Welcome…

…to Electrostatics
 Outline
1. Coulomb’s Law
2. The Electric Field
- Examples
3. Gauss Law
- Examples
4. Conductors in Electric Field
 Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s law quantifies the magnitude of the electrostatic
force.

Coulomb’s law gives the force (in Newtons) between charges q1

and q2, where r12 is the distance in meters between the
charges, and k=9x109 N·m2/C2.

q1q 2
F =k 2
12 r12
Force is a vector quantity. The equation on the previous slide
gives the magnitude of the force. If the charges are opposite in
sign, the force is attractive; if the charges are the same in sign,
the force is repulsive. Also, the constant k is equal to 1/4πε0,
where ε0=8.85x10-12 C2/N·m2.

One could write Coulomb’s Law like this…

r q1q 2
F = k 2 , attractive for unlike
12 r12
To make this into a “really good” starting equation I should
specify “repulsive for like,” but that makes it too wordy. You’ll
just have to remember how to find the direction.

Remember, a vector has a magnitude and a direction.

The equation is valid for point charges. If the charged objects
are spherical and the charge is uniformly distributed, r12 is the
distance between the centers of the spheres.

r12

+ -

If more than one charge is involved, the net force is the vector
sum of all forces (superposition). For objects with complex
shapes, you must add up all the forces acting on each separate
charge (turns into calculus!).

+ -
+ -
+ -
We could have agreed that in the formula for F, the symbols q1
and q2 stand for the magnitudes of the charges. In that case,
the absolute value signs would be unnecessary.

However, in later equations the sign of the charge will be

important, so we really need to keep the magnitude part.

On your homework diagrams, show both the magnitudes and

signs of q1 and q2.

Your starting equation sheet has this version of the equation:

q1q 2
F =k 2 ,
12 r12
which gives you the magnitude F12 and tells you that you need
to figure out the direction separately.
Solving Problems Involving Coulomb’s Law and
Vectors

Example: Calculate the net electrostatic force on charge Q3

due to the charges Q1 and Q2.
y
Q3=+65µC
30 cm

θ=30º
x
Q2=+50µC Q1=-86µC
52 cm
Step 0: Think!

This is a Coulomb’s Law problem (all we have to work with, so

far).

We only want the forces on Q3.

Forces are additive, so we can calculate F32 and F31 and add
the two.

If we do our vector addition using components, we must resolve

our forces into their x- and y-components.
Step 1: Diagram
y
Draw a representative F32
sketch. Q3=+65µC

Draw and label relevant F31

30 cm
quantities.
θ=30º
Draw axes, showing x
origin and directions. Q2=+50µC Q1=-86µC
52 cm

Draw and label forces (only those on Q3).

Draw components of forces which are not along axes.

Step 2: Starting Equation
y
F32
Q3=+65µC

F31

30 cm
θ=30º
x
Q2=+50µC Q1=-86µC
52 cm
q1q 2
F =k 2
12 r12
“Do I have to put in the absolute value signs?”
Step 3: Replace Generic Quantities by Specifics
y
F32
r Q 3Q 2 Q3=+65µC
F =k 2 ,
32 r32 F31

r32=30 cm
repulsive

θ=30º
Q 3Q 2 x
F =k 2 Q2=+50µC Q1=-86µC
32, y r32
52 cm

F = 0 (from diagram)
32, x

F32,y = 330 N and F32,x = 0 N.

Step 3 (continued)
r Q3Q1 y
F =k 2 , F32
31 r31 Q3=+65µC
attractive F31

r32=30 cm
Q3Q1
F = + k 2 cos θ θ=30º
31, x r31 x
Q2=+50µC Q1=-86µC
(+ sign comes from
52 cm
diagram)

Q3Q1
F = −k 2 sin θ (- sign comes from diagram)
31, y r31

You would get F31,x = +120 N and F31,y = -70 N.

Step 3: Complete the Math
y
F32
Q3=+65µC F3
The net force is the
vector sum of all the F31

30 cm
forces on Q3.

θ=30º
x
Q2=+50µC Q1=-86µC
52 cm

F3x = F31,x + F32,x = 120 N + 0 N = 120 N

F3y = F31,y + F32,y = -70 N + 330 N = 260 N

You know how to calculate the magnitude F3 and the angle

between F3 and the x-axis.
I did a sample Coulomb’s law calculation using three point
charges.

How do you apply Coulomb’s law to objects that contain

distributions of charges?

We’ll use another tool to do that…

 Coulomb’s Law:
The Big Picture

Coulomb's Law quantifies the interaction between charged

particles.

r12
1 q1q 2
F = , + -
12 4πε 0 r12
2

Q1 Q2

Coulomb’s Law was discovered through decades of experiment.

By itself, it is just “useful." Is it part of something bigger?

 The Electric Field

Coulomb's Law (demonstrated in 1785) shows that charged

particles exert forces on each other over great distances.

How does a charged particle "know" another one is “there?”

Faraday, beginning in the 1830's, was the leader in developing
the idea of the electric field. Here's the idea:
F12
• A charged particle emanates a "field"
+
into all space. F13

• Another charged particle senses the field,

and “knows” that the first one is there. F31
+
-
F21 unlike
charges
like attract
charges
repel
We define the electric field by the force it exerts on a test
charge q0:
r
r F0
E=
q0

This is your second starting equation. By convention the direction of the electric field
is the direction of the force exerted on a POSITIVE test charge. The absence of
absolute value signs around q0 means you must include the sign of q0 in your work.

If the test charge is "too big" it perturbs the electric field, so the
“correct” definition is
r
r F0 You won’t be required to use
E = lim this version of the equation.
q 0 →0 q
0

Any time you know the electric field, you can r user this equation to calculate the force
on a charged particle in that electric field. F = qE
 r
r  F0 
The units of electric field are E  =   =
N
Newtons/Coulomb.
  [q0 ] C

Later you will learn that the units of electric field can also be
expressed as volts/meter:
N V
[E] = =
C m

The electric field exists independent of whether there is a

charged particle around to “feel” it.
Remember: the electric field direction is the +
direction a + charge would feel a force.

A + charge would be repelled by another + charge.

Therefore the direction of the electric field is away from positive

(and towards negative).
 The Electric Field
Due to a Point Charge

Coulomb's law says

q1q 2
F =k 2 ,
12 r12

... which tells us the electric field due to a point charge q is

r q q
E q =k 2 , away from + …or just… E=k 2
r r

This is your third starting equation.

We define r̂ as a unit vector from the source point to the field
point:
source point
r̂ +

field point

The equation for the electric field of a point charge then

becomes:
You may start with either equation
r q for the electric field (this one or the
E=k 2 rˆ one on the previous slide). But
r don’t use this one unless you
REALLY know what you are doing!
 Motion of a Charged Particle
in a Uniform Electric Field

A charged particle in an electric field experiences a force, and if

it is free to move, an acceleration.
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
If the only force is due to the
electric field, then -
E
r r r F
∑ F = ma = qE. + + + + + + + + + + + + +

If E is constant, then a is constant, and you can use the

equations of kinematics.
Example: an electron moving with velocity v0 in the positive x
direction enters a region of uniform electric field that makes a
right angle with the electron’s initial velocity. Express the
position and velocity of the electron as a function of time.
y
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
x
-
v0 E

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
 The Electric Field
Due to a Collection of Point Charges
The electric field due to a small "chunk" ∆q of charge is
r 1 ∆q $
∆E = 2
r
4πε 0 r
unit vector from ∆q
to wherever you
want to calculate ∆E

The electric field due to collection of "chunks" of charge is

r r 1 ∆q i $
E= ∑ ∆Ei =
i 4πε 0
∑i r 2 ri
i

As ∆q→dq→0, the sum becomes an integral. unit vector from ∆qi

to wherever you
want to calculate E
If charge is distributed along a straight line segment parallel to
the x-axis, the amount of charge dq on a segment of length dx
is λ dx.

λ λdx

dx

λ is the linear density of charge (amount of charge per unit

length). λ may be a function of position.
Think λ ⇔ l ⇔ length. λ times the length of line segment is the
total charge on the line segment.
I’m assuming positively charged objects
in these “distribution of charges” slides.
dE
P

r’
r'$ x
dq

The electric field at point P due to the charge dq is

r 1 dq $ 1 λdx $
dE = 2
r' = 2
r'
4πε 0 r' 4πε 0 r'

I would start a homework or test problem with this:

dq
dE = k 2
r
 E
P

r’
r'$ x
dq

The electric field at P due to the entire line of charge is

r 1 $r' λ(x) dx .
4πε 0 ∫
E=
r'2

The integration is carried out over the entire length of the line, which need
not be straight. Also, λ could be a function of position, and can be taken
outside the integral only if the charge distribution is uniform.
If charge is distributed over a two-dimensional surface, the
amount of charge dq on an infinitesimal piece of the surface is
σ dS, where σ is the surface density of charge (amount of
charge per unit area).
y

charge dq = σ dS
σ

area = dS
 y
dE
P

r’
r'$
x

The electric field at P due to the charge dq is

r 1 dq $ 1 σ dS $
dE = 2
r' = 2
r'
4πε 0 r' 4πε 0 r'
 y
E
P

r’
r'$
x

The net electric field at P due to the entire surface of charge is

$r' σ(x, y) dS
r 1
4πε 0 ∫S
E=
r'2
After you have seen the above, I hope you believe that the net
electric field at P due to a three-dimensional distribution of
charge is…
z E
P

r’
r'$
x

$r' ρ(x, y, z) dV .
r 1
4πε 0 V∫
E=
r'2
Summarizing:

r 1 $r' λ dx .
4πε 0 ∫ r'2
Charge distributed along a line: E=

$r' σ dS.
r 1
4πε 0 ∫S r'2
Charge distributed over a surface: E=

$r' ρ dV .
r 1
4πε 0 V∫ r'2
Charge distributed inside a volume: E=

If the charge distribution is uniform, then λ, σ, and ρ can be taken outside

the integrals.
 The Electric Field
Due to a Continuous Charge Distribution
(worked examples)
Example: A rod of length L has a uniform charge per unit length
λ and a total charge Q. Calculate the electric field at a point P
along the axis of the rod at a distance d from one end.

P x

d L

Let’s put the origin at P. The linear charge density and Q are
related by
Q
λ= and Q = λL
L

Let’s assume Q is positive.

 y
x dx dQ = λ dx
dE P x

d L

The electric field points away from the rod. By symmetry, the
electric field on the axis of the rod has no y-component. dE
from the charge on an infinitesimal length dx of rod is

dq λ dx
dE = k 2 = k 2
x x

Note: dE is in the –x direction. dE is the magnitude of dE. I’ve

used the fact that Q>0 (so dq=0) to eliminate the absolute
value signs in the starting equation.
 y
x dx dQ = λ dx
dE P x

d L

d+L
r d+L r d+L λ dx d+L dx  1 ˆ
E = ∫ dE x = -k ∫ 2
i = -kλ ∫
ˆ
2
i = -kλ  −  i
ˆ
d d x d x  x d

r  1 1 ˆ  −d + d + L  ˆ λL ˆ kQ ˆ
E = -kλ  − +  i = -kλ   i= -k i= - i
 d+L d  d (d + L)  d (d + L) d (d + L)
Example: A ring of radius a has a uniform charge per unit
length and a total positive charge Q. Calculate the electric field
at a point P along the axis of the ring at a distance x0 from its
center.
dQ
By symmetry, the y- and z-
a r components of E are zero,
θ P x
and all points on the ring
x0 θ are a distance r from point
dE P.
 dQ
dQ No absolute value
dE=k 2 signs because Q is
positive.
a r r
θ P dQ
dE x =k 2 cos θ
x
x0 θ
r
dE

x0
r = x 02 + a 2 cos θ = For a given x0, r is a constant
r for points on the ring.

 dQ  x 0 x0 x0 kx 0 Q
E x = ∫ dE x = ∫  k 2  = k 3 ∫ring dQ = k r3 Q = x 2 + a 2 3/ 2
ring ring 
r  r r ( ) 0

kxQ
Or, in general, on the ring axis E x,ring = .
( +a
x 2
)
2 3/ 2
Example: A disc of radius R has a uniform charge per unit area
σ. Calculate the electric field at a point P along the central axis
of the disc at a distance x0 from its center.

dQ The disc is made of

concentric rings. The
r
area of a ring at a
P x radius r is 2πrdr, and
R x0
the charge on each ring
is σ(2πrdr).

We can use the equation on the previous slide for the electric
field due to a ring, replace a by r, and integrate from r=0 to
r=R.
kx 0 σ2πrdr
dE ring = .
(x 2
0 +r )
2 3/ 2 Caution! I’ve switched
the “meaning” of r!
 dQ

r
P x
R x0

kx 0 σ2πrdr R 2r dr
Ex = ∫ dE = ∫ = kx 0 πσ ∫
(x ) (x )
x
2 3/ 2 2 3/ 2
disc disc
2
0 +r 0 2
0 +r

 ( x2 + r )
R
2 −1/ 2   
x
 = 2kπσ  0 − x 
E x = kx 0 πσ 
0 0
 −1/ 2   x0 ( x2 + R 2 ) 
1/ 2

 0  0 
Example: Calculate the electric field at a distance x0 from an
infinite plane sheet with a uniform charge density σ.

Treat the infinite sheet as disc of infinite radius.

1
Let R→∞ and use k = to get
4πε0

σ
Esheet = .
2ε 0

Interesting...does not depend on distance from the sheet.

I’ve been Really Nice and put this on your starting equation sheet. You don’t have to
derive it for your homework!
 Electric Field Lines
Electric field lines help us visualize the electric field and predict
how charged particles would respond the field.

- +

Example: electric field lines for isolated +2e and -e charges.

Here’s how electric field lines are related to the field:
• The electric field vector E is tangent to the field lines.
• The number of lines per unit area through a surface
perpendicular to the lines is proportional to the electric field
strength in that region
• The field lines begin on positive charges and end on
negative charges.
• The number of lines leaving a positive charge or
approaching a negative charge is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge.
• No two field lines can cross.

Example: draw the electric field lines for charges +2e and -1e,
separated by a fixed distance. Easier to use this link!
 Gauss’ Law

Electric Flux

We have used electric field lines to visualize electric fields and

indicate their strength.

We are now going to count the

number of electric field lines passing
through a surface, and use this E
count to determine the electric field.
The electric flux passing through a surface is the number of
electric field lines that pass through it.

Because electric field lines are drawn A

arbitrarily, we quantify electric flux E
like this: ΦE=EA, except that…

If the surface is tilted, fewer lines cut

the surface. E
θ
Later we’ll learn about magnetic flux, which is
why I will use the subscript E on electric flux.
We define A to be a vector having a
magnitude equal to the area of the A
surface, in a direction normal to the θ
surface. E
θ
The “amount of surface” perpendicular
to the electric field is A cos θ.

Because A is perpendicular to the surface, the amount of A

parallel to the electric field is A cos θ.

A|| = A cos θ so ΦE = EA|| = EA cos θ.

r r
Remember the dot product? Φ E = E ⋅ A
If the electric field is not uniform, or the surface is not flat…

divide the surface into

infinitesimal surface
elements and add the
flux through each…
r r
E Φ E = lim ∑ E i ⋅ ∆Ai
∆Ai →0
∆A
dA i

r r
Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dA
If the surface is closed (completely encloses a volume)…

…we count* lines going

out as positive and lines
going in as negative…
E r r
∫ E ⋅ dA
ΦE = 
dA a surface integral, therefore a
double integral ∫∫
Question: you gave me five different equations for electric flux.
Which one do I need to use?
Answer: use the simplest (easiest!) one that works.
Φ E = EA Flat surface, E || A, E constant over surface. Easy!

Φ E = EA cos θ Flat surface, E not || A, E constant over surface.

r r
ΦE = E ⋅ A Flat surface, E not || A, E constant over surface.

r r
Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dA Surface not flat, E not uniform. Avoid, if possible.

r r
∫ E ⋅ dA
ΦE =  Closed surface. Most general. Most complex.

If the surface is closed, you may be able to “break it up” into

simple segments and still use ΦE=E·A for each segment.
Gauss’ Law

Mathematically*, we express the idea two slides back as

r r q enclosed
∫ E ⋅ dA = εo
ΦE =  Gauss’ Law

We will find that Gauss law gives a simple way to calculate

electric fields for charge distributions that exhibit a high degree
of symmetry…
…and save more complex and realistic charge distributions for
advanced classes.

*“Mathematics is the Queen of the Sciences.”—Karl Gauss

To see how this works, let’s do an example.

Example: use Gauss’ Law to calculate the electric field from an

isolated point charge q.

To apply Gauss’ Law, we construct a “Gaussian Surface”

enclosing the charge.

The Gaussian surface should mimic the symmetry of the charge

distribution.

For this example, choose for our Gaussian surface a sphere of

radius r, with the point charge at the center.

I’ll work the rest of the example on the blackboard.

 Strategy for Solving Gauss’ Law Problems
• Select a Gaussian surface with symmetry that matches the
charge distribution.

• Draw the Gaussian surface so that the electric field is either

constant or zero at all points on the Gaussian surface.

• Use symmetry to determine the direction of E on the Gaussian

surface.

• Evaluate the surface integral (electric flux).

• Determine the charge inside the Gaussian surface.

• Solve for E.
Example: use Gauss’ Law to calculate the electric field due to a
long line of charge, with linear charge density λ.

Example: use Gauss’ Law to calculate the electric field due to

an infinite sheet of charge, with surface charge density σ.

These are easy using Gauss’ Law (remember what a pain they
were in the previous chapter). Study these examples and others
in your text!

λ
E line = .
2πε0 r
σ
Esheet = .
2ε 0
The top 5 reasons why we make you learn Gauss’ Law:

5. You can solve (high-symmetry) problems with it.

4. It’s good for you. It’s fun! What more can you ask!

3. It’s easy. Smart physicists go for the easy solutions.

2. If I had to learn it, you do too.

And the number one reason…

…will take a couple of slides to present

 Worked Example 1
Compute the electric flux through a cylinder with an axis parallel to the electric
field direction.
A
E

The flux through the curved surface is zero since E is perpendicular to

dA there. For the ends, the surfaces are perpendicular to E, and E and
A are parallel. Thus the flux through the left end (into the cylinder) is –
EA, while the flux through right end (out of the cylinder) is +EA. Hence
the net flux through the cylinder is zero.
 Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s Law relates the electric flux through a closed surface with
the charge Qin inside that surface.

r r Qin
∫ E ⋅ dA =
ΦE = 
ε0

This is a useful tool for simply determining the electric

field, but only for certain situations where the charge
distribution is either rather simple or possesses a high
degree of symmetry.
 Problem Solving Strategies for
Gauss’s Law
Select a Gaussian surface with symmetry that
matches the charge distribution
Draw the Gaussian surface so that the
electric field is either constant or zero at all
points on the Gaussian surface
Use symmetry to determine the direction of E
on the Gaussian surface
Evaluate the surface integral (electric flux)
Determine the charge inside the Gaussian
surface
Solve for E
 Worked Example 2
Starting with Gauss’s law, calculate the electric
field due to an isolated point charge q.

We choose a Gaussian surface that is a

sphere of radius r centered on the point
E charge. I have chosen the charge to be
r q positive so the field is radial outward by
dA symmetry and therefore everywhere
perpendicular
r r to the Gaussian surface.
E ⋅ dA = E dA Gauss’s law then gives:
r r Qin q Symmetry tells us that the field is
∫ E ⋅ dA = ∫ E dA = ε0
=
ε 0 constant on the Gaussian surface.

∫ E dA = E ∫ dA = E 4π (
r 2
= ) q
ε0
so E =
1 q
4πε 0 r 2
= k
q
e 2
r
 Worked Example 3
An insulating sphere of radius a has a uniform charge density ρ and a total
positive charge Q. Calculate the electric field outside the sphere.
Since the charge distribution is spherically
symmetric we select a spherical Gaussian
surface of radius r > a centered on the
E charged sphere. Since the charged sphere
r
a has a positive charge, the field will be
dA directed radially outward. On the Gaussian
sphere E is always parallel to dA A, and is
Q constant.
r r
∫ E ⋅ dA =
Left side:  ∫ E dA = E ∫ dA = E (
4π r 2
)
Qin Q
=
( )= ε
Right side: Q 1 Q Q
ε0 ε0 E 4π r 2
or E = = ke 2
0 4πε 0 r 2
r
 Worked Example 3 cont’d
Find the electric field at a point inside the sphere.
Now we select a spherical Gaussian surface
with radius r < a. Again the symmetry of the
charge distribution allows us to simply evaluate
r the left side of Gauss’s law just as before.
a
r r
Q
∫ E ⋅ dA =
Left side:  ∫ E dA = E ∫ dA = E 4π r(2
)
The charge inside the Gaussian sphere is no longer Q. If we
call the Gaussian sphere volume V’ then
4
Right side: Qin = ρ V ′ = ρ π r 3 4 ρπ r 3
3 (
E 4π r 2 ) =
Qin
ε0
=
3ε 0

4 ρπ r 3 ρ Q 1 Q Q
E= = r but ρ = so E = r = ke 3 r
(
3ε 0 4π r 2
) 3ε 0 4
π a3 4πε 0 a 3
a
3
 Worked Example 3 cont’d

Q
We found for r > a , E = ke
r2
ke Q a
and for r < a , E = 3 r
a
Q
E
Let’s plot this:

a r
 Conductors in Electrostatic
Equilibrium
By electrostatic equilibrium we mean a situation where
there is no net motion of charge within the conductor

The electric field is zero everywhere inside

the conductor
Any net charge resides on the conductor’s
surface
The electric field just outside a charged
conductor is perpendicular to the conductor’s
surface
 Conductors in Electrostatic
Equilibrium
The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor
Why is this so?
If there was a field in the conductor the charges
would accelerate under the action of the field.
---------------------
++++++++++++

The charges in the conductor

Ein
E E
move creating an internal
electric field that cancels the
applied field on the inside of
the conductor
The charge on the right is twice the magnitude of the
charge on the left (and opposite in sign), so there are
twice as many field lines, and they point towards the
charge rather than away from it.
Combinations of charges. Note that, while the lines are less
dense where the field is weaker, the field is not necessarily
zero where there are no lines. In fact, there is only one point
within the figures below where the field is zero – can you
find it?
When electric charges are at rest, the electric
field within a conductor is zero.
The electric field is always perpendicular to the
surface of a conductor – if it weren’t, the
charges would move along the surface.
The electric field is stronger where the surface is
more sharply curved.
 Worked Example 4
Any net charge on an isolated conductor must reside on its surface and
the electric field just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to its
surface (and has magnitude σ/ε0). Use Gauss’s law to show this.
For an arbitrarily shaped conductor we
can draw a Gaussian surface inside the
conductor. Since we have shown that the
electric field inside an isolated conductor
is zero, the field at every point on the
Gaussian surface must be zero.
r r Qin
∫ E ⋅ dA =ε0

From Gauss’s law we then conclude that the

net charge inside the Gaussian surface is
zero. Since the surface can be made
arbitrarily close to the surface of the
conductor, any net charge must reside on the
conductor’s surface.
 Worked Example 4 cont’d
We can also use Gauss’s law to determine the electric field just outside
the surface of a charged conductor. Assume the surface charge density
is σ. Since the field inside the conductor is
zero there is no flux through the face
of the cylinder inside the conductor. If
E had a component along the surface
of the conductor then the free charges
would move under the action of the
field creating surface currents. Thus E
is perpendicular to the conductor’s
surface, and the flux through the
cylindrical surface must be zero.
Consequently the net flux through the
cylinder is EA and Gauss’s law gives:

σA
Qin σ
Φ E = EA = = or E =
ε0 ε0 ε0
 Worked Example 5
A conducting spherical shell of inner radius a and outer radius b with a
net charge -Q is centered on point charge +2Q. Use Gauss’s law to
find the electric field everywhere, and to determine the charge
distribution on the spherical shell.
-Q First find the field for 0 < r < a
This is the same as Ex. 2 and is the field due to a
a point charge with charge +2Q.

+2Q 2Q
2Q
E = ke 2
b r
Now find the field for a < r < b
The field must be zero inside a conductor in equilibrium. Thus from
Gauss’s law Qin is zero. There is a + 2Q from the point charge so we
must have Qa = -2Q on the inner surface of the spherical shell. Since the
net charge on the shell is -Q we can get the charge on the outer surface
from Qnet = Qa + Qb.
Qb= Qnet - Qa = -Q - (-2Q) = + Q.
 Worked Example 5 cont’d
-Q Find the field for r > b
From the symmetry of the problem, the field
in this region is radial and everywhere
a perpendicular to the spherical Gaussian
surface. Furthermore, the field has the same
+2Q value at every point on the Gaussian surface
so the solution then proceeds exactly as in
b
Ex. 2, but Qin=2Q-Q.
r r
∫ E ⋅ dA = ∫ E dA = E ∫ dA = E 4π (
r 2
)
Gauss’s law now gives:

2Q − Q
(
E 4π r 2
)= εQin
=
ε0
=
Q
ε0
or E =
1 Q
4πε 0 r 2
Q
= ke 2
r
0
 Summary

Two methods for calculating electric field

Coulomb’s Law
Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s Law: Easy, elegant method for
symmetric charge distributions
Coulomb’s Law: Other cases
Gauss’s Law and Coulomb’s Law are
equivalent for electric fields produced by
static charges