Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Elementary Surveying PDF
Elementary Surveying PDF
Introduction to surveying
Introduction
SURVEYING Definition…
𝑣 = 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑀𝑃𝑉
ERROR
Probable Error
Probable error is a quantity which, when added to and
subtracted from the most probable value, defines a range
within which there is a 50 percent chance that the true
value of the measured quantity lies inside the limits thus
set.
ERROR
Probable Error
Probable Error for a single measurement can be computed
using the following formula:
𝛴𝑣 2
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.674489
𝑛−1
ERROR
Probable Error
Probable Error of the mean can be computed using the
following formula:
𝛴𝑣 2
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.674489
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
ERROR
Where:
𝑃𝐸𝑠 Probable Error of any single measurement of a
series
𝑃𝐸𝑚 Probable Error of the mean
𝑣 the residual or deviation
𝑛 number of observations
ERROR
Relative (Error) Precision
Relative Error or Relative Precision is the ratio of the
Probable Error and the Most Probable Value.
𝑃𝐸
𝑅𝑃 =
𝑀𝑃𝑉
ERROR
Summation of Errors
If several measured quantities are added, each of which is
affected by accidental errors, the probable error of the sum
is given by the squares of the separate probable errors
arising from several sources.
284.199 Ans.:
ERROR
Example 7
It is desired to determine the most probable value of an angle
which has been measured at different times by different
observers. The values observed were as follows: 74°39’45”
(measured two times), 74°39’27” (measured four times), and
74°39’35” (measured six times).
74°39’34” Ans.:
ERROR
Example 8
Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over four
different routes. The observed elevations of the point with
probable values are given below. Determine the most probable
value of the elevation of the point.
219.832±0.006 m
219.930±0.012 m
219.701±0.018 m
220.021±0.024 m 219.847 Ans.:
ERROR
Example 9
The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land is given by the
following measurements and corresponding probable errors:
162.54±0.03 m, 234.25±0.05 m, and 195.70±0.04 m. Determine the
most probable error of the sum and the most probable value of the
perimeter.
592.50±0.07 m Ans.:
ERROR
Example 10
The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain
estimated probable errors as follows: 253.36±0.06 m and
624.15±0.08 m. Determine the area of the lot and the probable
error in the resulting calculation.
ERROR
Sea-it-Work
The distances travelled by a person are as follows: 156.20±0.03 m,
624.87±0.09 m, and 278.54±0.05 m. Determine the most probable
value and the probable error of the total distance travelled.
Measurement
Of Distance
Horizontal
Distance
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Pacing
A pace is defined as the length of a step in walking. It may be
measured from heel to heel or toe to toe. Pacing consists of
counting the number of steps for a required distance.
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Pacing
Pacing is a way of checking measurements rapidly. It is suitable in
determining approximate distances where low precision
measurement is sufficient. A good pacing would only result to a
relative precision of 1/200.
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Pacing
The length of one pace is called the pace factor. To determine the
length of a line, the pace factor is multiplied by the number of steps
(or pace).
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Taping
The most common method of measuring
horizontal distances is with the use of
tape. Taping consists of stretching a
calibrated tape between two points and
reading the distance indicated in the
tape.
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Taping
The acceptable relative precision for
measurements using tape is 1:1000 to
1:25000 or better.
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Tachymetry
Tachymetry is another method of determining distances based
on the optical geometry of instruments and is therefore an
indirect method of measurement.
𝑆ൗ
𝐻= 2
𝜃
tan
2
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Graphical Method
Unknown distances can be
determined through their
relationship with known
distances geometrically. This
method is widely employed in
table surveys, and in
triangulation works.
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Mechanical Method
There are few mechanical devices
that measure distances with lower
precision (i.e. odometer, wheel
meter). Wheel meter automatically
gives the distance when it is rolled on
the line to be measured. It is suitable
for irregular or curved lines and
boundaries.
Distance Measurement
Example 11
A 45-m course AB on level ground was paced by a surveyor for the
purpose of determining his pace factor. The number of paces for
each trial are shown in the accompanying table.
Trial Line No. of Paces
1 AB 50
2 BA 53
3 AB 51
4 BA 53
5 AB 52
6 BA 53
Distance Measurement
Example 11 Continuation
a. Determine his pace factor.
b. If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772, and 769 paces
in walking an unknown distance CD, what is the length of the
line?
c. Assuming that the taped length of the line CD is 667 m,
determine the relative error of the measurement performed.
Ans: 40 m
Distance Measurement
Example 14
The following subtended angles were read on a 2-m long sub-tense bar
using a theodolite: 0°54’13”, 0°22’20”, 0°32’06” and 0°19’46”. Compute the
horizontal distance from the theodolite to each position of the bar.
Ans: 628.9 m
Horizontal Distance
Electronic Distance Measurement
Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM)
devices are advance surveying
equipment that allows rapid and
accurate determination of linear
distances, horizontal and vertical
angles, suitable for surveys that
require higher degree of precision.
Horizontal Distance
EDM Principle
Distance = Speed of Light x total time from the EDM to Reflector to EDM
Horizontal Distance
Advantages of EDM
1. Speed and Accuracy in the measurement
2. Lightweight and portable
3. Low power to operate
4. Easy to operate
5. Ease in measurement over inaccessible terrain
6. Applicable to long and short distance measurement
7. Automatically displays and records slope, azimuth, vertical
angle, horizontal and vertical distances, departure and
latitude.
Horizontal Distance
Measuring Tape
The most common method of measuring
horizontal distances is with the use of tape.
Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape
between two points and reading the distance
indicated in the tape.
Horizontal Distance
Measuring Tape
Measuring tapes are made in a variety of
lengths, materials, and weights.
Types of Measuring Tape
1. Steel Tape
2. Invar Tape
3. Fiber Glass Tape
Horizontal Distance
Taping Accessories
1. Range Pole
2. Clamping Handles
3. Chaining Pins
4. Tension Handle
5. Tape Thermometer
6. Plumb Bob
7. Wooden Stake
8. Leather Thong
9. Hand Level and Clinometer
Horizontal Distance
Taping Party
1. Head Tapeman – the person responsible for the accuracy and the
speed of all linear measurements with the tape. He determines and
directs the marking of points or stations and is the person who
carries the zero end of the tape ahead.
2. Recorder – keeps a record of all measurements, sketches and
observations taken during the measurement. He also checks by
pacing all measurements made by the tapemen for possible errors,
mistakes, and blunders.
Horizontal Distance
Taping Party
3. Flagman – the person whose duty is to hold the range pole at selected
points.
4. Rear Tapeman – the person whose duty is to assist the head tapeman
during taping operation. He is the one who holds the end of
the tape or any intermediate meter mark of the tape during
the measurement.
Horizontal Distance
Taping Procedure
1. Aligning the Tape
• Mark both ends of the line to be measured using range poles that
will serve as a guide for the alignment of the tape. Intermediate
points will be marked using chaining pins.
• The head tapeman takes the zero mark on the tape and heads out
towards the other end of the line.
• The rear tapeman on the starting point unrolls the tape and sees
to it that there are no twists on the tape.
• Align the tape using hand signals.
Horizontal Distance
Taping Procedure
2. Stretching the Tape
• With the rear tapeman holding the tape steady, the head tapeman
pulls the tape. Use the tension handle as a guide in determining
the force of pull applied on the tape.
• Use the leather thong and the clamping handle to pull the tape
comfortably.
Note: Tapes are correct in length if the tape is stretched at a standard pull
(standard tension). If the tape is stretched below the standard pull the tape is
said to be “too short”, otherwise, it is “too long”.
Horizontal Distance
Taping Procedure
3. Plumbing
• When the ground has obstructions and irregularities, the tape
should be held above the ground in a horizontal position.
• The ends of the tape is marked with the plumb line to point of
consideration.
• The tape is leveled to a horizontal position using a hand held level.
Horizontal Distance
Taping Procedure
4. Marking Full Tape Lengths
• When a full tape length is measured, the rear tapeman holds the
tape opposite the pin set on the ground. The head tapeman exerts
the standard pull on the tape and notes the zero end of the tape
using a chaining pin.
• The rear tapeman retrieves the pins and both tapemen moves
forward. The procedure is repeated until the other point is
reached. It may require sometimes to measure a fraction of the
length of the tape.
Horizontal Distance
Taping Procedure
5. Checking the Measurement
• A check is usually done by re-measuring the line from the end
point back to the starting point. The two results should agree to
the slightest error possible.
• From time to time, the each measurement to the full length of the
tape is checked using pacing to detect possible mistakes in taping
measurement.
Horizontal Distance
Slope Taping
Taped measurement is sometimes done along a sloping ground of
uniform inclination. Rather than breaking the tape, the tape is placed
along the sloping ground. The angle of inclination is then measured
using a clinometer. This method is fairly quick, easy, and accurate than
horizontal measurements.
Horizontal Distance
Correction in Taping
Corrections to taping are applied by the use of the following rules:
1. When the line is measured with a tape that is “too long”, the
corrections are applied to the observed length by adding.
2. When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that
is “too long”, the corrections are subtracted from the known length
to determine the corrected length to be laid out.
3. When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is “too short”,
the corrections are applied opposite to those stated in rules 1 and 2.
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Absolute Length
Due to manufacturing defects, the absolute length of the tape may be
different from its designated or nominal length. Also with use, the tape
may stretch causing changes in the length, thus it is imperative that the
tape is regularly checked under standard conditions to determine its
absolute length.
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Absolute Length
The correction for absolute length or standardization is given by
𝑐
𝑐𝑎 = 𝐿
𝑙
Where:
c = the correction per tape length,
l = the designated or nominal length of the tape, and
L = the measured length of the line
If the absolute length is more than the nominal length, the sign is positive and vice
versa.
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Temperature
If the tape is used at a field temperature different from the standard
temperature, then the temperature correction to the measured length is
𝑐𝑡 = 𝛼 𝑡𝑚 − 𝑡0 𝐿
Where:
𝛼 = coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material
= 0.0000116/°C
𝑡𝑚 = mean field temperature [°C], and
𝑡0 = standard temperature of the tape [°C]
L = the measured length of the line [m]
The sign of the correction takes the sign of 𝑡𝑚 − 𝑡0 .
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Pull or Tension
If the pull applied to the tape in the field is different from the standard
pull, the pull correction is to be applied to the measured length.
𝑃 − 𝑃0
𝑐𝑝 = 𝐿
𝐴𝐸
Where:
𝑃 = the pull applied during measurement [kg]
𝑃0 = the standard pull [kg]
𝐴 = the cross-section area of the tape [cm2]
E = the modulus of elasticity if the tape material = 2000000 kg/cm2
The sign of the correction takes the sign of P − 𝑃0 .
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Sag
The correction due to sag is the difference in length between the arc
formed by the tape and the subtending chord.
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Sag
If the pull applied to the tape in the field is different from the standard
pull, the pull correction is to be applied to the measured length.
1 𝑤 2
𝑐𝑔 = 𝐿
Where:
24 𝑃
𝑊 = weight of the tape per span length [kg/m]
𝑃 = the pull applied to the measurement [kg]
𝐿 = the length of the measured line [m]
The sign of the correction is always negative.
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Slope
If the length L is measured on a slope, it must be reduced to its
horizontal equivalent L cos Ɵ.
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Slope
𝑐𝑠 = 1 − cos 𝜃 𝐿 (exact)
ℎ2
𝑐𝑠 = (approximate, Slopes Less than 20%)
2𝐿
ℎ2 ℎ4
𝑐𝑠 = + 3 (approximate, Slopes 20% to 30%)
Where: 2𝐿 8𝐿
ℎ = difference in elevation of the ends of the tape [m]
𝐿 = the length of the measured line [m]
The sign of the correction is always negative.
Distance Measurement
Example 16 (standardization)
A rectangular lot was measured using a 50-m steel tape which was
found to be 0.025 m too short. If the recorded length and width of the
lot are 180.455 m and 127.062 m, respectively, determine the following:
a. Actual dimensions of the lot.
b. Error in the area introduced due to the erroneous length of tape.
Ans: 0.003 m
Distance Measurement
Example 21 (pull or tension)
A 30-m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length under a pull of
5 kg, supported for full length. The tape was used in measuring a line
938.55 m long on smooth level ground under a steady pull of 10 kg.
Assuming E = 2000000 kg/cm2 and the unit weight of steel to be 0.0079
kg/cm3, determine the following:
a. cross-sectional area of the tape
b. Correction for the increase in tension
c. Correct length of the line measured
Ans: 0.06 cm2, 0.04 m, 938.59 m
Distance Measurement
Example 22 (sag)
A 30-m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull of 8
kg. If the tape weighs 0.91 kg, determine the sag correction and the
correct distance between the ends of the tape.
Ans: 991.14 m
Distance Measurement
Example 25 (slope)
A line AB cannot be measured directly because of an obstruction on the
line. Accordingly, the two lines AC and CB were measured as 2400.85 m
and 1320.42 m, respectively. Point C was set up at a perpendicular
distance of 155 m from point D on line AB. Using the approximate slope
correction formula, determine the length of AB.
Ans: 3707.134 m
Distance Measurement
Example 26 (combined)
A line was determined to be 2395.25 m when measured with a 30-m
steel tape supported throughout its length under a pull of 4 kg and at a
mean temperature of 35°C. Determine the correct length of the line if
the tape used is of standard length at 20°C under a pull of 5 kg. The
cross-sectional area of the tape is 0.03 cm2, its coefficient of thermal
expansion is 0.0000116/°C, and the modulus of elasticity of steel is
2000000 kg/cm2.
Ans: 3707.134 m
Distance Measurement
Sea-It-Work (combined)
A 50-m steel tape is of standard length under a pull of 5.5 kg when
supported throughout its entire length. The tape weighs 0.05 kg/m, has
a cross-sectional area of 0.04 cm2, and being made of steel, its modulus
of elasticity is 2100000 kg/cm2. This tape was used in the field to
measure a distance that was determined to be 458.650 m. At the time
the measurement was made, the constant pull applied was 8 kg with
the tape supported only at its end points. Determine the correct length
of the line.
Ans: 456.836 m
Distance Measurement
Example 27 (Other Applications of Tape Measurement)
In a quadrilateral ABCD, the following lengths were measured by tape:
AB = 760.5 m, BC = 390.8 m, CD = 371.6 m, DA = 595.8 m, and AC =
765.4 m. Compute the interior angle at each corner of the quadrilateral.
Ans: 23°27’50”
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Reduction to Mean Sea Level
The determination of the equivalent mean sea
level length of the measured length is known as
the reduction to mean sea level. The reduced
length at mean sea level is given by
′
𝑅
𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑅+𝐻
Where:
𝑅 = the mean earth’s radius (6372 km)
H = the average elevation of the line
𝐿 = measured line
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Reduction to Mean Sea Level
When H is considered small compared to R, the
correction to L is given as
𝐻
𝑐𝑚𝑠𝑙 = 𝐿 (approximate)
𝑅
Ans: 3.34 m
Distance Measurement
Sea-It-Work (Combined)
A tape of standard length 20 m at 85°F
was used to measure a base line. The Segment Length (m) Difference in Level (m)
measured distance was 882.50 m. The 1 100 2°20’
2 150 4°12’
following being the slopes for the
3 50 1°06’
various segments of the line. Calculate
4 200 7°48’
the true length of the line if the mean 5 300 3°00’
temperature during the measurement 6 85.5 5°10’
was 63°F and the coefficient of thermal
expansion of the tape material is
0.0000116/ °C.
Distance Measurement
Sea-It-Work (Application)
A group of students wanted to measure the distance of line AB. However,
it is impossible to have a direct measurement of the line because of an
obstruction. The group decided that they should circumvent around the
obstruction. The following are the results of several lines they have made
from A to point B. Determine the length of the line AB and its direction
with respect to point A.
Line Length (m) Direction
AC 75.21 S54°35’E @ Point A
CD 123.65 N57°51’E @ Point C
DB 55.15 N29°33’W @ Point D
Vertical
Distance
Vertical Distance
Levelling or Leveling
Leveling is the process of directly or indirectly measuring
vertical distances to determine the elevation of points or their
differences in elevation.
Vertical Distance
Terminology
1. Mean Sea Level – an imaginary surface of the sea which is
midway the high and low tides.
2. Datum – it is any convenient level surface parallel with the
mean sea level to which elevations of a particular area are
referred.
3. Elevation – the vertical distance above or below the mean
sea level or any other datum.
Vertical Distance
Leveling Methods
1. Direct Leveling – a common method of determining the
elevation of the points some distance apart by a series of set
ups of a leveling instrument along a selected route.
2. Profile Leveling – is used to determine differences in
elevation between two points at designated short measured
intervals along an established line to provide data from
which a vertical section of the ground surface can be plotted.
Vertical Distance
Leveling Methods
3. Stadia Leveling – differences in elevation are computed from
observed vertical angles and three intercepts on a rod held on
each point. The optical geometry of the instrument is employed
for its computation.
4. Barometric Leveling – difference in elevation between points
are determined by measuring the variation in the atmospheric
pressure at each point by means of a barometer.
Vertical Distance
Types of Level
• Dumpy Level
• Wye Level
• Automatic Level
• Transit as a Level
• Theodolite as a Level
Vertical Distance
Leveling Rod
A leveling rod is a graduated rod which is used for
measuring the vertical distance between the line
of sight through a leveling instrument and the
point whose elevation is required or known.
Vertical Distance
Telescope
The telescope of a surveying
instrument is a metallic tube
containing a system of lenses
which are used to fix the
direction of the line of sight
and in magnifying the
apparent size of objects in its
field of view.
Vertical Distance
Telescope
Eyepiece – is a form of
microscope containing either
two or four lenses and is used to
enlarge altogether the image
and the cross hair.
Vertical Distance
Telescope
Objective lens – it is a
compound lens composed of
crown and flint glass mounted in
the objective end of the
telescope and has its optical axis
concentric with the tube axis.
Vertical Distance
Telescope
Cross hair – consists of a pair of lines
which are perpendicular to each other
and are used to define the
instrument’s line of sight.
Vertical Distance
Telescope
Level vial – is a sealed graduated glass
tube containing some amount of
liquid and a small air bubble. It is used
to determine the direction of gravity.
Vertical Distance
Tripod
Tripods – serves as a base to prevent
movement of the instrument after it
was set up.
Vertical Distance
Differential Levelling
Differential leveling is the process of determining the difference
in elevation between two or more points some distance apart
through a series of set ups of instrument along a general route
and, for each set up, a rod reading back to the point of known
elevation and forward to a point of unknown elevation are
taken.
Vertical Distance
Terms
1. Benchmark (BM)
A fixed point reference whose elevation is either known or
assumed.
2. Backsight (BS)
A reading taken on a rod held on a point of known elevation.
Sometimes referred as the “plus” sight since they are added
to the elevation of points being sighted to determine the
height of the instrument.
Vertical Distance
Terms
3. Foresight (FS)
A reading taken on the rod held on a point whose elevation is to be
determined. A foresight is usually referred as the “minus” sight since it
is always subtracted to the height of the instrument to determine the
elevation of the point on which the rod is held.
4. Backsight Distance (BSD)
The distance measured from the center of the instrument to the rod
on which a backsight is taken.
Vertical Distance
Terms
5. Foresight Distance (FSD)
The distance measured from the center of the instrument to the rod
on which a foresight is taken. It is usually approximated that the BSD
and FSD are equal.
6. Turning Point (TP)
It is an intervening point between two benchmarks upon which,
foresight and backsight readings are taken to enable a leveling
operation to continue from a new instrument position.
Vertical Distance
Terms
7. Height of Instrument (HI)
The elevation of the line of sight of an instrument above or below a
selected reference datum. It is determined by adding the rod reading
on the backsight to the elevation of the point on which the sight is
taken.
Vertical Distance
Equations
Height of Instrument
The backsight reading is added to the known or assumed
elevation of the initial benchmark (or turning point TP) to
determine the height of the instrument.
𝐻𝐼 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝐵𝑀𝑎 + 𝐵𝑆 or
𝐻𝐼 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝑇𝑃𝑛 + 𝐵𝑆
Vertical Distance
Equations
Elevation of Turning Point and Benchmark
The foresight reading is subtracted to the height of the
instrument to determine the elevation of the turning point or
the next benchmark.
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝑇𝑃 = 𝐻𝐼 − 𝐹𝑆 or
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝐵𝑀2 = 𝐻𝐼 − 𝐹𝑆
Distance Measurement
Example 31
Complete the differential level notes shown below and perform the
customary check.
Station BS HI FS Elevation
BM1 1.256 - - 127.133
TP1 1.116 1.886
TP2 1.228 1.527
BM2 1.189 2.246
BM3 1.070 2.017
TP3 1.831 2.656
BM4 - 2.765
Distance Measurement
Example 32
Prepare and complete the differential level notes for the information
shown. Include customary arithmetic check.
Distance Measurement
Sea-It-Work
Determine the elevation of BM2 from the following field notes. Perform
customary check.
Station BS HI FS Elevation
BM1 1.21 - - 50
TP1 6.20 4.65
TP2 4.82 3.11
TP3 3.03 5.22
BM2 - 3.16
Vertical Distance
Double Rodded Levelling
Double Rodded Differential leveling is a method of determining
differences in elevation between two points by employing two
level routes simultaneously. It differs from the conventional
differential levelling in that two turning points are established
such that at each set up of the level instrument, two sets of
independent backsights and foresights are taken. One
advantage of this method is that it provides a continuous check
while the work is in progress.
Distance Measurement
Example 33 (Double-rodded Levelling)
Complete the following differential level notes for a double-rodded line
from BM1 to BM2. Show the customary arithmetic check.
Station BS HI FS Elevation
1.964
BM1 - - 205.549
1.964
TP1 H 2.187 1.104
TP2 L 2.629 1.549
TP2 H 1.393 1.794
TP2 L 1.780 2.202
TP3 H 0.317 2.991
TP3 L 0.741 3.415
2.634
BM2 -
2.634
Distance Measurement
Example 34 (Double-rodded levelling)
The following figure shows a
schematic arrangement of a
double-rodded differential
levelling. The values indicated
represent the backsight and
the foresight readings taken
on two sets of turning points.
Prepare and complete the
differential notes for the
information shown and
perform arithmetic
customary check.
Vertical Distance
Three-Wire Levelling
Three-wire levelling is a more precise method of differential
levelling compared to the previous two. It determines the
elevation and difference in elevation of points wherein, three
horizontal hairs are read and recorded rather than a single
horizontal hair reading.
Vertical Distance
Where:
a = upper stadia hair reading
b = lower stadia hair reading
c = horizontal cross hair reading or rod reading at P
m = mean of the three readings
HD = horizontal distance from the level to the rod at P
K = stadia interval factor
C = Instrument constant
HI = Height of the instrument
Distance Measurement
Example 35 (Three-wire levelling)
Complete the BS FS
Station HI Elevation
differential notes Hair Rdgs Mean Rdg s Hair Rdgs Mean Rdg s
ℎ′ = 0.0675 𝐾 2
Where:
ℎ′ = is the departure of a telescope line of
sight from the level line (in meters)
𝐾 = is the length of the line of sight in
kilometers.
The value 0.0675 is called the coefficient of
refraction.
Vertical Distance
Example 39
A man on the shore standing close to the sea’s water edge looks out
toward the direction of the sea. If his eyes measure 1.72m above the sea
level, determine how far out to the sea is his visible horizon, neglecting
the effects of the waves.
Vertical Distance
Example 40
A woman standing on a beach can just see the top of a lighthouse 24.140
km away. If her eye height above sea level is 1.738m, determine the
height of the lighthouse above the sea level.
Vertical Distance
Example 41
Neglecting the effect of tide and waves, determine how far out to the sea
a boat will be when a light on its mast 60 meters above the water
disappears from the sight of a man on shore whose eye level is 1.583m
above the water level.
Vertical Distance
Reciprocal Leveling
Reciprocal Leveling is employed to determine the difference in
elevation between two points when it is difficult or impossible
to keep backsights and foresights short and equal. It is usually
done when the leveling line crosses a body of water, ravines or
places when it is impossible to conduct differential leveling. In
this method, two sets of rod readings are observed. One set is
taken with the instrument set up close to one point and another
with the instrument set up close to the other point.
Vertical Distance
Reciprocal Leveling
Difference in elevation
𝑎 − 𝑏 + (𝑎′ − 𝑏 ′ )
𝐷𝐸 =
2
Vertical Distance
Trigonometric Leveling
Trigonometric leveling or indirect leveling is defined as the
determination of differences in elevation from observed vertical
angles and either horizontal or inclined distances. This method
of leveling is used when undertaking a survey over rugged or
rolling terrain since it provides rapid means of determining
vertical distances and elevation of points.
Vertical Distance
Trigonometric Leveling
Difference in elevation
𝐷𝐸𝑎𝑏 = ℎ. 𝑖. + 𝑑 tan 𝛼 − 𝑅𝑅
𝐷𝐸𝑎𝑏 = ℎ. 𝑖. + 𝑠 sin 𝛼 − 𝑅𝑅
a. AB, N 25°25’ W
b. BC, Due East
c. CD, S 50°10’ E
d. DE, S 45°50’ W
e. EF, N 66°30’ W
Angles and Directions
Example 51
Convert the following azimuths to equivalent bearings:
252
Elevation
251
250
249
248
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Horizontal Distance
Angles and Directions
Definition of Terms
1. Traverse – A traverse is a series of lines connecting successive
points whose lengths and directions have been determined
from field measurements.
A = 118°30’
B = 95°33’
C = Not Measured
D = 134°10’
E = 140°50’
Determine the value of the angle at C. Also determine the bearing of each line if
the bearing of line AB is N 15°30’ E
Angles and Directions
Example 53
The observed interior angles of a closed traverse are as follows: A 153°30’00”; B
58°20’20”; C 139°19’00”; D 78°21’20”; and E 110°28’00”. Determine the angular
error of closure and adjust the measured angles by assuming that the angular
error is of the same amount at each station.
Angles and Directions
Example 54
Following are the observed deflection angles of a closed traverse:
Compute the angular error of closure and adjust the angular values by assuming
that the angular error is of the same for each angle.
Angles and Directions
Azimuth Traverse
Angles and Directions
Example 55
Given in the accompanying tabulation are the observed data for a closed
traverse.
Determine the bearing and the azimuth from north of all the traverse lines.
Angles and Directions
Latitude and Departure
Latitude of a line is its projection onto the reference meridian or
a north-south line. Latitudes are usually referred to as northings.
Latitudes directed to the north are positive (+) and to the south,
negative (-).
−𝐶𝐷 𝐿𝐸𝐶
𝐿𝐸𝐶 = 𝐶𝐿 2 + 𝐶𝐷 2 tan 𝜃 = 𝑅𝑃 =
−𝐶𝐿 𝐷
Where:
𝐿𝐸𝐶 = Linear error of closure
𝐶𝐿 = error in closure in latitude or the algebraic sum of north and south latitudes
𝐶𝐷 = error in closure in departure or the algebraic sum of east and west departures
𝜃 = bearing angle of the side of error
𝑅𝑃 = relative precision of measurement
𝐷 = total length or perimeter of the traverse
Angles and Directions
Example 56
Given in the accompanying table the observed data for a closed travers.
Determine the following quantities: latitude and departure of each traverse
line, linear error of closure, bearing of the side error, and the relative precision
of the measurements.
Angles and Directions
Traverse Adjustment
Compass Rule
𝑑 𝑑
𝑐𝑙 = 𝑐𝐿 𝑐𝑑 = 𝑐𝐷
𝐷 𝐷
Where:
𝐶𝑙 = correction to be applied to the latitude of any course or traverse line
𝐶𝑑 = correction to be applied to the departure of any course or traverse line
𝐶𝐿 = total closure in latitude
𝐶𝐷 = total closure in departure
𝑑 = length of any course or traverse line
𝐷 = total length or perimeter of the traverse
Angles and Directions
Traverse Adjustment
Compass Rule
2 2
𝐷𝑒𝑝′
𝐿′ = 𝐿𝑎𝑡′ + 𝐷𝑒𝑝′ tan 𝛼′ =
𝐿𝑎𝑡′
Where:
𝐿′ = adjusted length of a course or traverse line
𝐿𝑎𝑡′ = adjusted latitude of a course or traverse line
𝐷𝑒𝑝′ = adjusted departure of a course or traverse line
𝛼′ = adjusted bearing angle of a course or traverse line
Angles and Directions
Example 57
Given in the accompanying table the observed data for a closed traverse.
Determine the latitude and departure of each traverse line by employing the
transit rule. Also determine the linear error of closure, bearing of the side error,
and the relative precision of the measurements, as well as the adjusted length
and bearings of each course.
Angles and Directions
Traverse Adjustment
Transit Rule
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷
𝑐𝑙 = 𝐿𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑑 = 𝐷𝑒𝑝
σ𝑁 −σ𝑆 σ𝐸 −σ𝑊
Where:
𝐶𝑙 = correction to be applied to the latitude of any course or traverse line
𝐶𝑑 = correction to be applied to the departure of any course or traverse line
𝐶𝐿 = total closure in latitude
𝐶𝐷 = total closure in departure
σ 𝑁 = summation of North latitude
σ 𝑆 = summation of South latitude
σ 𝐸 = summation of East departure
σ 𝑊 = summation of West departure
Angles and Directions
Example 58
Given in the accompanying table the observed data for a closed traverse.
Determine the latitude and departure of each traverse line by employing the
transit rule.