METAL JOINING

• Riveting
• Welding
– Pressure Welding
– Fusion Welding
 Welding
• In engineering, any process in which two
or more pieces of metal are joined
together by the application of heat,
pressure, or a combination of both. Most
of the processes may be grouped into two
main categories: pressure welding, in
which the weld is achieved by pressure;
and heat or fusion welding, in which the
weld is achieved by heat.
 PRESSURE WELDING
• Cold pressure welding, carried out at ambient
temperature, relies upon the use of high
compressive pressures (1400-2800N/mm2 for
aluminium and at least double that value for
copper). This provides interfacial deformations of
60% to 80% that break the oxide layers to expose
fresh, uncontaminated metal that makes contact. In
this state, inter atomic forces take over to produce
the weld.
 FUSION WELDING
• Any Welding Process in which the weld is
made between metals in a state of fusion
without hammering or applied pressure.
• The pieces to be joined are heated to the
melting point at the joint, a filler metal is
added, the weld pool is stirred and the
weld is allowed to form on cooling.
 WELDING METHODS USED IN
P.P.ERECTION AND
MAINTENANCE

• GAS WELDING
• MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING
• TIG WELDING
GAS WELDING
• In this fusion welding
process the base metal
or metals being joined
are brought to the state
of fusion with a high
temperature flame
produced by burning a
combustible gas.
GAS WELDING
• HEAT SOURCE
• A combustible gas Acetylene
is mixed with equal volume of
Oxygen to produce a flame
with a temperature of about
32000 C
• C2H2 + O2 -- 2CO +H2
• CO +H2 + O2 -- CO2 + H2O
 GAS WELDING
• Atmospheric Contamination
– Oxidation of molten metal by atmospheric
Oxygen
• Prevention
C2H2 + O2 -- 2CO +H2
CO +H2 + O2 -- CO2 + H2O
– Fluxes
 GAS WELDING
• Filler Wires and Rods
• Metal Transfer
 GAS WELDING EQUIPMENTS
• Gas Cylinders
• Pressure Regulators
• Hoses and connectors
• Welding Torch
• Nozzles
GAS WELDING TECHNIQUES
• Rightward Technique
GAS WELDING TECHNIQUES
• Leftward Technique
 MANUAL METAL ARC
WELDING
• The most versatile welding process
• An electrical arc produced between an
electrode and the work piece provides the
heat source.
• Electrode provides filler material and
consumable
 MANUAL METAL ARC
WELDING
• ARC
– The arc produced consists of large current
discharge sustained through thermally
ionised column termed as plasma.
 MANUAL METAL ARC
WELDING
• Metal Transfer
 MANUAL METAL ARC
WELDING
• Atmospheric Contamination
 Electrodes
• Core Wire
– Conduct Electricity to the
arc
– Supply filler material to the
weld
• Coating
– Stabilize arc
– Produce Gas shield
– Flux and clean away the
impurities
– Form protective slag
– Add alloying constituents
 ARC WELDING MACHINES
• Function
To provide electrical energy for convenient
starting, maintaining and controlling the arc.
• Open Circuit Voltage
Voltage between the secondary terminals of a
welding machine when no current is flowing
in the circuit.
High O.C.V. is required to ionise the air gap
at the time of initiating the arc.
 ARC WELDING MACHINES
• Requirements
– No load voltage should be high enough to
strike the arc but not so high to endanger the
welder.
– Should be capable of giving the required
welding current
– Provision for continuous adjustment of
welding current
– Should be light in weight, small in size and
low cost.
 ARC WELDING MACHINES
• Transformers - A.C.Output
• Generators - D.C.Output
• Rectifiers - D.C.Output
 ARC WELDING MACHINES
• Transformers
Less initial cost
No moving parts
Air or Oil cooling
Step Down
Not suitable for
nonferrous metals
Current Regulation
Moving Core
Tapped Type
 ARC WELDING MACHINES
• Generators
Drooping
Characteristics
 ARC WELDING MACHINES
• Rectifiers
 COMPARISON OF WELDING
MACHINES
• D.C.MACHINES • A.C.MACHINES
– More cost
– No risk of shock
– Polarity can be
selected
– Easy arc maintenance
– Less spattering
– More voltage drop
across cables
– All types of electrodes
can be used
– Less cost
– Risk of shock
– Polarity can not be
selected
– Arc maintenance
difficult
– More spattering
– Less voltage drop
– Special electrodes
with arc stability only
can be used
 ARC WELDING ACCESSORIES
• Electrode holder
– Light in weight
– Firm contact between
holder and electrode
– Sound mechanical
joint between holder
and welding cable
– Adequate rating for
welding current
– Good insulation
– Flexibility
• Screw head type
• Jaw head type
 ARC WELDING ACCESSORIES
• Cables
– Welding cable
– Welding return cable
• Requirements
– Flexible
– Wear resistant
insulated covering
 ARC WELDING ACCESSORIES
• Cable Joints & Earth
clamps
• Tools
– Wire Brush
– Chipping Hammer
• Protective Gear
– Eye protection
– Gloves
– Cap & Apron
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING

• Heat Source
– Electric arc maintained between the tip of
non consumable electrode and work piece.
• Electrode
– Pure Tungsten
– Alloyed Tungsten
• Thoriated Tungsten
• Zirconiated Tungsten
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING

Advantages of alloyed
Tungsten electrodes
– Better arc initiation
and re ignition
– Arc stability at low
current values
– Carry high current
without tip erosion
– Longer life
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING

Use of Inert Gas

Provide shield around weld pool to prevent
atmospheric contamination
Helium
High Cost
Used to weld high thermal conductivity metals
such as copper
Argon
Most widely used
TIG Welding Torch
TIG Welding Torch
TIG Welding Torch (Water Cooled)
TIG Welding Torch with cable and
inert gas supply
TIG Welding Metal Transfer
TIG Welding Metal Transfer
TIG Welding Metal Transfer
TIG Welding Electrodes and Nozzles
TIG Welding Electrodes and Nozzles
TIG Welding Machine
Electrode type Oxygen % Nitrogen % Hydrogen %

Bare wire 0.25 0.15 -

Iron Oxide 0.22 0.06 -
Acid 0.12 0.035 0.0015
Rutile 0.06 0.025 0.0020
Basic 0.03 0.010 0.0004
 MMA WELDING ELECTRODES
• CLASSES OF ELECTRODES
– VERY LIGHTLY COATED
– MEDIUM COATED
– HEAVILY COATED
• CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
COATING
– CELLULOSE TYPE
– RUTILE TYPE
– LOW HYDROGEN
– IRON OXIDE
 FUNCTIONS OF ELECTRODE
COATING
COATING FUNCTION
Cellulose Shielding gas
Calcium carbonate Shielding gas
Flurospar Slag formation
Dolomite Shielding gas
Titania (Rutile) Slag formation
Potasium Titanate Arc stabilizer
Feltspar Slag formation
Iron powder Deposition rate
Feromagnise Alloying element
Potasium Siligate Arc stabilizer
 I.S.815.1974 CODING OF ELECTRODES
• Prefix E/R extruded/reinforced
• First digit: Type of covering
• Second digit : Welding position
• Third digit: Welding current condition
• Fourth and Fifth digit: Tensile stress and yield
strength
• Sixth digit: Percentage elongation and impact
value
• Suffix: Optional
 FIRST DIGIT
1. Coating having High Cellulose content
Contains atleast 15 % of material having high
cellulose content and upto 30% of titania
Properties
– Deep penetrating arc and rapid burn of rate
– High spatter loss
– voluminous gas shield
– coarser weld finish
– thin friable slag easy to remove
– easy to weld in any position
– suitable for D.C positive
 FIRST DIGIT
2. Coating having High content of titania and
producing fairly viscous slag
Properties
– High content of titania and ionisers provide
excellent welding properties
– Smooth arc characteristics and less spattering
– Dense slag covering the deposit completely and
easily detachable except first run in Deep V Groove.
– Suitable for butt and fillet in all positions
– suitable for use with AC, DC(Both polarities)
 FIRST DIGIT
3. Coating having appreciable amount of titania
and producing fluid slag
coating content appreciable amount of titania but
the addition of basic material yield a much more
fluid slag
Properties
– Smooth arc characteristics and medium penetration
– welding in over head and vertical positions is far
easier
– slag is easy to detach
– suitable for both AC & DC
 FIRST DIGIT
4. Coating producing and inflated slag having
oxides and / or silicates of iron and manganese
Properties
– thick covering
– suitable only for flat position
– fluid voluminous slag which freezes with a
characteristics internal honeycomb of holes hall
inflated slag which is easy to detach
– smooth weld finish
– suitable for Deep Groove welding in thick plates
 FIRST DIGIT
5. Coating having a content ion oxide and or
silicates producing a heavy solid slag
Properties
– thick covering
– suitable for single run fillet where appearance is of
primary importance
– Degree of penetration is low
– heavy solid slag self detachable
– weld metal has low carbon content
– low mechanical property
 FIRST DIGIT
6. Coating having a high content of calcium
carbonate and fluorides
Properties
– Slag is fluid
– deposit is convex to flat profile
– suitable for all positions
– known as basic coated
– suitable for welding medium and high tensile
structural steels and other applications where high
mechanical properties and resistance to cracking or
required
– to be properly stored and dried before use
– correct electrode angle and short arc to be
maintained.
 SECOND DIGIT
Indicates the position in which the electrode may
be used
0 F, H, V, D, O
1 F, H, V, O
2 F, H,
3 F
4 F, H (Fillet)
9 Any other position not classified above
 THIRD DIGIT
Indicates the welding current conditions
recommended
0 D+
1 D +, A 90
2 D -, A 70
3 D -, A 50
4 D +, A 70
5 D+, A 90
6 D+, A 70
7 D+, A 50
9 Any other current condition
 FOURTH & FIFTH DIGIT
Indicates two ranges of tensile strength and
appropriate yield stress
41 410 to 510 N/mm2
51 510 to 610 N/mm2
 SUFFIX
Indicates the deposition weight / penetration/
hydrogen control
J 110 to 130 %
K 130 to 150 %
L More than 150%
P Deep penetration
H Hydrogen control
 LENGTH OF ELECTRODES
Normal length of electrodes - 300 mm to 450 mm
– smaller diameter
• shorter
– larger electrode
• reduce in stub length
• faster welding rate
 HEAT TREATMENT OF WELDS
Requirements for Preheating
1. Reduce the strains introduced into the weld
metal as it cools, by reducing thermal
gradients.
2. Increase the diffusion rate of Hydrogen, which
facilitates its removal from the weld metal
3. Compensate for high heat losses caused by the
mass of metal adjacent to the weld
4. Drive of moisture from the surfaces adjacent to
the weld.
5. Retard the formation of undesirable
metallurgical structures in the weld metal and
heat affected zones
 HEAT TREATMENT OF WELDS
Requirements for Post weld heat treatment
1. Allow the reduction of tensile stresses by
allowing plastic deformation to occur within
the work piece.
2. Remove any residual hydrogen from weld
metal.
3. Temper any metallurgically hard zones in the
weld metal or heat affected zones.
 HEAT TREATMENT OF WELDS

Methods of Heating
– Furnace methods
• Box or muffle type
• Bogie hearth type
• Chest of drawers
type
 HEAT TREATMENT OF WELDS

Methods of Heating
– Local methods
• Gas flame
• Radiant gas heaters
• Induction coils
• Exo thermic heating
• Elctric resistance
heating
 PRE HEATING REQUIREMENTS FOR WELDING

MATERIAL MIN.TEMP.FOR TIG ROOT HYD.CON. WELD METAL NON HYD.CON. WELD
RUN METAL
CLASSIFICA CARBON STEEL ROOT RUN MATL. MIN. MATL. MIN.
TION 127mm  & 127mm  & THICKNESS PREHEAT THICKNESS PREHEAT
12.5mm 12.5mm mm TEMP. mm TEMP.
thick thick C C
CARBON 5 20mm : 5 30 5 20 5
STEEL 20mm : 100 30 100 20 100
0.25C
CARBON 50 100 ALL 150 ALL 200
STEEL
0.25C
0.4C
C-Mo 5 100 12.5 20 38 150
12.5 100
1Cr 1/2 Mo 5 100 12.5 100 12.5 150
12.5 150 12.5 200
20.0 200
11/4Cr 1/4 Mo 5 100 12.5 100 12.5 150
12.5 150 12.5 200
20.0 200
21/4Cr1Mo 50 100 12.5 150 12.5 200
12.5 200
 POST HEATING
REQUIREMENTS
• FOR Cr,Mo,V STEEL
– Rate of Heating 2000C/Hr
– Max. Temp. 710 -7300C
– Soaking Period 2 - 2.5 m/mm
– Rate of Cooling 2.5 - 30C /m up to 3000C
 WELD DEFECTS - CRACKS
Discontinuity produced either by tearing of metal
while in plastic condition or by fracture while
in cold condition
CAUSE
– High localised stresses arising from shrinkage of
weld metal and the resistance to the movement of
parts
REMEDY
– Pre and post heat treatment
 WELD DEFECTS - CAVITIES OR
POROCITY

Group of small cavities

caused by gas entrapped
in weld metal
CAUSE
– Condition of electrode
– moisture content of coating
– too low welding current
– presence of high sulfur in
parent metal or in core wire
 WELD DEFECTS - SOLID INCLUSION
Solid foreign substances entrapped in the weld
metal
CAUSES
– Electrode coating
– dirty surfaces
– incorrect joint design
– use of too large electrode
– inadequate removal of slag between the deposition
of successive runs
– too high speed
– too long arc
 WELD DEFECTS - LACK OF FUSION
AND PENETRATION
CAUSES
– Too low welding current
– Wrong polarity connection
– Bad incorporation of tack welds
 WELD DEFECTS - IMPERFECT SHAPE
Burning away of the side walls of the joint recess
or reduction in base metal thickness at the line
where the last bead is fused to the surface
CAUSES
– design of the joint
– damp electrode
– excessive weld current
– improper welding technique