Computer Organization

Dmytro Zubov, PhD

dmytro.zubov@czac.cz
Computer Organization

1 Syllabus

2 References

3 Types and components of computer Systems

4 Software system components

5 History of PC hardware in pictures

Computer Organization
Syllabus

This course aims to introduce the fundamental

parts of computer architecture, its organization and
operation.
Students will obtain capabilities: analyze and develop
basic assembly language programs given the organization and
architecture of a computer, describe the operation of the most important
peripheral equipment and communication protocols between the
internal components of a computer peripherals, describe basic memory
systems, describe the components of a CPU, describing the operation of
system software, as well as various types of software applications for
generating and performing laboratory practice implementation of basic
digital circuits.
Computer Organization
Syllabus

1. Introduction to computer architecture and

organization
2. Organization to the central processing unit
3. Data representation and conversions
4. Organization and memory system architecture
5. Peripheral equipment and input and output operations
6. Languages, Compilers and interpreters
7. Operating Systems
Computer Organization
Syllabus

1. Introduction to computer architecture and

organization
1.1 Evolution of computers.
1.2 Basic Computer Components
1.3 Von-Neumann architecture
Computer Organization
Syllabus

2. Organization to the central processing unit

2.1 Organization of CPU
2.2 Instruction set and format
2.3 Assembly Language
2.4 Types of instructions and addressing modes
2.5 Cycles of instruction: search and execution
2.6 Calls to subroutines and cycles return
2.7 Interrupts and input and output techniques
2.8 Concepts of microprogramming and sequencing
microinstructions
2.9 Central Processing Units with multicore structure
2.10 Actual system development and / or simulator
Computer Organization
Syllabus

3. Data representation and conversions

3.1 Representation and conversion of values in different bases
(decimal, binary, hexadecimal)
3.2 Operations in supplements to the base and reduced base
3.3 Representation signed integer.
3.4 Arithmetic signed integers and BCD
3.5 Representation of real numbers and characters
Computer Organization
Syllabus

4. Organization and memory system architecture

4.1 Hierarchy of memory systems: registers, cache, primary,
secondary, capacities and speeds
4.2 Organization and performance characteristics of main memory:
Latency, Cycle Time, Bandwidth and Interleaving
4.3 Cache: uses and levels
4.4 Virtual Memory
4.5 Binary Cell Concept
4.6 Ranking of memory: RAM, ROM and rewritable ROM
4.7 Memory Banks and interleaving techniques for improving
performance
4.8 Application code error detection and
correction to memories
Computer Organization
Syllabus

5. Peripheral equipment and input and output operations

5.1 Serial and parallel communication
5.2 Coordination of communication with peripherals: (handshaking
and buffering)
5.3 Techniques input / output (programmed I / O, interrupt driven,
DMA)
5.4 Examples of basic drivers / O: keyboard, mouse and USB
5.4 peripheral interconnection standards: USB, Firewire, Bluetooth,
EIDE, SATA
5.5 Comparative analysis of existing peripherals in their
characteristics: speed, storage capacity, reliability, access times and
transfer packages
Computer Organization
Syllabus

6. Languages, Compilers and interpreters

6.1 Evolution of languages
6.2 Compilers
6.3 Interpreter
Computer Organization
Syllabus

7. Operating Systems
7.1 Fundamentals of operating systems
7.2 Methods of information processing: single processors,
multitasking, batch, real-time and time-sharing
Computer Organization

1 Syllabus

2 References

3 Types and components of computer Systems

4 Software system components

5 History of PC hardware in pictures

Computer Organization
Syllabus

1. William Stallings. Computer Organization and

Architecture. Pearson Publishing, 9th Ed., 2013
2. Assembly language for x86 processors / Kip R.
Irvine, Florida International University, School of
Computing and Information Sciences, 7th Ed., 2015
Computer Organization

1 Syllabus

2 References

3 Types and components of computer Systems

4 Software system components

5 History of PC hardware in pictures

 Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Computer hardware is the collection of physical

elements that constitutes a computer system. Computer
hardware is the physical parts or components of a
computer, such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard,
computer data storage, HDD, system unit (graphic cards,
sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips), and so
on, all of which are physical objects that can be touched
(that is, they are tangible). In contrast, software is
instructions that can be stored and run by hardware.

http://www.ictlounge.com/html/typesofcomputers.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware
Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Six categories of hardware

Keyboard CDs Video card

(input) (storage) (connecting)

CPU Cable modem Monitor

(telecommunications) (output)
Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Computer categories by size

Tablet PC

Laptop

Smartphone
Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Computer categories by size (cont.)

Minicomputers
(e.g. Raspberry Pi 3 B)

Supercomputers Mainframes
(e.g. D-Wave) (e.g. IBM System z9)
Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Hardware – physical interface

Representation of information:
Binary digit (bit) – smallest unit of information that
the computer can process
Byte – eight bits or the number of bits it takes to
represent one natural ASCII character
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) – coding system that personal
computers use
Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Common Input Devices

Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Common Output Devices

Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Common storage devices

Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Flash Memory Cards

Flash memory drive – very small storage device that
plugs into USB port
Flash memory card – high capacity storage laminated
inside a small piece of plastic
Secure Digital (SD) card – most popular type of flash
memory cards
Micro SD cards – often used in smartphones and
tablets
Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Connectors and ports

Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Wireless Connections
• Infrared IR or IrDA (infrared data association) –
uses red light to send and receive information
• Bluetooth – normally transmits information as
radio waves for a distance of 10m (iBeacon – up to 100m)
• WiFi (wireless fidelity) or IEEE 802.11a, b, g or n
– normally transmits information as radio waves for a
distance of up to 100m
Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Von Neumann architecture

The template for all modern computers is the Von
Neumann architecture, detailed in a 1945. This describes
a design architecture for an electronic digital computer
with subdivisions of a processing unit consisting of an
arithmetic logic unit and processor registers, a control
unit containing an instruction register and program
counter, a memory to store both data and instructions,
external mass storage, and input and output
mechanisms.
Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Von Neumann architecture

Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

There are a number of different types of computer

system in use today:

1. Desktop computer
2. Laptop
3. Mainframes
4. Netbook
5. Smartphones
?
Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Scheme of personal computer:

1. Monitor
2. Motherboard
3. CPU with cache
4. RAM
5. Expansion cards
6. Power supply
7. Optical disc drive
8. Hard disk drive (solid-state drive)
9. Keyboard
10. Mouse.
 Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Motherboard is the main printed circuit board (PCB)

found in computers and other expandable systems.
Motherboard for an Acer
desktop personal
computer, showing the
typical components and
interfaces that are found on
a motherboard. This model
was made by Foxconn in
2007.

*https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard
Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Block diagram of a
modern motherboard,
which supports many
on-board peripheral
functions as well as
several expansion
slots.
 Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

http://cse1.net/recaps/1-powerup.html
Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic

circuitry within a computer that carries out the
instructions of a computer program by performing the
basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O)
operations specified by the instructions.

Intel Core i7 4770K

“Haswell” Processor

*http://www.eteknix.com/intel-core-i7-4770k-haswell-processor-review/
 Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Random-access memory (RAM) is a form of

computer data storage. DDR SDRAM (Double data rate
synchronous dynamic random-access memory) is a class
of memory integrated circuits used in computers usually.

Memory modules for desktop PCs (on the left)

Memory modules for portable/mobile PCs (in a center)
Generic DDR-266 memory in the 184-pin DIMM form (on the right)

*https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDR_SDRAM
 Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage

medium used in computers and other electronic devices.
Data stored in ROM can only be modified slowly, with
difficulty, or not at all, so it is mainly used to distribute
firmware. For example:
• BIOS (a type of firmware used during the booting
process on IBM PC compatible computers
• DVD/CD ROMS
• ROM in printers

*http://reppccfp.blogspot.mx
 Computer Organization
Types and components of computer systems

Examples of the expansion cards are:

• video card generates a feed of output images to a
display. For example, a Radeon HD 7970 with the cooler
removed:

• sound card facilitates economical input and output of

audio signals to and from a computer under control of
computer programs.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_card
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_card
Computer Organization

1 Syllabus

2 References

3 Types and components of computer Systems

4 Software system components

5 History of PC hardware in pictures

 Computer Organization
Software system components

Examples of Programs include word

processor, spreadsheet, graphics
programs, music software, games,
etc.
Examples of System Utilities include
file copy, hard drive repair, and
similar items. On the Macintosh, all
the Desk Accessories (calculator, key
caps, etc.) and all of the Control
Panels are examples of System
Utilities.
http://www.osdata.com/system/system.htm
Computer Organization
Software system components

The Command Shell on the Macintosh is the Finder

and was the first commercially available graphic command
shell. On Windows, the Command Shell is a poorly
integrated combination of the File Manager and the
Program Manager. The command line (C:\ prompt) of MS-
DOS or Bourne Shell of UNIX are examples of the older
style text-based command shells.
Examples of System Services are built-in data base
query languages on mainframes or the QuickTime media
layer of the Macintosh.
Computer Organization
Software system components

Until the Macintosh introduced Alan Kay’s (inventor

of the personal computer, graphic user interfaces, object
oriented programming, and software agents) ground
breaking ideas on human-computer interfaces, operating
systems didn’t include support for user interfaces (other
than simple text-based shells). The Macintosh user
interface is called the Macintosh ToolBox and provides the
windows, menus, alert boxes, dialog boxes, scroll bars,
buttons, controls, and other user interface elements
shared by almost all programs.
Computer Organization
Software system components

The Logical Level of the operating system provides

high level functions, such as file management, internet
and networking facilities, etc.
The Hardware Level of the operating system
controls the use of physical system resources, such as the
memory manager, process manager, disk drivers, etc.
The Graphics Engine includes elements at all three
of the lowest levels, from physically displaying things on
the monitor to providing high level graphics routines such
as fonts and animated sprites.
Computer Organization
Software system components

An operating system (OS) is a software program

that manages computer resources. Operating systems
allow components to communicate with each other and
enables the computer to run software applications.
Examples are Windows 8/10, Linux, Android, Windows
Server 2012/2016/2019.
Computer Organization
Software system components

A Classification of OSs
Computer operating systems can be categorized by
technology, ownership, licensing, working state, usage,
and by many other characteristics. In practice, many of
these groupings may overlap.
See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_operating_systems
Computer Organization
Software system components

Example of the OSs’ classification

• Mainframe operating systems: OS/390
• Server operating systems: UNIX, Windows Server 2012 R2
• Multiprocessor operating systems
• PC operating systems: Windows 8.1/10, Linux
• Real-time operating systems: VxWorks, QNX

• Embedded operating systems: PalmOS, Android, Symbian

Computer Organization
Software system components

“Command line” style OS

Computer Organization

1 Syllabus

2 References

3 Types and components of computer systems

4 Software system components

5 History of PC hardware in pictures

 Computer Organization
History of PC hardware in pictures

The First Computer Mouse

The first computer mouse was invented in 1963 by
Douglas Engelbart at the Stanford Research Institute. The first
mouse used two wheels positioned at a 90-degree angle to
each other to keep track of the movement. The ball mouse
wasn’t invented until 1972, and the optical mouse was
invented around 1980.

https://royal.pingdom.com/the-history-of-pc-hardware-in-pictures/
Computer Organization
History of PC hardware in pictures

The First Trackball

The trackball was actually invented in 1952. It was invented
by Tom Cranston and Fred Longstaff as part of a computerized
battlefield information system called DATAR, initiated by the
Canadian Navy. It used a standard five-pin bowling ball as its
trackball, which is smaller than the more common 10-pin bowling
ball.
Computer Organization
History of PC hardware in pictures

The First Portable Computer

The IBM 5100 Portable Computer was introduced in 1975, weighed
25 kg, was the size of a small suitcase and needed external power to
operate. It held everything in the same unit, packing in a processor,
ROM (several hundreds of kilobytes) and RAM (16 – 64 KB), a five-
inch CRT display, keyboard, and a tape drive. It also came with built-
in BASIC and/or APL. The different models of the IBM 5100 sold for
$8,975 – $19,975.
Computer Organization
History of PC hardware in pictures

The First Laptop Computer

The first laptop computer (or notebook) was the Grid
Compass 1100 and was designed in 1979 by a British industrial
designer, Bill Moggridge. The computer didn’t start selling until
1982, then featuring a 320×200 screen, an Intel 8086 processor,
340KB of magnetic bubble memory (a now obsolete, non-volatile
memory type), and a 1200 bps modem. It weighed 5 kg (11 lb) and
cost $8,000 –$10,000. The GRiD was mainly used by NASA and the
US military.
Computer Organization
History of PC hardware in pictures

The First IBM PC

The IBM Personal Computer was introduced in 1981 as the
IBM 5150. It had an Intel 8088 processor, 64KB of RAM (extendible
to 256KB), a floppy disk drive (which could be used to boot the
computer with a rebranded version of MS-DOS (PC-DOS)), and a
CGA or monochrome video card. The machine also had a version of
Microsoft BASIC in ROM. On the first IBM PC, the optional 10MB hard disk drive
could only be installed if the original power supply was replaced (the original one
was too weak).
Computer Organization
History of PC hardware in pictures

The First Apple Computer

The first Apple personal computers (Apple I) were designed
and hand-built by Steve Wozniak. The Apple I went on sale in 1976
for the price of $666.66. Only about 200 units were produced. The
Apple I was basically just a motherboard with a processor, a total of
8KB of RAM, a display interface, and some additional functionality.
To have a working computer, the buyer would have to add a power
supply, a keyboard, and a display (and a case to keep mount it all in).
Computer Organization
History of PC hardware in pictures

The First RAM

Arguably the first (writable) random access memory was
Magnetic Core Memory (also called Ferrite-Core Memory) and was
invented in 1951 as a result of work done by An Wang at Harvard
University’s Computation Lab and Jay Forrester at MIT.
Core memory was a family of related technologies that used the
magnetic properties of materials to give them a similar functionality to
transistors. They stored their information using the polarity of tiny, magnetic
ceramic rings with wires threaded through them. Unlike today’s RAM, core
memory could keep its information even after the power was turned off.
Core memory was common until it was replaced by integrated silicon
RAM chips in the 1970s. The “core” in core memory is why a memory dump is
called a “core dump” even today.
Computer Organization
History of PC hardware in pictures

The First RAM (cont.)

Above left: Close-up of core memory. Above right: The core memory
plane in the picture is 16×16 cm (6.3×6.3 inches), holding 128×128
bits (2048 byte).
Computer Organization
History of PC hardware in pictures

The First Hard Disk Drive

The IBM Model 350 Disk File was the first hard disk drive and
was part of the IBM 305 RAMAC (Random Access Method of
Accounting and Control) computer that IBM started delivering in
1956. It had 50 24-inch discs that together could store about 4.4MB
of data. The Model 350 spun at 1200 rpm, had a data transfer rate
of 8,800 characters per second and an access time of approximately
one second.
Computer Organization
History of PC hardware in pictures

The First Laser Printer

The laser printer was invented by Gary Starkweather at
XEROX in 1969. His initial prototype was a modified laser copier
where he had disabled the imaging system and introduced a
spinning drum with eight mirrored sides. The first commercial
implementation of a laser printer was the IBM model 3800 in 1976.
It could pretty much fill up a room on its own and had a speed of
20,000 lines per minute.
Computer Organization
History of PC hardware in pictures

The First Web Server

The first web server was a NeXT workstation that Tim
Berners-Lee used when he invented the World Wide Web at
CERN. The first web page was put online on August 6, 1991.
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