Handbook of

Ophthalmic Optics
Published by
Carl Zeiss,
7082 Oberkochen,
Germany.

Revised by
Dr. Helmut Goersch

ZEISS
Germany
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H A N D B O O K O F O P H T H A L M I C OPTICS: Preface 3

Preface

A decade has passed since the appearance of the second edition

of the "Handbook of Ophthalmic Optics"; a decade which has
seen many innovations not only in the field of ophthalmic optics
and instrumentation, but also in standardization and the crea-
tion of new terms. This made a complete revision of the hand-
book necessary.

The increasing importance of the contact lens in ophthalmic

optics has led to the inclusion of a new chapter on Contact
Optics. The information given in this chapter provides a useful
aid for the practical work of the ophthalmic optician and the
ophthalmologist.

The "Handbook of Ophthalmic Optics" is intended both as

systematic reading material and - due to its extensive listing
of optical terms - a reference work. It is not intended as, and
cannot take the place of a textbook. Reference literature, a list
of specialist terms and tables are contained in the newly
arranged appendix.

We would like to extend our gratitude to all those who have

contributed to the creation of this third edition of the hand-
book. Our special appreciation is due to Dr. Helmut Goersch,
who also edited the German edition, Dr. Heinz Baron for the
chapter on Contact Optics, and to Mr. M . Jalie, SMS A , F B D O
(Hons), Hon CGIA, M B I M , Head of Department of Applied
Optics, City and East London College, London, England, with-
out whose kind and indefatigable assistance the English edition
would not have been possible at all.

Carl Zeiss
Oberkochen
4 H A N D B O O K O F O P H T H A L M I C OPTICS: Contents

Physical Optics See also page 8

Geometrical optics Components of ray tracing. Reflection of light. Refraction of
light. Lenses. Optical image formation with lenses and lens
systems. Aberrations.
Wave optics Electromagnetic radiation. Interference and diffraction.
Polarisation.
Light technology Photometry. Material properties.Light sources. Light guides.

Physiological Optics See also page 58

The eye Structure of eye. Accommodation. The pupil. Visual
performance. Colour vision. Emmetropic eye. Ametropic eye.
Monocular correction of eye.
Binocular vision Fusion and vergence. Binocular space perception. Phoria and
tropia. Anisometropia and aniseikonia. Binocular correction of
eye.

Spectacle Optics See also page 100

Spectacle lenses Terminology. Single-vision lenses with spherical power.
Single-vision lenses with astigmatic power. Single-vision lenses
with prismatic power. Bifocal, multifocal and progressive
lenses. Special types of spectacle lenses. Lens power
determination. Image-forming properties. Light-transmission
properties.
The lens/eye system Terminology. Monocular centration. Binocular centration.
Accommodative effort and amplitude of accommodation.
Space perception. Low vision aids.
H A N D B O O K O F O P H T H A L M I C OPTICS: Contents 5

Contact Optics See also page 156

Contact lenses
Contact lens/eye system
Terminology. Contact lenses with spherical power. Contact
lenses with astigmatic power. Bifocal and multifocal contact
lenses. Image-forming properties. Light-transmission
properties.
Terminology. Hard contact lenses and spherical ametropia.
Hard contact lenses and astigmatic ametropia. Soft contact
lenses. Optical differences from spectacle lens correction.
Reasons for use.

Instrument Optics See also page 188

Optical instruments
Ophthalmic and
ophthalmological instruments
Lupes. Microscopes. Telescopes. Photographic lenses.
Projection lenses. Endoscopes. Geodetic instruments.
Focimeters. Instruments for objective vision testing.
Instruments for subjective vision testing. Equipment for lens
fitting. Equipment for contact lens fitting. Other instruments.

Materials See also page 246

Glass Composition and properties. Shaping process. Strengthening
techniques.
Plastics Composition and classification. Plastics for spectacle lenses.
Plastics for contact lenses. Plastics for spectacle frames.
Metals and other materials Noble metals. Alloys for spectacle frames. Other materials.

Appendix
Tables page 277
Specialist terms page 333
Bibliography page 338
Index page 340
P H Y S I C A L OPTICS
8 PHYSICAL OPTICS

Geometrical Optics
Components of ray tracing Light ray 11
Bundles and pencils 1 1
Angles, distances and points 11
Optical image formation 12

Reflection of light Law of reflection 12

Total reflection 13
Mirrors 13

Refraction of light Refractive index 15

Law of refraction 15
Dispersion 15
Plane parallel plates 17
Prisms 17

Lenses Lenses with spherical power 20

Surface power 20
Equivalent power and focal length 21
Vertex power and vertex focal length 22
Principal points 23
Lenses with astigmatic power 24

Optical image formation with Optical systems 26

lenses and lens systems Determination of the image 26
Real image formation 30
Virtual image formation 30
Newton's formula 30
Astigmatic image formation 31
Stops 31

Aberrations Requirements on image formation 33

Spherical aberration 33
Coma 33
Astigmatism of oblique incidence 34
Field curvature 34
Distortion 34
Chromatic aberration 35
Corrected optical systems 36
 PHYSICAL OPTICS 9

Wave Optics
Electromagnetic radiation Light 37
Velocity of light 38

Interference and diffraction Interference 38

Newton's rings 39
Reduction of reflections 39
Interference filters 40
Diffraction 40
Holography 41

Polarisation Brewster's law 41

Bi-refringence 42
Dichroism 43
Optical activity 43

Light Technology
Photometry Terminology 44
Luminous efficacy 46

Material properties Terminology 46

Influence of light path 4S

Light sources Daylight 49

Incandescent lamps 50
Fluorescent lamps 50
Spectral lamps 50
Lasers 51
Standard illuminants 51
Colour temperature ^2

Light guides Principle 52

Numerical aperture 52
Attenuation 53
Solid and liquid light guides 53
Optical fibres and fibre bundles 54
Image carriers and shape converters 54
Tapered light guides 55
Optical waveguides 55
 P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Geometrical Optics 11

Geometrical Optics
Components of ray tracing

Light ray A light ray is an imaginary mathematical line denoting the

direction of propagation of light energy; single light rays do not
exist in reality.
The light rays are perpendicular to the wave fronts of wave
optics and in geometrical optics serve to represent changes in
light propagation through optical components.

Bundles and pencils Light rays with a common point of intersection form a homo-
centric bundle. If the rays emanate from this point of intersec-
tion which lies at a finite distance, the bundle is divergent; if they
run towards the point of intersection, it is convergent. The point
of intersection for a parallel ray bundle lies at infinity.
A pencil shows the ray path in one plane and contains the point
of intersection of the rays.

Angles, distances and The angles and distances used in geometrical optics to describe
points a ray path are given a mathematical sign in accordance with the
following rules.
Angles in the anti-clockwise direction are taken to be positive,
and those in a clockwise direction to be negative. The correct
direction of rotation for the angles of incidence, reflection and
refraction is obtained by rotating the normal towards the ray.
For the angle of deviation, the direction of the incident ray is
rotated towards the refracted ray. For angles between a ray and
the optical axis, the ray is rotated towards the axis.
Distances are taken to be positive when measured in the direc-
tion of the light and negative when measured in the opposite
direction; distances perpendicular to the optical axis are taken
to be positive when measured upwards, and negative when they
are measured downwards. The radius of curvature of an inter-
face is measured as the distance from the vertex to the centre of
curvature. In graphic representations the direction of light
should run from left to right if possible.
The parallel displacement of a ray to the right (of the direction
of light) is taken to be positive, and negative when to the left.
Angles are denoted by small Greek letters, distances by small
Roman letters and points by capital Roman letters (Table 1).
12 P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Geometrical Optics

Optical image formation Optical image formation involves the creation of a related
image point O' for each object point O; in the image formation
process the position of the point of intersection changes for the
rays of each individual bundle.
The angle between two bundle rays (the vergence of the ray
bundle) can be retained in optical image formation (e.g. in
image formation through a plane parallel plate if the same
refractive index is present on both sides of the plate), or it can be
changed (change in the vergence of the homocentric ray bundle,
e.g. in image formation through a lens). As the ray directions
are reversible, the object and the image can be interchanged.
Two points are termed optically conjugate if one is the image of
the other. Optically conjugate points and the distances and
angles used to denote their position are given the same letter; a
prime is affixed to the letter for the image-side quantity (Table
1).
For paired quantities which are not optically conjugate, a
crossbar is added to the letter for the object-side quantity (focal
points and focal lengths)
Gaussian space is the term given to the paraxial space in which
the aberrations present in optical image formation are negligi-
ble. The optical construction of a ray path in geometrical optics
does not take into account the ever present diffraction of wave
optics.

Reflection of light

Law of reflection The reflected ray A R lies in the plane of incidence determined
by the incidence normal L A and the incident ray P A (Fig. 1).
The angle of reflection i ' is equal but opposite in sign to the
angle of incidence i:
(1) i=-i'.
The angle of reflection is independent of the wavelength (col-
our) of the light.
P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Geometrical Optics 13

P'

Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Reflection of light Critical angle of incidence

Total reflection Total internal reflection (reflection without loss) occurs when
light is incident at the boundary between two media with
different refractive indices, the light travelling in the denser
medium, and the angle of incidence i, is greater than the critical
angle i . If the refractive index of the denser medium is n, and
c

that of the rarer medium n', then

(2) sin i =
c (with n' < n).

For reflection in air (n' = 1) sin i = 1 /n (Fig. 2 and Table 2).

c

The critical angle of incidence is dependent on the wavelength

(colour) of light. Mirages experienced close to heated air at
ground level, e.g. over roads, are caused by total reflection.
Application: reflecting prisms.

Mirrors A plane mirror (Fig.3) produces a virtual point image on the

incidence normal (A',B',C) at the same distance behind the
mirror as that of the object point (A,B,C) in front.
In an angular mirror (Fig.4) the deflection of a ray is twice as
large as the angle formed by the two mirror sides. It does not
change when the angular mirror is rotated about any axis of
rotation parallel to edge K . (Application: marking of right
angles with a = 45° in surveying).
The rotating mirror (Fig. 5) rotates the reflected ray by twice the
amount of the mirror rotation. (Application: rotating mirror
galvanometer.)
14 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Geometrical Optics

Fig. 6 Fig. 7
Concave mirror Convex mirror

A concave spherical mirror focuses parallel rays incident in the

Gaussian space at one point. This focal point F ' lies midway
between the centre of curvature and the pole of the mirror: SC
— r (Fig. 6). The focal length P is:

(3) f " §•

In the convex spherical mirror the focal point is virtual (Fig. 7).
Here (3) also applies.
Spherical mirrors display aberrations.
Paraboloidal mirrors for searchlights reflect the rays coming
from the light source located at the focal point F' as parallel
rays, regardless of the size of the mirror's aperture.
 P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Geometrical Optics 15

Refraction of light

Refractive index The refractive index n of a substance is the ratio of the velocity
of light Co in a vacuum to the velocity c in the substance
n

concerned (or the ratio of the corresponding wavelengths).

n =
(4) = ? ^-

In this definition the refractive index of the vacuum is 1 for any

wavelength of light. As n « 1.0003 for air in normal conditions
0
(20 C and 1013 hPa), air is often used as a reference instead of
a vacuum. In glass with a refractive index of n = 1.5 light travels
only 2/3 as fast as in air; its wavelength is reduced by the same
factor.

Law of refraction A light ray which is obliquely incident on the interface between
two media is deflected from its original direction (Fig. 8). The
refracted ray A B lies in the plane of incidence determined by the
incidence normal L L and the incident ray PA. The angle of
incidence i and the angle of refraction i' follow Snell's law:

(5) n • sin i = n' • sin i'.

Dispersion The refractive index of a substance is dependent on the frequen-

cy (wavelength or colour) of light. This property leads to the
breaking down of white light into its monochromatic compo-
nents during refraction (dispersion). In order to define the
refracting properties of a glass type, the values of n are given for
a specific number of spectral lines (Table 3). The refractive
index for the light of yellow helium (d) is known as the mean
refractive index n of the substance. The difference between the
d

refractive indices for the light of the blue (F') and red ( C )
spectral lines of hydrogen is the mean dispersion An = n - n .
F c

Differences in the refractive index for other wavelengths are

called partial dispersions.
An important quantity for the correction of chromatic aberra-
tions is the Abbe number v of a glass type, which is the ratio of
e

Fig. 8 the refractivity in air to the mean dispersion:

Refraction of light (n, n', refractive
index in front of and behind the inter-
face)
16 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Geometrical Optics

(6) V =
P
n P - n c

If two media display two different refractive indices for light of

a specific frequency (colour), the one with the larger refractive
index is the optically denser, and the other the optically rarer
medium. Fig. 9 shows the refractive index of some substances as
a function of the wavelength.
1.80-

w Dense flint glas s

Lanthanum crow n y l j o i m.
1.70-

Calcit 9
^Flint glass*' ""* ''>« - " ^ ^ ^ ( o r d i n ary ray)
, ,

Extra d e n s e * ^
crown glass
1.60-

(extra ordinary ray)

Quart i crystal
(ordinary ray)
^R39^"*"—-
Spectacle crown glass
1.50-
" " .
Calcite (extraordinary ray)
Fused quartz
Fluorite

1.40-

.^Water^

UV vio et blue green yellow red IR

<r 1.30- i I I l i

200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 nm 1000

Wavelength X in air
Fig. 9
Refractive indices of some substances as a function of the wavelength X in air
P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Geometrical Optics 17

Plane parallel plate If the same medium exists on both sides of a plane parallel plate.
a light ray incident obliquely on the plate emerges from the glass
at the same angle at which it enters (Fig. 10). The amount of
parallel displacement v increases with
1. increasing plate thickness d,
2. increasing angle of incidence i
3. increasing quotient of the refractive indices of the plate
material and the surrounding medium n. The parallel dis-
placement is
( 7 ) v = d .sin(i-i')
COS 1

The point of intersection of a ray bundle in the Gaussian space

is displaced by the distance x:

(8) x-d-(l-J).

For a plate with n' = 1.5 in air (n = 1) the displacement x is thus

one third of the thickness of the plate. If the surrounding
medium is optically rarer than the material of the plate
(Fig. 11), the displacement takes place in the direction of the
light (x is positive); otherwise, it will occur against the direction
of light (x is negative).

Fig. 10 Fig. 11
Parallel displacement of a light ray by Passage of a ray bundle through a
a plane parallel plate (n' > n) plane parallel plate (n' > n)

Prism A prism in an optically rare medium deviates a light ray towards

the prism base. The angle of deviation d depends upon
1. the prism angle a
2. the angle of incidence i
3. the quotient of the refractive indices of the prism material n'
and the surrounding medium n.
18 P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Geometrical Optics

If the ray passes symmetrically through the prism, the angle of

deviation is at its minimum (Fig. 12). For small prism angles a
(wedge) and small angles of incidence i, the following formula
provides good results for n = 1:
(9) d = (n'-l)a.

Fig. 12 For a prism material with n' = 1.5, the angle of deviation is then
Minimum deviation by a prism approximately half the prism angle. In ophthalmic optics the
(n' > n) deviation of a ray of light from its original direction is given in
cm/m (international denotation: prism dioptre A). The devia-
tion is 1 cm/m when the lateral deflection is 1 cm on a screen
which is placed at a distance of 1 m and is perpendicular to the
direction of the original ray.
The relationship between the prismatic deviation P and the
angle of deviation d is (Fig. 13):

(10) P = 100— tan d.

m
For prisms made of spectacle crown with n'= 1.525, a prism
angle of a = 1 ° leads to a deviation in air of P = 0.916 cm/m in
accordance with formulae (9) and (10).

12°

cm
10° - 1° a 1.75 m

8°

T3 6° -
C
O
viat

n
4

o 2" 1^ a 0.57°
CJ m

Fig. 13 c o° *r | i i i
Relationship between angular devia- <
0 2 4 6 10 12 14 16 18^20
tion and prismatic deviation in accor-
dance with formula (10) Prismatic deviation P

In a rotary prism device (Fig. 14) used as a setting and measur-

ing unit for distance measurement, two identical glass prisms
are rotated in their planes in opposite directions to each other
by the same amount p\ This results in a variable angular devia-
tion d of the ray A B corresponding to the parallactic angle for
the respective distance setting with a constant deviation plane:
 P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Geometrical Optics 19

(11) d « 2(n' - l)acosp\

Further applications: Herschel's double prism for measuring
the fusion capability of a pair of eyes, prism compensator.
Rays of different colours are deviated more or less strongly by a
prism (Table 4) due to the effect of dispersion. When white light
passes through it, the prism therefore produces a spectrum,
with short-wave light being more strongly refracted than long-
Fig. 14 wave.
Rotary prism device
Application: prisms with large prism angles for spectral units.
20 P H Y S I C A L O P T I C S : Geometrical Optics

Lenses

Lenses with a Spherical lenses are divided into

spherical power 1. convex lenses which are thicker at the centre than at the edge
2. concave lenses which are thinner at the centre than at the
edge.
Fig. 15 shows convex lenses with different shapes but with
identical focal lengths. Fig. 16 shows corresponding concave
lenses.
If surrounded by optically rarer media, convex lenses act as
converging lenses (positive or plus lenses), and concave lenses
b) c) as diverging lenses (negative or minus lenses).
Fig. 15 Parallel rays become convergent, homocentric bundles when
Convex lenses they pass through (in the Gaussian space) converging lenses,
a) bi-convex and divergent bundles when they pass through diverging lenses.
b) plano-convex
c) curved
The optical axis of a lens is the line perpendicular to both
boundary surfaces. It runs through the centres of curvature of
m the surfaces. The point of intersection of the optical axis and the
boundary surface is known as the vertex of the lens. Any plane
containing the optical axis is called a meridian plane. Lenses
with a spherical power display the same optical characteristics
in all meridian planes.
In order to reduce aberrations, lenses with spherical powers are
a) c) also designed with surfaces which deviate from the spherical
Fig. 16 form, but which display rotational symmetry about the optical
Concave lenses axis (aspheric lenses).
a) bi-concave
b) plano-concave
c) curved

Surface power
If a spherical surface has a radius of curvature r, the medium in
front has the refractive index n and the medium behind the
refractive index n', the surface power F of the spherical surface
is:

(12) F = n — n

The unit of measure for refractive powers is the dioptre (D).

J_
1D=
1 m'
If in front of a lens with the refractive index n i there is a medium
with the refractive index n and behind it a medium with the
1?

refractive index n' , the surface power of the first surface is:
2
 P H Y S I C A L OPTICS:
Equivalent power and
focal length
Fig. 17
Focal points of a converging lens
Fig. 18
Focal points of a diverging lens
Geometrical Optics 21
(13) F= 51^-21
l
r,
and the surface power of the second surface:
(14) F = *LZJ2>.
2
r
2
Observed from the optically rarer medium, a convex surface
displays a positive, and a concave surface a negative surface
power.
A spherometer is used to measure the radius of curvature of
surfaces; the dioptre scale shows surface powers for a specific
refractive index (e.g. n'= 1.523) in air (n =1).
If d (in m) is the centre thickness of a spherical lens (refractive
index n'i), the equivalent power F of this lens is (Gullstrand
formula):
(15) F - F, + F , - 8 • F, • F,
where 8 = d/ n'i is the reduced thickness.
For this infinitely thin lens, if the centre thickness is negligible,
then
(16) F = F, + F ,
For this infinitely thin lens with the refractive index n' in air:
(17) F = ( n ' - !)•(•1_ _ 1
If rays are incident upon a lens parallel to the optical axis (in the
Gaussian space), the refracted rays have a common point of
intersection on the optical axis known as the image-side focal
point F'. When a bundle of rays emerges from a lens parallel to
the optical axis, the incident rays have a common point of
intersection on the optical axis known as the object-side focal
point F.
If the equivalent power is positive, both focal points are real
(Fig. 17), i.e. the actual rays intersect. If the equivalent power of
the lens is negative, both focal points are virtual (Fig. 18), i.e. the
actual rays do not intersect but their imaginary projections do.
Related to the focal points are the focal lengths measured from
the corresponding principal points to the focal points (Figs. 17
and 18):
22 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Geometrical Optics

image-side focal length f = distance from H ' to F',

object side focal length f = distance from H to F.
The relationship between the equivalent power F and the focal
lengths of a lens is

(18) F - f -

If the same medium exists on both sides of the lens (nj = n' ),2

then
(19) f = - f.
Only for a lens in air (ni = n' = 1): 2

(20) F = ! = - ! .

To obtain the equivalent power in D , the focal length must be

substituted in metres (Table 5).

Vertex power and The distances measured from the vertices of a lens along the
vertex focal lengths optical axis are called the vertex focal lengths and are desig-
nated f on the object side and P on the focal side.
v v

In ophthalmic optics the power of a lens is indicated in terms of

its back vertex power. The back vertex power F' of an ophthal-
v

mic lens in air is the reciprocal of the image-side (ocular-side)

back vertex focal length P of the focal point F ' (measured from
v

the vertex A ) (Figs. 19 and 20)

2

(21) F0 = ±
•v

If the back vertex focal length P is substituted in m, the back

v

vertex power Fy is in D (Table 5).

The difference between the equivalent power F and the back
vertex power F' (or the focal length P and the back vertex focal
v

length P is greater, the stronger the curvature of a lens (with

v

constant centre thickness). The relationship of these values for a

lens in air is given by the shape magnification S of the lens

F'v = F only for an infinitely thin lens.

PHYSICAL OPTICS: Geometrical Optics 23

Principal points The principal points of a lens are the points of intersection of the
optical axis and the principal planes perpendicular to this axis.
These are conjugate points with magnification m = + 1.
The position of the principal points in a lens is determined by
the centre thickness, the shape of the lens ("bending"), and the
refractive indices of the media. The more a lens deviates from
the symmetrical shape (equishape), the further the principal
points are shifted in the direction of the more strongly curved
surface.
For a lens in air the object-side vertex focal length (distance of
the principal point H from the vertex of the first surface) is

(23) e = ^-5,

and the image-side vertex focal length (distance of the principal

point H ' from the vertex of the second surface) is

(24) e'= - § - 8 .
F
24 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Geometrical Optics

The principal points of symmetrical lenses lie inside the lenses.

If the lens is not too thick and if n' = 1.5, the principal points
divide the lens thickness into three almost equal parts (because
Fi = F « F/2). In plano-convex and plano-concave lenses (F)
2

or F = 0) one principal point lies at the vertex of the curved

2

surface, the other one about 1 /3 of the centre thickness away in

the lens.
The dots in Figs. 15 and 16 indicate the approximate position of
the principal points in lenses of different shapes in air.
The distance from H to H ' is designated as the "interstitium" i.

Lenses with an Lenses with at least one cylindrical, toroidal or atoroidal sur-
astigmatic power face are not symmetrical to the optical axis and have a different
power in every meridian plane. The rays are united in the two
planes of the strongest and weakest refraction only. These two
planes are perpendicular to each other and are known as the
principal meridians of the lens. Rays which run in one of the
other meridian planes in front of the lens are at an angle to each
other after refraction (they no longer lie in one plane). For this
reason the power of an astigmatic lens can only be measured in
the two principal meridians and is given in the form of two
equivalent powers or vertex powers F 'i and F . The difference
v v2

between the two principal powers is known as the astigmatic

difference (cylinder): C = F - F 'i. The formulae for a lens with
v 2 v

a spherical power apply for each of the two principal meridians.

The simplest form of an astigmatic lens is a piano-cylinder
(Fig. 21).
A toroidal surface is produced by rotation of a circular arc
about an axis which does not run through the centre of this arc.
The toroidal surface has different radii of curvature (n and r in
2

Fig. 22) in the two principal meridians (transverse and equatori-

al meridians). In an atoroidal surface the transverse and equato-
rial meridians deviate from the circular shape.
Application: For the correction of astigmatic ametropia; ana-
morphic lens systems for motion pictures.
P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Geometrical Optics
26 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Geometrical Optics
Optical image formation with lenses and lens systems
Optical systems
Determination of the image
Optical systems are axially centred lens combinations (objec-
tives, eyepieces, etc.) - or also mirror combinations - which
have two focal points, two principal points and an equivalent
power. Once the positions of the focal points F and F ' and the
principal points H and H ' have been established in an optical
system by computation or measurement, the position and size
of an object image can be determined by a drawing or com-
putation.
If the refracted rays are convergent in the real part of the image
space (space behind the lens), a real image is produced at their
point of intersection; if they are divergent, a virtual image is
produced at the point of intersection of the backward projec-
tions in the virtual part of the image space (space in front of the
lens).
(Note: The object space is real in front of the lens and virtual
behind it. The image space is real behind the lens and virtual in
front of it. The space in front of the lens alone is often inaccu-
rately described as the object space, and the space behind it
alone as the image space.)
The distance measured along the optical axis from the object-
side principal point H to the object is the object distance /; the
corresponding distance from the image-side principal point H '
to the image is the image distance /'.
Two auxiliary rays serve to construct the image:
1. The ray running parallel to the optical axis in the object space
(parallel ray) is refracted at the principal plane H ' , and the
refracted ray runs through the focal point F' (focal ray).
2. The focal ray through F is refracted at principal plane H , and
the refracted ray becomes a parallel ray (Figs. 23 to 28).
The image position is calculated using the equation:
Inair(n| = n' = 1) according to (20) by
2
P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Geometrical Optics 27

The construction and computation apply to the Gaussian space

only.
The size of the image depends on the lateral magnification m,
which is the ratio of the image size h' to the object size h

(27) m = ^ ( = yinair).

If m is larger than 1, magnification is then present.

If m is positive, the image and the object are in the same
28 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Geometrical Optics

direction and one of them is virtual. If m is negative, then the

image and the object are in different directions and both are
either real or virtual.

If u is the angle at which an object-side ray intersects the optical

axis, and u' is the corresponding angle for the refracted ray, the
angle ratio y', or the angular magnification, is the quotient

(28)
 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Geometrical Optics 29

The optically conjugate axial points with the angular magnifica-

tion y = + 1 are the nodal points N and N ' of the lens (or the
system). As object-side and image-side nodal point rays inter-
sect the optical axis at identical angles, they can also be used for
image construction.

H'
7
s
/

/
I
1/
A-

> f - —

Fig. 28
Virtual image produced by a negative
system with negative m
30 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Geometrical Optics

If the same medium exists on both sides of a lens, H and N as

well as H ' and N ' coincide. If the media in front of and behind
the lens are different, the nodal points are displaced towards the
denser medium relative to the principal points if the lens has a
positive refractive power, and towards the rarer medium if it
has a negative refractive power. The distance between the nodal
points remains constant and is identical to the interstitium.
Principal points, focal points and nodal points are also known
collectively as cardinal points.

Real image formation A real image is produced by a positive system if a real object is '
located beyond the object-side focal length (Fig.23) or if there is
a virtual object (Fig.24).
A negative system produces a real image if a virtual object is
located within the object-side focal length (Fig. 25).

Virtual image formation A virtual image is produced by a positive system if a real object
is located within the object-side focal length (Fig. 26). A nega-
tive system produces a virtual image if a real object is present, or
if a virtual object is located beyond the object-side focal length
(Fig. 28).

Newton's formulae The distances measured from the focal points F and F ' (along
the optical axis) to the object and to the image are the extra-focal
distances designated x and x'. These distances are used in
Newton's equation for image formation:
(29) x-x'-f-f.
The lateral magnification is thus

(30) p ' - - ! - ^ £ ,

and the angular magnification is

(3.)

Astigmatic image Lenses with an astigmatic power image a real object point not as
formation an image point, but as two image lines with different image
 31

distances. The image lines of an axial object point are perpendi-

cular to the optical axis and lie in the principal meridians lying
perpendicularly to each other. The ray bundle of an object point
which has a circular cross section at any point prior to refrac-
tion exhibits an elliptical cross section subsequent to refraction.
The size and shape of the ellipse varies depending on its posi-
tion. The two image lines are the extremes of the cross section.
Between them lies the only point where the cross section of the
bundle is circular (instead of a point). The cross section forma-
tion (Sturm's conoid) in Fig. 29 shows this circle of least
confusion (Kr).

Fig. 29
Sturm's conoid to demonstrate the
nature of astigmatic imagery

The principal meridian with the mathematically smaller (i.e.

weaker positive or stronger negative) refractive power Fp is
called the first principal meridian p, while the other is known as
the second principal meridian a and has the mathematically
larger refractive power F . a

The image line produced by the first principal meridian lies in

the plane of the second principal meridian (yf> in Fig. 29) and
vice-versa. For each principal meridian, the formulae for image
formation by spherical lenses apply.
The image distance l' of the circle of least confusion is derived
c

from:

(32)

Stops A bundle of rays is controlled by stops (mechanical stops, lens

mounts or "focusing" of rays). These stops are generally cen-
tred, i.e. their centres lie on the optical axis of the system and
their planes are perpendicular to the optical axis. The stops
control image brightness, resolution, aberrations, depth of
field, perspective and field of view.
32 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Geometrical Optics

The stop which produces the strongest concentration of all ray

bundles and which therefore determines the brightness of the
image is called the aperture stop or aperture diaphragm and is
often found in the form of an iris diaphragm inside the optical
system. Rays which pass through the aperture at the edge of this
diaphragm are known as aperture rays. The aperture stop is the
entrance pupil viewed from the object, and the exit pupil viewed
from the image. The image of the iris aperture seen when
observing an eye is therefore the entrance pupil of the eye.
The entrance and exit pupils are conjugate planes and represent
the common cross section of all object-side or image-side aper-
ture ray cones. When the aperture stop is located in the real
object space in the form of the front stop, it is also the entrance
pupil. When it is in the real image space in the form of the back
stop, it is also the exit pupil.
Rays passing through the centre of the entrance pupil are called
object-side principal rays, and rays passing through the centre
of the exit pupil are known as image-side principal rays. The
pupil centres are the centres of perspective. All principal rays
are real and pass through the centre of the aperture stop.
In a telecentric ray path one of the pupils lies at infinity, this
being achieved in a single lens by means of an aperture stop in
one focal plane.
If an additional stop exists in the plane of the object, in the plane
of the image or in the plane of a real intermediate image, the
maximum inclination of the principal rays to the optical axis
depends on this so-called field stop. Therefore, the field stop
alone determines the size of the field of view and sharply defines
it. Viewed from the object, the field stop is the entrance port,
and when viewed from the image, it is the exit port.
If an additional stop exists elsewhere it determines (together
with the aperture stop) the size of the field of view. Multiple
stops of this type account for decreasing brightness towards the
periphery of the image ("vignetting").
 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Geometrical Optics 33

Aberrations

Requirements on image Optical images should be sharp, true to scale in the image plane
formation and free from colour defects.
Deviations from these requirements are called aberrations.

Spherical aberration In a spherical lens, zones concentric with the optical axis have
different refractive powers. Only the parallel rays incident in the
Gaussian space are collected in the focal point Fo. Rays which
are incident parallel to the optical axis and which pass through
the lens outside the paraxial space do not intersect at the focal
point (Figs. 30 and 31), but form a concentric halo in the focal
point plane. This unsharpness is known as the spherical aberra-
tion (aperture error), and the surface which envelopes the rays
in the image space is called the caustic surface.
A
^1 ^

V Fig. 31 /
Fig. 30 Spherical aberration in a minus
Spherical aberration in a plus lens lens

Coma If the object point in Fig. 30 which is assumed to be at infinity

moves out of the field centre, the unsharp halo may exhibit a
comet-like asymmetry as a result. The asymmetric portion of
this unsharpness which is superimposed by spherical aberration
is known as coma (Fig. 32). The rays of the middle zone become
stigmatic, i.e. they are focused at one point.

Fig. 32
The generation of a coma
34

Astigmatism of When the object moves further away from the field centre (e.g.
oblique incidence when looking obliquely through a spectacle lens), the stigmatic
bundle of rays becomes more and more astigmatic. The two
principal section planes of the bundle are the tangential section
formed by the system axis and the principal ray, and the sagittal
section perpendicular to it containing the principal ray (T and S
in Fig. 33).

Fig. 33
Astigmatism of oblique inci-
dence

This astigmatism of oblique incidence is dependent on the type

of lens and on the positions of the object point and the aperture
stop. For the individual points of an object plane perpendicular
to the optical axis the astigmatism of oblique incidence results in
two curved image surfaces (centres of the image lines) instead
of one image plane. For this reason it is also called radial
astigmatism.

Field curvature If, with corrected oblique astigmatism, the astigmatic differen-
ces are zero for all oblique bundles, a curved image surface
remains for point-focal imagery. This deviation from the image
plane is called the field curvature.

Distortion The aforementioned aberrations refer to the image formation

of an object point and lead to loss in definition in the image
plane. In addition, the image of an extended object is no longer
true to scale if the aperture stop is not located directly at the lens
itself. This distortion depends on the type of lens and on the
position of the aperture stop. In the case of a converging lens
P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Geometrical Optics 35

with a back stop the lateral magnification increases as the

distance from the optical axis increases. This leads to pin-
cushion distortion. In the case of a converging lens with a front
stop, on the other hand, the lateral magnification decreases as
the distance from the optical axis increases, resulting in barrel-
shaped distortion (Fig. 34). With diverging lenses, the position
of the aperture stop has the opposite effect.
The lens/eye system has a back stop, with the result that a plus
lens produces pin-cushion distortion while a minus lens results
in barrel-shaped distortion.
In the case of a lens with an astigmatic power the lateral
magnifications in the two principal meridians are different.
This leads to anamorphotic image formation. A circle perpendi-
cular to the optical axis, for example, is imaged as an ellipse, a
square as a parallelogram or (when principal meridians are
parallel with the sides of the square) as a rectangle.

-1
f

a) [ 1
O
Fig. 34
Distortion: a centred square (a) perpendicular to the optical axis is imaged in the shape of a pin-cushion (b) or a
barrel (c)

Chromatic aberration Owing to dispersion, a lens displays different refractive powers

for different wavelengths (colours). This results in chromatic
aberrations for image formation in white (polychromatic) light.
The focal length is shorter for short-wave (blue) light than for
long-wave (red) light; this longitudinal chromatic aberration is
shown in Fig. 35. Furthermore, the image-side principal rays of
oblique ray bundles are inclined to the optical axis at different
angles depending on their colour; this transverse chromatic
aberration leads to a different lateral magnification for every
colour in the respective image plane (chromatic difference of
magnification).
36 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Geometrical Optics

blue

Fig. 35
Longitudinal chromatic aberration

Corrected optical systems
Corrected optical systems are combinations of converging and
diverging lenses made of different types of glass and with
specific shapes and suitably positioned stops. As it is impossible
to fully eliminate all aberrations simultaneously, the type of
correction depends on the intended application. Achromats are
systems for narrow fields of view with longitudinal chromatic
aberration corrected for two colours and usually with spherical
aberration corrected in one colour. Apochromats are corrected
for three colours in the longitudinal chromatic aberration.
Anastigmats are systems for large fields of view with corrected
astigmatism and corrected field curvature.
Aplanatic systems for small fields of view are corrected for
spherical aberration, coma and usually also chromatic aberra-
tion (achromatic aplanats).
 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Wave Optics 37

Wave optics
Electromagnetic radiation

Light Light is that part of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation

which is perceived by the eye (Fig. 36). This visible spectrum has
9
a waveband of A, = 380 to 780 nm in air (1 nanometre = 10"
m).

10
cosmic rays

1pm —
y rays
I -1020

10 -io _
1nm — X-rays

UV
15
10
1um
5
10
IRand
thermal radiation 1 THz
1mm —
1cm — 10
- 10
UHF
- 1GHz
VHF.FM electric waves
short-wave
1 MHz
radio frequency
1 km
L - 10
5

Fig. 36 Wavelength Frequency[Hz]

Electromagnetic spectrum X in air [m]

direction of propagation
Electromagnetic waves vibrate transversely, i.e. perpendicular-
ly to their direction of propagation (Fig.37). The frequency v is
the number of vibrations per second and is measured in the unit
hertz (1 Hz = 1/s). The frequency of all electromagnetic waves
wavelength X is independent of the medium in which they move. The frequen-
Fig. 37 cy (and not the wavelength!) therefore characterises the colour
Transverse wave of the light in question (Table 6).
38 P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Wave Optics

Velocity of light In a medium with the refractive index n the relationship be-
tween the velocity c (phase velocity) and the wavelength is:
n
medium of
vacuum refractive index n: (33)
C = n
n
If the frequency is substituted in hertz and the wavelength in

fWVYA
l
(—
I
Xo-~1 I— XrT- 1
km, the velocity c is obtained in km/s. The speed of propaga-
0
n

tion c of all electromagnetic waves in a vacuum (space) is one

of the elementary constants (velocity of light) and equals:
-ho
c = 299792.46 km/s.
0

Fig. 38
Change in velocity and wavelength
at the interface of two media
In a medium with the refractive index n, the velocity c and the
n
wavelength X„ of light are less than in a vacuum (Fig. 38), while
the frequency (colour) remains unchanged.
The group velocity v, with which light signals are transmitted
(simplest example: switching a light source on and off), is
decisive for the transmission of information. This group veloci-
ty corresponds to the phase velocity (c = c ) in a vacuum; in
n 0

material, however, its value differs from that of the phase

velocity (c„ = c /n), namely:
0

c„
(34)
n - Xo dn •
dAo
In the area of normal dispersion the refractive index decreases
with increasing wavelength (dn/dXo < 0), and the group veloci-
ty is smaller than the phase velocity.

Interference and diffraction

Interference Interference is the act or process of intervening of two or more

waves at the same instant and at the same point in space.In light
waves, this phenomenon can be observed in the form of bright
(crest plus crest) and dark (crest plus trough) bands. This is,
however, only the case with coherent wave trains which have
the same source and the same vibration plane and which have a
constant phase difference. Two waves of identical wavelength
exhibit a phase difference if their crests do not coincide.
 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Wave Optics 39

Newton's rings When two lens surfaces placed a short distance apart are
illuminated, the two reflected wave trains interfere depending
on the thickness of the layer of air which separates them.
Newton's rings are formed.
Adjacent interference fringes indicate a difference in thickness
of the layer of half the wavelength of light. If the fit is good, the
dark
support
interference fringes are far apart.
Application: inspection of lens surfaces with a test lens
Fig. 39
(Fig. 39).
Inspection o f lens surfaces with the
aid o f interference phenomena

Reduction of reflections In order to reduce reflections ("anti-reflection coating"), lens

surfaces are coated in a high vacuum with a 100 nm-thick,
non-absorbing layer of a material with a low refractive index.
When this vacuum-deposited coating with the refractive index
n borders on air (ni = 1), the two wave trains of the light
2

reflected at the coating and the lens (n ) neutralise each other by

3

interference if the following two requirements are met (Fig. 40):

1. Phase requirement: the wave crest of one wave train (I) must
coincide with the trough of the other (II). This requirement is
met if the actual thickness d of the coating is an uneven
multiple of a quarter of the wavelength in the coating

2. Amplitude requirement: the amplitudes of the two wave

trains must be identical. This requirement is met if the square
of the refractive index of the coating equals the refractive
index of the lens:
2
(36) n 2 = n.
3
40 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Wave Optics

Reflections are reduced very effectively by using several layers

with different refractive indices, since the interference require-
ments can then be met for several wavelengths (Zeiss coatings
Super ET, Carl Zeiss T* (T-star), SMC: Super-Multi-Coating).
In plastic lenses made of the material C R 39, a layer of quartz is
vacuum-deposited on a inhomogeneous primary layer whose
refractive index starts at that of C R 39 and gradually increases
(Clarlet ET).
The antireflection coating increases transmission and enhances
contrast.

Interference filters Interference filters consist of a glass plate with at least two very
thin, partially transparent metallic layers separated by non-me-
tallic layers with a thickness of 250 to 500 nm. Narrow spectral
transparency maxima are produced in various wavelengths
(colours) by interference of the light waves transmitted within
these layers.
Application: Interference colour filters for different band-
widths.
Interference filters are also produced with purely dielectric
mirrors; these consist of X/4-thick layers of non-conductive and
non-absorbing materials with alternating large and small refrac-
tive indices.

Diffraction Diffraction consists in the propagation of electromagnetic

waves laterally to the geometric-optical ray direction (Fig. 41).
It occurs when light waves pass through stops, lens mounts,
grating slits, high-contrast microscopic specimen structures
propagation (so-called amplitude specimens) or through a fine mosaic of
in all low-contrast, light-transmitting specimens with different refrac-
plane directions j indices (phase specimens), or when X-rays pass through the
wavefront
t v e

atomic lattice of crystals. A n additional interference effect

between several adjacent diffraction centres causes strip-like
narrow stop
propagation. The distance between the strips is increased with
Fig. 41
Principle of diffraction increasing wavelength of light. This allows the production of
diffraction spectra with diffraction gratings (featuring up to
6000 grooves per mm).
Application: The phase contrast method in microscopy is based
on diffraction and additional interference with controlled am-
plitude and phase.
Diffraction is the reason why optical imagery is never 100%
sharp; Airy's discs arc produced, reducing the resolution in the
 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Wave Optics 41

image. This is why a camera lens should never be stopped down

further than f/25 if good resolution is required. Due to diffrac-
tion, the upper limit of the useful magnification of telescopes
and microscopes is reached when the objective and eyepiece are
so selected that the exit pupil is about 0.5 mm in diameter.
The halo around the sun and moon are due to diffraction at
particles in the atmosphere.

Holography While classic photography only supplies a flat image with an

improved pinhole camera, holography involves the recording
of the entire three-dimensional structure of a specimen. The
specimen is illuminated with coherent light, and the light waves
scattered from the object are superimposed with coherent
reference light from the same source. The resulting interference
pattern is recorded on a high-resolution photosensitive layer
(without imaging optics!). A hologram contains in its diffrac-
tion pattern the information about the amplitude and phase of
the light waves emanating from the specimen and therefore
allows these to be reconstructed in suitable monochromatic
illumination. This produces a three-dimensional image of the
object. For viewing so-called white-light holograms, even day-
light or a spotlight are suitable.

Polarisation

Brewster's law Natural light is unpolarised, i.e. for the transverse vibrations of
the wave trains there is no preferred direction. When unpolar-
ized light meets an interface between air and an electrically
non-conductive substance with the refractive index n', one part
of the light will enter the medium and, in the case of oblique
air (n = 1) incidence, be refracted; the other part is reflected at the inter-
face. If the angle of incidence equals the polarising angle / r , all
waves of the reflected light vibrate perpendicularly to the plane
of incidence (Fig. 42). This is known as plane polarised light. In
this case, the reflected ray and the refracted ray are at right
angles to each other.
For the angle of complete polarisation Brewster's law is
Fig. 42 (37) tan i = n'.
B

Polarisation by reflection
For crown glass and window glass i B = 56.7°, for water
42 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Wave Optics

surfaces it is 53° and about the same for well-worn roads,

ice-rinks, fields covered in snow, glossy coatings of paint, etc.
The degree of polarisation denotes what proportion of the light
of a bundle is polarised. As the light incident at the Brewster
angle i is fully polarised subsequent to reflection, the degree of
B

polarisation is 100% in this case. In the vicinity of the Brewster

angle the degree of polarisation is reduced, but it is still notice-
able.
The amount of polarised light gained by reflection is minimal,
as glass surfaces reflect only about 8 % of the light incident at the
Brewster angle.

Bi-refringence Except along the so-called optical axis, all non-cubic crystals
have two different refractive indices for each wavelength
(colour) of light. This property is designated bi-refringence, and
the two differently refracted partial rays are plane polarised.
The polarising directions of ordinary and extraordinary rays
are perpendicular.
Bi-refringence is used in the design of polarisers (quantity of
polarised light up to 45 %) and analysers. Polarising apparatus
includes two such elements. In the crossed position the analyser
does not transmit any light coming from the polariser (sensitive
extinction position).
Application: Polarising microscopes for identifying crystals
and minerals by utilising their influence on polarised light.
Singly-refracting, transparent substances become bi-refringent
when they are subjected to mechanical strain. Strain bi-refrin-
gence occurs, for example, in lenses which are strained due to
insufficient cooling, external pressure or thermal hardening
(Fig. 43).
Bi-refringent plates produce path differences of the light waves
and thus interference colours between crossed polarisers.
Application: for strain testing and in polarising interference
filters.

Dichroism It is a property of some bi-refringent substances to absorb the

polarised light of the ordinary and extraordinary rays different-
ly. This so-called dichroism can lead to almost entire absorption
of one partial ray.
Application: polarisingfiltersand membranes.
P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Wave Optics 43

Fig. 43
Thermally hardened spectacle lens in
the strain tester

Optical activity A substance is called optically active if it rotates the vibration

plane of linearly polarised light (when looking towards the
oncoming light, this optical activity is known as right-handed if
the rotation is clockwise, and left-handed if anti-clockwise). The
size of the angle of rotation depends amongst other things on
the colour of the polarised light: rotary dispersion.
Application: polarimeters for determining the concentration of
sugar in solution.
44 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Light technology

Light technology
Photometry

Terminology As light is electromagnetic radiation, its energy and power can

be measured objectively. The sensation of light obtained by the
eye is, however, based on physiological processes, making
vision a subjective procedure. Physical photometry is the field
of objective light measurement using physical receivers, while
visual photometry uses the eye as the receiver. In order to
measure the power of a light source, it must be placed at the
centre of a sphere and the light energy measured per unit time
on the surface of the sphere.
The solid angle Q is the ratio of a surface area A of a sphere to
the square of the radius r of the sphere (Fig. 44):

(38) Q = 4
r2

Fig. 44
2
Radiation at the solid angle 0 Q is the solid angle which cuts the area A = 1 m from the
0

surface of the standard sphere (radius r = 1 m). This unit for

= s r
solid angles is called a steradian: Q
0 1 (dimension 1). The
plane area of the aperture angle of the cone apertaining to QQ,
whose point lies in the centre of the sphere, is 65.54°. A solid
angle of Q = 4 n sr corresponds to the area of a full sphere
(surface of the standard sphere).

The light output perceived by the eye, which is emitted by a light

source at a specific solid angle Q, is the luminous flux <D. The
unit of luminous flux is called lumen (lm). In the luminous flux
the entire light passing from one point through an aperture is
measured. When the light in a specific direction (light ray) is to
be assessed, the luminous flux must be divided by the apper-
taining solid angle. The result is the luminous intensity I:

(39) I =

The unit of luminous intensity is called candela (cd). Until 1979

this was determined by a standard radiator (black area of A =
2
1 /60 cm at the temperature 2045 K of molten platinum). The
present-day definition is based on the luminous efficacy: "The
candela is the luminous intensity in a specific direction of a
radiation source which emits monochromatic radiation of the
PHYSICAL OPTICS: Light technology 45

12
frequency 540 . 10 Hz and whose radiant intensity in this
direction is 1/683 W/sr."
A radiator with the luminous intensity I = 1 cd emits the
luminous flux O = 1 lm (1 lm = 1 c d . sr) at the solid angle QQ
— 1 sr. A light source with a luminous intensity of I = 1 cd
radiating evenly into the space of the full sphere would emit the
luminous flux O = 4 n lm.
The brightness of a surface which emits or reflects light is
characterized by its luminance L . The luminance gives the
luminous intensity emitted per unit of the surface which
appears to be reduced by the factor cos i at an angle i from the
surface normal:

(40) L =
A • cos i '
2
Its unit of measurement is cd/m .
(An older unit of measurement is the apostilb: 1 asb = \/n
2
cd/m ).
The luminance of the former standard radiator was:
5 2
L = 6. 10 cd/m .
Table 7 shows the luminance values of some radiators and the
individual areas of vision.
The luminance cannot be increased by optical image formation
because the luminous flux fills an even larger solid angle (when
the image size is reduced), although it is in fact concentrated on
a smaller surface.
In practice, the illumination of a specific surface is of particular
importance. The illuminance E is the luminous flux O imping-
ing on the surface A divided by the size of the surface:

(4.) E - f .
2
The unit of illuminance is lux (lx). 1 lx = 1 lm/m .
The illuminance is dependent on the luminous intensity I of the
light source, its distance r from the illuminated surface and the
angle of incidence i (inverse square law):

(42) E = i • cos i • f2 - 0

When a light source of the luminous intensity I = 1 cd is

positioned in the centre of the standard sphere, the spherical
surface is illuminated with the illuminance E = 1 lx. When r =
2 m, E = 1/4 lx, etc.
Application: photometer for measuring light sources.
PHYSICAL OPTICS: Light technology

In order to darken photographic film, not only the illuminance

E is important, but also the time of illumination t. The product
of both is the exposure H measured in lux seconds (lx • s).
(43) H = E t.
When a luminous flux <D passes through a stop during the time t,
the quantity of light Q is
(44) Q = O t
(unit lm • s).
As the luminous flux is a form of power, the quantity of light
traversing the stop within the time t constitutes energy.

Luminous efficacy In physics, power is generally given in watts (W). A relationship

exists between this unit and the unit lumen. For green light of
12
the frequency 540 • 10 Hz (wavelength in air: X = 555 nm;
maximum light sensitivity of the eye) 1 W = 683 lm. A green
light source with the power of 1 W thus has a corresponding
light power of 683 lm for the eye, this applying to all conditions
of adaptation. For daylight vision, this is the maximum value
for the luminous efficacy K = 683 lm/W at the same time.
m

Other colours of the spectrum (wavelengths X) have lower

values K(X) for the luminous efficacy corresponding to the
spectral sensitivity of the eye for daylight vision V(X) (see Fig.
63):
(45) K(X) = V ( X ) K .m

For night vision, the maximum of the spectral sensitivity V'(X)

lies at 507 nm and the maximum value for the luminous efficacy
i s K ' = 1699 lm/W.
m

Material properties

Terminology In order to characterise the influence of various media and their

interfaces on the distribution of a specific luminous flux, the
following units with the dimension 1 (formerly called dimen-
sionless) are used (Fig. 45).
The reflectance p of an interface between two media is the ratio
of the luminous flux O reflected at this surface to the incident
0

luminous flux <t>:

 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Light technology 4~

(46)

InFig.45D,=^andp 2 = |^.

The internal transmittance X; of a body is the ratio of the

luminous flux <D reaching the exit surface to the luminous flux
ex

O entering through the entrance surface:

in

(47)
(f),
Fig. 45 The transmittance x of a body is the ratio of the luminous flux O T

Influence of a medium on the lumi- leaving the exit surface to the luminous flux O incident on the
nous flux entrance surface:

(48) Ox
T=

The internal absorptance a* of a body is the ratio of the lumi-

nous flux O absorbed between the entrance and exit surfaces to
a

the luminous flux O entering through the entrance surface:

i n

(49) a, = | ^ = l - x i

where (J) = O - O in an optically clear (non-scattering) body.

IN EX

The absorptance a of a body is the ratio of the luminous flux O A

absorbed between the entrance and exit surfaces to the lumi-

nous flux 0 incident on the entrance surface:
<1>
(50) a =

If a medium with the refractive index n is located in front of an

interface and a medium with n' is behind it, the reflectance with
perpendicularly incident light is:

(51) n' - nV
n' + n
Fig. 46 shows the reflectance p of some substances in air as a
function of the wavelength (colour) of light.
In German, diffuse reflection is also called "Remission".
The light reduction (light attenuation) of a body is the ratio of
the difference between the incident luminous flux fl> and the
emerging luminous flux O to the incident luminous flux:
t
48 P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Light technology
Fig. 46
Mean values for the spectral reflect-
ance of polished metal surfaces (Al —
aluminium, Cr = chromium, Au =
gold, Cu = copper, Ni = nickel, Ag
= silver) in comparison with specta-
cle crown glass (K uncoated, T with
anti-reflection coating)
Influence of path length
For bodies of any thickness consisting of homogeneous, opti-
cally clear materials (e.g. coloured glass or clear solutions), the
light properties can be calculated if they have been measured on
a body made of the same material with a known thickness. If a
property is dependent on the wavelength, the calculation must
then be performed separately for every wavelength. If, for
example, the light transmittance is needed for a specific illumi-
nant, it must be calculated from the light transmittance values
for the individual wavelengths subsequent to the thickness
conversion; a direct calculation using a light transmittance
measured at a different thickness is not possible. The following
formula applies for optically clear materials:
(53) a + p + x=1
K
where the reflectance p of a body must be calculated from the
k
internal transmittance Xj of the body and the reflectance q of an
interface:
2 2
(54) PK = p[l+(l-p) Xi ].
For the internal transmission and absorption, i.e. neglecting
reflection losses, the following equation holds:
 P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Light technology 49

(55) Tj + Oj = 1.
The relationship between the transmittance and the internal
transmittance is:
2
(56) x= (l-p) T,
If on a body with the thickness di the internal transmittance t\\
is measured or calculated my means of (56) using the measured
transmittance, the internal transmittance x of a body made of
i2

the same material with the thickness d is:

2

(57) Tj2 =
The internal transmission density A is used to simpify the
calculation:
(58) A - - logti.
Table (8) gives some values using formula (58).
The internal transmission density A , which is also known as
attenuation (usually called absorbance in chemistry), is propor-
tional to the path thickness; the factor of proportionality is the
extinction coefficient a:
(59) A = a • d.
In the above formulae multireflections inside the body have
been neglected, this always being admissible for reflection on
glass surfaces even if they have not been provided with an
anti-reflection coating.

Light sources

Daylight The spectral composition and the directional characteristic of

daylight are dependent on the position of the sun and weather
conditions, ranging from direct sunlight with the blue scattered
light of the sky to totally diffuse illumination through a cloudy
sky. Its spectrum is continuous, but the spectral energy distribu-
tion is not a smooth curve due to the different thickness and
density of the numerous, extremely fine Fraunhofer absorption
lines in the solar spectrum and to the atmospheric absorption
bands.
50 P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Light technology

Incandescent lamps In an incandescent lamp a tungsten filament is heated to a

temperature of about 3000 °C. The emitted light displays a
continuous spectrum with a very smooth energy distribution
curve showing a small blue portion and a maximum in the near
infrared. The light output ranges between 8 and 25 lm/W.
Standard incandescent lamps have an average life of 1000
operating hours. After this, the luminous flux decreases to 80%
of the initial value.
If the operating voltage is set higher than the rated voltage, the
luminous flux and the light output increase, but the lifetime of
the lamp is decreased considerably. With reduced voltage, on
the other hand, the opposite occurs: luminous flux and light
output decrease and the lifetime of the lamp increases.
The brightness of the image produced by an optical instrument
is dependent on the luminance (not the luminous flux !) of the
lamp used. For this reason, special incandescent lamps for
projection instruments have a high luminance, but a reduced
lifetime.

Fluorescent lamps Fluorescent lamps are low-pressure mercury lamps whose in-
tense U V radiation (negligibly little of which penetrates to the
exterior) excites the fluorescent coating on the inner surface of
the lamp. The exciting lines of the mercury vapour (no neon!)
are superimposed on the continuous spectrum of the fluores-
cent substance.
The composition of the fluorescent substance determines the
colour of the light with a blue portion increasing from a "warm
tone" to "pure white". The luminous flux is dependent on the
surrounding temperature and the operating time. The light
output and the lifetime of a fluorescent lamp are considerably
higher than in incandescent lamps.

Spectral lamps Spectral lamps are metal vapour lamps for the generation of
line spectra which are used in combination with suitable colour
filters for the production of monochromatic light. In high-pres-
sure mercury lamps a weaker continuous spectrum is superim-
posed on the line spectrum. The arc discharge of these lamps is
fibre-like or punctiform, which increases the luminance to solar
brightness. For street lighting, bluish mercury vapour lamps
and yellow sodium lamps are also used; these emit a spectrum
consisting of only a few lines and result in a pronounced
falsification of body colours.
 P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Light technology 51

Lasers " Laser" stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission

of Radiation. Laser light is virtually monochromatic, coherent
and parallel, and high light powers are possible.
In a laser an exciting light wave is amplified by an active
medium. The laser is named after the type of medium used:
solid state, liquid (dye) and gas lasers. In solid state lasers, the
neodym-YAG laser (k — 1064 nm) has gained considerable
significance in ophthalmic surgery ( Y A G = yttrium-alumini-
um-garnet). Liquid lasers contain dissolved dyes as their medi-
um. Major gas lasers are the argon laser (k = 488 and 514.5
nm), which is used in ophthalmic surgery for the treatment of
retinal detachment, and the helium-neon laser (k = 633 nm).

Standard illuminants If material properties are to be specified not for monochro-

matic radiation, but for "white" light, they are dependent on the
spectral composition of this light. The same applies for the
translucent or reflected colour of coloured bodies. In order to
be able to make clear specifications, so-called standard illumi-
nants have been established. The most important of these are
(Fig. 47):

-
100

~ i
D65/ fC A

y i V

- i /
i 1
~l /
-i /
i 1
Relative spectral radiance of standard 400 600 nm 800
illuminants A, C and D 65 Wavelength X in air

1. Standard illuminant A represents incandescent lamp light

and is obtained by incandescent lamps with the colour
temperature 2850 K .
2. Standard illuminant D 65 represents average daylight with
the colour temperature 6500 K and is normally obtained by
xenon lamps with filters.
52 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Light technology

3. Standard illuminant C is a former (less good as it contains no

UV) approximation of daylight and is obtained by incandes-
cent lamps with filters.

Colour temperature The so-called colour temperature of a radiator (filament, etc.) is

identical to the temperature of the black body which glows in
the same chromacity as the radiator.
Daylight film for colour photography is adapted to 5500 K ,
artificial light film to 3200 K . Adaptation between the radiator
and the photographic emulsion is achieved by using special
colour filters known as conversion filters. Table 9 gives the
colour temperatures of some radiators.

Light guides

Principle Light can also be conducted without image formation in a

(straight or curved) pipe if, after entering through the entrance
aperture, it is reflected without loss each time it strikes the wall
of the pipe. In a few special cases and for very short distances
pipes which feature an inner metal reflective coating can be
used as light guides. As even the best metal mirrors do not
achieve the reflectance 1, the losses quickly increase with multi-
ple reflection. If the pipe is filled with a light-permeable material
whose refractive index is greater than that of its surroundings,
however, total reflection occurs for sufficiently large angles of
incidence, and the light can even be conducted over large
distances virtually without loss.

Numerical aperture If the interior ("core") of a straight cylindrical light guide (Fig.
48) exhibits the refractive index n and is surrounded by a
;

medium ("cladding") with the refractive index n , all raysa

entering through a surface perpendicular to the cylinder axis

from a medium with the refractive index n are conducted
0

through the light guide by means of total reflection, provided

their angle u from the cylinder axis is smaller than the angle u m a x

which results from the numerical aperture A of the light guide:

N

Fig. 48
Total reflection in a light guide (60) A N = l / n f ^ = n -sinu,
0
P H Y S I C A L OPTICS: Light technology 53

A can easily assume values over 1. If the numerical aperture

N

n • sin u of the light entering the light guide is smaller than the
0

numerical aperture A of the light guide, the latter is not fully

N

utilized. This is not necessarily a drawback, as it offers a high

degree of safety against light loss caused by bending and form
errors. If the incident light emanates from a medium with the
refractive index n < A , it is impossible to fully utilize the
0 N

numerical aperture of the light guide.

Attenuation Despite total reflection, losses occur in the core (absorption and
scatter), in the cladding (absorption) and in the core/cladding
interface (surface disturbances) of the light guide. The first two
effects can never be fully eliminated. These losses cause the
internal transmittance to decrease with increasing length of the
light guide in accordance with (57). The internal transmission
density A (attenuation) is proportional to the length in accord-
ance with (59).
The extinction coefficient a (attenuation coefficient) is used to
characterise the losses of a light guide and is generally specified
in decibels (dB) per length unit. 1 dB corresponds to the linear
absorption density 0.1 (Table 8). The normal unit for the
characterisation of light guides for illumination purposes is
dB/m, for communication fibres dB/km. The extinction coeffi-
cient is dependent on the wavelength.

Solid and liquid Rods made of glass, fused quartz and transparent plastics with
light guides polished or fire-polished surfaces can be used without cladding
(outer medium air with n = 1) if they are mounted without
a

supports. The higher their refractive index, the narrower the

curvatures of the rods can be. In constructions with cladding,
contact from the exterior causes no disturbance.
In liquid light guides the liquid must have a higher refractive
index than the tube material. The interior of the tubes must be
smooth, and they exhibit flexibility with similar cross sections to
the rods. Some of the technical problems involved are imper-
meability, freedom from bubbles and durability (including mi-
crobe infestation).
 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Light technology

Optical fibres and In optical fibres the fibre core is surrounded by cladding with a
fibre bundles lower refractive index; the core and the cladding are made of
glass or fused quartz. They are covered by a protective coating
which is usually made of plastic. As the cladding insulates the
fibres optically from their surroundings, they can be guided in
ducts or tubes without any light leaking at the points of contact.
By combining many fibres into one bundle, the light-conducting
cross section is increased without any decrease in flexibility.
The entire bundle cross section is not available for the light
conduction, however, due to the cladding and the unused area
between the fibres. In fibre bundles which serve only to conduct
light without image formation the individual fibres are random-
ly arranged.

Image carriers and Fibre bundles which contain fibres in exactly the same configu-
shape converters ration at both end-faces allow the transmission of an image
projected onto one end-face to the other end-face, although
with a raster corresponding to the fibre spacing (Fig. 49). If the
fibres are fixed in position at the two end cross sections only and
are freely movable in between, a flexible image guide results
such as that frequently used for endoscopes. Fibre bundles fixed
in position along the entire length are rigid and are mostly used
in the form of so-called fibre optic faceplates for adapting flat
entrance and exit faces to curved cathodes and the display
screens of electro-optical image intensifiers and image con-
verters. The fibre length is the same as the plate thickness which,
in turn, is smaller than the plate diameter.

38$

Fig. 49
Image transmission by a light-
conducting fibre bundle:
a) entrance
b) exit a)
 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Light technology 55

The fibres of a bundle can have different cross-sectional confi-

gurations at the two faces of a light guide, but the same surface
area (shape converters). One face, for example, can be in the
shape of a circle and the other a long, narrow rectangle for
adapting a round beam cross section to the slit of a spectro-
graph. The fibres of a bundle can also be split up into several
bundles (multiple-end light guides); the fibres belonging to the
partial bundles can then be arranged in the common cross
section in specific zones, or they can be evenly mixed or
arranged randomly.

Tapered light guides Solid light guides and even fibre bundles may also be conical in
shape. With a "light funnel" of this type the light incident
through the larger face can be concentrated within certain limits
on a smaller surface. However, the product of the diameter and
the numerical aperture of the light entering the light guide is
retained, and the largest possible numerical aperture at the exit
sets a limit to the reduction in the diameter. If this limit is
exceeded (without the numerical aperture of the light guide
itself being exceeded), some of the light rays turn back and leave
the light guide through the large cross section (Fig. 50). Lumi-
nance can therefore be increased just as little by this method as
by optical image formation.
Fig. 50 shows the multiple mirror images of the limiting sur-
Fig. 50 faces a and b. Only rays such as 1 whose extension (marked with
Exceeding the aperture in a tapered a broken line) strikes the inner area of the sector figure can
light guide emerge through the small face. Rays such as 2 whose extension
does not strike the inner area leave the conical light guide again
through the large entrance face after multiple reflection.

Optical waveguides Depending on the properties of the material of which they are
made, light guides can be used to conduct optical radiation
outside the visible spectral region (UV, IR). They are called
optical waveguides if the wave properties of light which have
not been taken into account until now play a role. Their effect
consists in allowing waves, including those within the angular
range defined by the numerical aperture, to travel in certain
individual directions only. These types of wave propagation are
called modes.
While the light guides described so far effect linear conduction
of light, planar waveguides restrict propagation to a single
plane. They normally consist of a substrate, a thin wave-con-
56 PHYSICAL OPTICS: Light technology

ducting film, whose refractive index must be greater than that of

the substrate, and a coating whose refractive index is no greater
than that of the substrate and which can also be air. The
radiation is conducted by total reflection in the direction per-
pendicular to the film plane.