negative: It shouldn't take long. It's only a short walk along the cliffs.
- Low negative: They may not concentrate on their homework.
The negative sometimes applies to the modality and sometimes to the rest of the clause.
- May/might + negativity: the rest of the clause
In both She may come and She may not come the likelihood is low (She will possibly/possibly not
come).
- Could + negativity: the modal
In It could be my aunt the likelihood is low (It is possibly my aunt).
In It couldn't be my aunt the (negative) likelihood is high (It is certainly not my aunt).
10.1.2. Deductions and predictions
Predictions are based on a certain premise, which may be a given situation, a general principle, or even a
hypothetical condition. Predictions are typically about the future but can also be about the present or the past
(e.g. will, should, won't)
Deductions are based on direct or indirect evidence. They are typically about the present or the past but can
be about the future (e.g. must, can't)
May, might and could are freely used for both.
10.2. Requirement
Requirement can be expressed using:
- Modal auxiliaries e.g. have to, may and should

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- Clauses with verbs such as permit and require
- Clauses with Attributes such as necessary and advisable
10.2.1. Modal auxiliaries of requirement
The modal auxiliaries used to express requirement can be ranked according to the strength of the
requirement.
- High requirement can be glossed as obligation or necessity.
+ High positive: ...but there is something I must say to my people who stand on...
+ High negative: ...we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds.
- Mid requirement can be glossed as
+ Mid positive: Animal lovers ... should first ensure that they know all the facts.
+ Mid negative: We should not spend too much time watching TV.
- Low requirement can be glossed as permission.
+ Low positive: You can copy yours on to a piece of paper too now.
+ Low negative: You don't have to it right now but...

CHAPTER 11
ORGANIZING MESSAGES: THEME AND FOCUS

A system for realizing textual meaning: organizing 2 kinds of meaning (experiential and interpersonal
meaning) to produce clauses and sentences which are appropriate and coherent in their context.

11.1. Marked and unmarked word order

Unmarked word order: a word order which we use unless there is some good reason in the context for using
a different word order.

11.2. Theme and Rheme

Theme: the starting point/point of departure/the first constituent in the clause (old info).
Rheme: everything else in the clause (new info).

11.3. Marked and unmarked Themes

* Unmarked theme
- Declarative mood: Subject
Ex: Michelangelo finished the statue of David in 1504.
And I love her. (And-conjunction is not a constituent)
- Interrogative mood:
+ Y/N : Finite ^ Subject
Ex: Do I look insane to you now?
+ WH-: WH word (the constituent that contains question words)
Ex: What did he see?
To whom was the letter sent?
How old/How old/How fat are you?
- Imperative mood: Predicator
Ex: Button up those lips, tightly.
- Exclamative mood: What + Complement/Object
How + Complement/Adjunct

11.4. Selection of marked Theme:

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When any constituent other than the Subject functions as Theme, it is regarded as a marked Theme. Such a
constituent may be thought of as in some way having been moved from it unmarked position to the front of
the clause, it has been thematized.
Thematization: the process of turning a constituent into the theme position.
- Die we can. Surrender we never will. (Thematized Finite)
- You like him? (Thematized Subject)
11.4.1. Thematized Objects and Complements
* Thematized Objects:
- Most of the examples come from the texts, but this example I invented, as I couldn't find an
authentic one.
- I find I get on with her very well, but him I really cannot bear.
→ Contrastive effect.
- These we studied, first from Vignola, later from the classic documents.
→ Strong emphasis.
* Thematized Attribute Complements:
- A socialist I am and a socialist I shall always be.
- Strange indeed was the sound that came from within.
11.4.2. Thematized Circumstantial Adjuncts
- Even physically, Europe's neighborhoods are drawing closer, with road and rail lines bridging the
Baltic countries, ...
- At night he couldn't sleep.
- After the accident, what did you do?
- After the quarrel did you met him again?
* Method of development: thematized Circumstantial Adjuncts are all of time.
- Chronological: In 1983, ... In 1984, ...
- Topographical: In one bedroom, ... In another, ... In the dining room, ... Between the several doorways, ...
Exceptions:
- The Expletive "There": No existential meaning but still a marked theme.
There are no bus.
There comes a bus.
- The dummy/Impersonal "It"
It is/was ... that... (dummy "it")
It's 8 o'clock (impersonal "it")
11.4.3. Absolute themes
Have no role in the transitivity of the clause, not a participant or a circumstance in the core clause, stand
outside the clause.
The salad, I think I'd just prefer to have lots of olives, tomato and feta.
As for the topics of the seminars, the Committee has tried to strike a balance between...
That guy, I really don't like his suit.
11.4.4. Picked-up Themes
A thematized constituent which is later picked-up by a pronoun in an unmarked position in the clause.
Those people who I have told their address is incorrect, I'm going to give you a partner...
That guy, I really don't like him.

11.6. Nonexperiential Themes

- All the Themes that have been considered so far are either participants (Michelangelo) or circumstances
(In 1504). They all function to represent aspects of experiential meaning.
→ Experiential Theme.

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- Modal Adjuncts (probably, definitely, etc.) and adverbs and prepositional phrases (unfortunately, in my
opinion, frankly, hopefully, fortunately) express the speaker or writer's attitude toward the message in the
clause. They may be thematic/nonthematic. When thematic → Interpersonal meaning → Interpersonal
Theme.
- Conjunctive Adjuncts (however, thus, in fact, furthermore, moreover, first, then, for example) can be
thematic/non-thematic. When thematic → textual meaning → Textual Theme.
* Theme:
- Simple: Experiential Theme
I like fruits.
Exp. Theme (Simple Unmarked Theme)
Fruits I like.
Exp. Theme (Simple Marked Theme)

- Complex: Experiential Theme + Interpersonal Theme and/or Textual Theme.

Ex: But I don't like it.
Text. + Exp. Theme (Complex Unmarked Theme)
John, come over here.
Inter. + Exp. Theme (Complex Unmarked Theme)
On the other hand, in my view, the results do suggest a clear reference for...
Textual + Interpersonal + Experiential Theme

11.8. Other ways of organizing the message

11.8.1. Voice selection
- The selection of passive voice allows the speaker or writer to thematize participants such as Goals,
Recipients and Phenomena without producing Marked Theme.
Ex: Michelangelo finished the statue of David in 1504.
Unmarked Theme Goal
The statue of David was finished (by Michelangelo) in 1504.
Unmarked Theme (though the Goal is thematized)
However: This he finished in 1504.
Marked Theme (Thematized Object)
David he showed with a sling on his shoulders, going to fight Goliath.
Marked Theme (Thematized Object)
- The selection of passive voice can also be motivated by the desire not to switch Theme.
Ex: She put her head out of the window and was struck full in the face by a snowball.
- Participants which are mapped onto Subjects in active clauses can appear as Adjuncts in the Rheme of
passive voice clauses à They can be the Focus of information, place in the unmarked position for new
information.
Ex: Extended courses are normally provided by universities.
... the food of a region is shaped by the fat it is cooked in.
- Actors may be omitted because they are unimportant or irrelevant information in the context. à Agentless
(Actorless, Senserless etc., depending on process type) passive.
Ex: Today, about 6 tons of truffles are imported annually in to the US from …
11.8.2. Existential clauses
From the point of view of textual meaning, the Theme is typically There or a Circumstantial Adjunct, while
the Existent occurs in the Rheme and is typically the unmarked Focus of information.
Ex: Once upon a time there were three bears...

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 Theme Existent/Focus
There are a lot of foreign students living in this building.
Theme
11.8.3. Clefting
Clefting involves the division and repackaging of the information in a clause into two parts.
Ex: We are now going to look at clefting.
It is clefting that we are going to look at now.
Theme Focus
What we are going to looking at now is clefting.
Theme Focus
Cleft → ko cleft: It was Ngoc who broke my phone → Ngoc broke my phone.
Fronting → ko fronting: Above is Ngoc → Ngoc is above.
Passive → active

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