RINCIPLE I: STRUCTURING MEANING

The first principle proposes that persons structure, or

choose, the meaning of their realities, and this choosing
happens with explicit-tacit knowing. Sometimes questions
are not answerable, because people may not know why they
think or feel one way or another. The first principle
posits that the way people see the world, their imaging of
it, is their reality, and they create this reality
illimitably with others, and they show or language their
reality in the ways they speak and remain silent and in
the ways they move and stay still. When people language
their realities, they also language their value priorities
and meanings (according to the first principle). The first
principle has three concepts: (1) imaging, (2) valuing,
and (3) languaging.
Concept: Imaging
Paradoxes: Explicit-Tacit and Reflective-Prereflective
Imaging is the first concept of the first principle. The
paradoxes of imaging are explicit-tacit and reflective-
prereflective (Parse, 1998, 2007b). Imaging is an
individual’s view of reality. It is the shaping of
personal knowledge in explicit and tacit ways (Parse,
1981, 1998). Some knowing is a reflective, deliberate
process, while other knowing is prereflective and
unconscious. For Parse, people are inherently curious and
seek to find answers and figure things out. The answers to
questions emerge as persons explore meaning in light of
reality and their view of things. Imaging is a personal
interpretation of meaning, possibility, and consequence.
Nurses cannot completely know another’s imaging, but they
explore, respect, and bear witness as people struggle with
the processes of shaping, exploring, integrating,
rejecting, and interpreting.
Concept: Valuing
Paradox: Confirming-Not Confirming
Valuing is the second concept of the first principle. The
paradox of valuing is confirming-not confirming (Parse,
1998, 2007b). This concept is about how persons confirm and
do not confirm beliefs in light of a personal perspective
or worldview (Parse, 1981, 1998). Persons are continuously
confirming-not confirming beliefs as they are making
choices about how to think, act, and feel, and these
choices may be consistent with prior choices, or they may
be radically different and require a shifting of value
priorities. Sometimes people may think about anticipated
choices and, once the choice arrives, they change their
thinking and direction in life. Values reflect what is
important in life to a person or a family. For Parse,
living one’s value priorities is how an individual
expresses health and humanbecoming. Nurses learn about
persons’ perspectives by asking them what is most
important.
Concept: Languaging
Paradoxes: Speaking-Being Silent and Moving-Being Still
Languaging is the third concept of the first principle.
The paradoxes of languaging are speaking-being silent and
moving-being still. Languaging is a concept that relates
to how humans symbolize and express their imaged realities
and their value priorities. Languaging is visible in the
way people speak and remain silent and in the way they
move and remain still. When languaging is visible to
others, it often is expressed in patterns that are shared
with those who are close. Family members or close friends
often share similar patterns, such as speaking, moving,
and being quiet (Parse, 1981, 1998). People disclose things
about themselves when they language, even when they are
silent and remain still. Nurses witness the languaging
that people show, but they cannot know the meaning of the
languaging. To understand languaging, nurses ask people
what their words, actions, and gestures mean. It is
possible that persons still may not know the meaning of
their languaging, and in that case the nurse respects the
process of coming to understand the meaning of a
situation. Explicating meaning takes time, and people know
when it is right to illuminate the meaning and
significance of an event or happening.
PRINCIPLE 2: CONFIGURING RHYTHMICAL PATTERNS
The second principle of humanbecoming is “configuring
rhythmical patterns of relating is the revealing-
concealing and enabling-limiting of connecting-
separating” (Parse, 2007b, p. 309). This principle means
that human beings create patterns in day-to-day life, and
these patterns tell about personal meanings and values. In
the patterns of relating that people create, many freedoms
and restrictions surface with choices; all patterns
involve complex engagements and disengagements with
people, ideas, and preferences. The second principle has
three concepts: (1) revealing-concealing, (2) enabling-
limiting, and (3) connecting-separating.
Concept: Revealing-Concealing
Paradox: Disclosing-Not Disclosing
Revealing-concealing is the first concept of the second
principle. The paradox linked with revealing-concealing is
disclosing-not disclosing (Parse, 2007b). Revealing-
concealing is the way persons disclose and keep hidden,
all-at-once, the persons they are becoming (Parse,
1981, 1998). There is always more to tell and more to know
about ourselves as well as others. Sometimes people know
what they want to say and they deliver messages with great
clarity, and at other times, people may surprise
themselves with the messages they give. Some aspects of
reality and experience remain concealed. People also
disclose-not disclose differently in different situations
and with different people. Further, patterns of revealing-
concealing are cocreated and intimately linked to the
intentions of those persons cocreating the moment. In
choosing how to be with others, nurses cocreate what
happens when they are with persons.
Concept: Enabling-Limiting
Paradox: Potentiating-Restricting
Enabling-limiting is the second concept of the second
principle. It is linked with the paradox potentiating-
restricting (Parse, 2007b). Enabling-limiting represents
the potentials and opportunities that surface with the
restrictions and obstacles of everyday living. Every
choice, even those made prereflectively, has potentials
and restrictions. It is not possible to know all the
consequences of any given choice; therefore, people make
choices amid the reality of ambiguity. Every choice is
pregnant with possibility in both opportunity and
restriction. This is verified in practice daily when
patients and families say things like, “This is the worst
thing that could have happened to our family, but it has
helped us in many ways.” Enabling-limiting is about
choosing from the possibilities and living with the
consequences of those choices. Nurses are helpful to
others as they contemplate the options and anticipated
consequences of difficult choices.
Concept: Connecting-Separating
Paradox: Attending-Distancing
Connecting-separating is the third concept of the second
principle. The paradox linked with connecting-separating
is attending-distancing (Parse, 2007b). This concept
relates to the ways persons create patterns of connecting
and separating with people and projects. The patterns
created reveal value priorities. Connectingseparating is
about communion-aloneness and the ways people separate
from some to join with others. Connecting-separating is
also about the paradox attending-distancing and explains
the way two people can be very close and yet separate.
Sometimes there is connecting when people are separating
because persons can dwell with an absent presence with
great intimacy, especially when grieving for another
(Bournes, 2000a; Cody, 1995b; Pilkington, 1993). Nurses
learn about persons’ patterns of connecting-separating by
asking about their important relationships and projects.
PRINCIPLE 3: COTRANSCENDING WITH POSSIBLES
“Cotranscending with possibles is the powering and
originating of transforming” (Parse, 2007b, p. 309) is
the third principle of the humanbecoming theory. The
meaning of this principle is that persons continuously
change and unfold in life as they engage with and choose
from infinite possibilities about how to be, what attitude
or approach to have, whom to relate with, and what
interests or concerns to explore. Their choices reflect
the persons’ ways of moving and changing in the process
of becoming. The three concepts of this principle are as
follows: (1) powering, (2) originating, and (3)
transforming.
Concept: Powering
Paradoxes: Pushing-Resisting, Affirming-Not Affirming,
Being-Nonbeing
Powering is the first concept of the third principle. It
is connected with the paradoxes pushing-resisting,
affirming-not affirming, and beingnonbeing (Parse,
1998, 2007b). Powering is a concept that conveys meaning
about struggle and life and the will to go on despite
hardship and threat. Parse (1981, 1998) describes powering
as a pushing-resisting process that is always happening
and that affirms our being in light of the possibility of
nonbeing. People constantly engage being and nonbeing.
Nonbeing is about loss and the risk of death and
rejection. Powering is the force exerted, the pushing to
act and live with purpose amid possibilities for affirming
and holding what is cherished, while simultaneously living
with loss and threat of nonbeing. There is always
resistance with the pushing force of powering, because
persons live with others who are also powering with
different possibilities. Conflict, according to Parse
(1981, 1998), presents opportunities to clarify meanings
and values, and nurses may enhance this process by being
present with persons who are exploring issues, conflicts,
and options.
Concept: Originating
Paradoxes: Certainty-Uncertainty, Conforming-Not
Conforming
Originating, the second concept of principle three, is
about human uniqueness and holds the following two
paradoxes: (1) conforming-not conforming and (2) certainty-
uncertainty. People strive to be like others, and yet they
also strive to be unique. Choices about originating occur
with the reality of certainty-uncertainty. It is not
possible to know all that may come from choosing to be
different or from choosing to be like others. For some,
there is greater danger in being too much like others;
some may say the greater danger is in being different.
Each person defines and lives originating in light of
their worldview and values. Originating and creating anew
is a pattern that coexists with constancy and conformity
(Parse, 1981, 1998). Humans craft their unique patterns of
originating as they engage the possibilities of everyday
life. Nurses witness originating with persons who are in
the process of choosing how they are going to be with
their changing health patterns.
Concept: Transforming
Paradox: Familiar-Unfamiliar
Transforming, the third concept of the third principle, is
explicated with the paradox familiarunfamiliar.
Transforming is about the continuously changing and
shifting views that people have about their lives. People
are always struggling to integrate the unfamiliar with the
familiar in the living of everydayness. When new
discoveries are made, people change their understanding
and, sometimes, life patterns and worldviews can shift
with insights that illuminate a familiar situation in a
new light. Transforming is the ongoing change in
characteristic humanuniverse and human ingenuity as people
find ways to change in the direction of their cherished
hopes and dreams (Parse, 1981, 1998). Nurses, in the way
they are present with others, help or hinder persons’
efforts to clarify their hopes, dreams, and desired
directions.
USE OF EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
Research guided by the humanbecoming theory is meant to
enhance understanding of the theoretical foundation, or
the knowledge contained in the principles and concepts of
the humanbecoming theory. Research is not used to test
Parse’s theory. Nurses do not set out to test if people
have unique meanings of life situations; or if persons
have situated freedom; or if humans are indivisible,
unpredictable, everchanging beings; or if persons relate
with others and the universe in paradoxical patterns. To
test these beliefs would be comparable to testing the
assumption that humans are spiritual beings or that people
are composed of complex systems. These statements are
abstract beliefs based on experience, observation, and
beliefs about the nature of reality. The foundational or
ontological statements are value laden, and, as noted
earlier, a nurse either has an attraction and commitment
to these foundational beliefs or not. The idea of a human
being who is indivisible, unpredictable, everchanging and
freely choosing meaning is an assumption that is either
believable or not. Assumptions about human beings are
theoretical, not factual. A student or a nurse relates to
one notion of human being or another. According to Parse,
this is why there is a need for multiple views; the
discipline of nursing can and does accommodate different
views and different theories about the phenomenon of
concern to nursing—the human-universe-health process. In
agreement with Hall, Parse (1993) stated the following
when discussing the issue of testing the humanbecoming
theory:
The human becoming theory does not lend itself to
testing, since it is not a predictive theory and is not
based on a cause-effect view of the humanuniverse
process. The purpose of the research is not to verify
the theory or test it but, rather, the focus  is on
uncovering the essences of lived phenomena to gain
further understanding of universal human experiences.
This understanding evolves from connecting the
descriptions given by people to the theory, thus making
more explicit the essences of being human (p. 12).
Research with Parse’s theory expands understanding about
humanly lived experiences and builds new knowledge about
humanbecoming. Knowledge of humanbecoming contributes to
the substantive knowledge of the nursing discipline.
Disciplinary knowledge is different from the practical or
technical knowledge that nurses use in various healthcare
settings. Disciplinary knowledge is theoretical and
identifies the phenomenon of concern for nurses—for Parse
(1998, 2007b), humanbecoming. According to Parse (1998),
“Scholarly research is formal inquiry leading to the
discovery of new knowledge with the enhancement of
theory” (p. 59). This idea of new knowledge with
enhancement of theory requires additional attention to
clarify the distinctions among different ways of thinking.
Research guided by the humanbecoming theory explores
universal lived experiences with people as they live them
in day-to-day life. Parse contends that there are
universal human experiences, such as hope, joy, sorrow,
grief, anticipation, fear, confidence, and contemplation.
Further, persons experience what was, what is, and what
will be—all at once. This means that research guided by
the humanbecoming theory explores lived experiences as
people live them. People live in the moment, and what is
remembered and what is hoped for are always viewed within
the reality of the now. Further, universal experiences
cannot be reduced to linear time frames because lived
experiences are cocreated with “indivisible, unbounded
knowing” (Parse, 2007b, p. 308). A nurse researcher
conducting a Parse method study invites persons to speak
about a particular universal experience. For instance, a
researcher might invite a participant to talk about his or
her experience of grieving (Cody, 1995a, 2000; Pilkington,
1993). The researcher would not ask the participant to
speak about grieving while in the hospital, for example,
because lived experiences are not compartmentalized. The
researcher guided by humanbecoming knows that the
person’s reality encompasses what is remembered and what
is imagined or hoped for as it is appearing in the moment
(Parse, 2007b). The researcher also assumes that the
person knows his or her experience and can offer an
account of the experience as he or she lives and knows it.
What is shared about the experience under study is
what Parse (2008b) called “truth for the moment” (p. 46).
Truth for the moment is the person’s description of his
or her reality, an expression of “personal wisdom”
(Parse, 2008b, p. 46) about the phenomenon under study in
light of what is happening and known in that instant.
Truth, from this perspective, is “unfolding evidence,
testimony to everchanging knowing, as new insights shift
meaning and truth for the moment” (Parse, 2008b, p. 46).
Thus, all research evidence is “truth for the moment.”
In 1987, Parse first developed a specific research method
consistent with the humanbecoming theory; since then, her
humanbecoming hermeneutic method has been articulated
(Cody, 1995c; Parse, 1998, 2001b, 2005, 2007a). A third
method, an applied science method (qualitative descriptive
preproject-process-postproject) has also been articulated
(Parse, 1998, 2001b). For details of all these methods,
please see The Human Becoming School of Thought: A
Perspective for Nurses and Other Health
Professionals (Parse, 1998) and Qualitative Inquiry: The
Path of Sciencing (Parse, 2001b). The Parse research method
records accounts of personal experiences and
systematically examines those accounts to identify the
aspects of lived experiences that are shared across
participants. The core concepts, or ideas shared across
all participants, form a structure of the phenomenon under
study. The structure as defined by Parse (2007c) is the
“paradoxical living the now of remembering and
prospecting allat-once.” New knowledge is embedded in the
core concepts, and, once discovered, the new knowledge
enhances theory and understanding in ways that go beyond
the particular study. The weaving of the new knowledge
with the theoretical concepts expands understanding of the
content of the humanbecoming theory, and that is how the
new knowledge develops disciplinary and interdisciplinary
thinking and dialogue.
A metaphor of panning for gold may help describe the
Parse method. The researcher gathers descriptions from
participants like a person panning for gold gathers up the
earth. The extraction-synthesis processes of the Parse
method can be imagined to be like the gathering, sifting,
swirling, seeking, and separating as when panning for
gold. Researchers following the Parse method work to
separate particular context from core ideas. The gathering
and discovering happen over and over as context and earth
are separated from the core ideas or nuggets that
eventually stand out from the surrounding context or
earth. Panning for gold is thought of as back-breaking
work, and Parse’s research method is also arduous. Both
processes include excitement and anticipation of what is
to be discovered. The extraction-synthesis processes of
the Parse method separate the core ideas that are present
in all participant descriptions. The core ideas, like gold
nuggets, can be isolated but are not yet refined to a form
that will make them meaningful in the world at large. Gold
nuggets get refined into coins or jewelry. Core ideas are
refined by being abstracted to the language of
humanbecoming and nursing science, so that other nurses
can see not only the gold nuggets, which are the newly
discovered ideas, but also the meaningfulness of the ideas
in light of a language of nursing science. Because all
research is theory driven, research findings require
interpretation in light of the guiding frame of reference
in order to advance disciplinary knowledge.
MAJOR ASSUMPTIONS
Parse (1998) synthesized “principles, tenets, and
concepts from Rogers, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, and
Sartre…in the creation of the assumptions about the human
and becoming, underpinning a view of nursing grounded in
the human sciences. Each assumption is unique and
represents a synthesis of three of the postulates and
concepts drawn from Rogers’ work and from existential
phenomenology” (p. 19). This underscores just how firmly
Parse’s theoretical sources underpin her development of
the humanbecoming school of thought. Parse draws upon the
work of other theorists to build a solid foundation for a
new nursing science. Accordingly, the assumptions
underpinning the humanbecoming theory focus on beliefs
about humans and about their becoming, which is health.
Parse does not specify separate assumptions about the
universe, because her belief is that the universe is
illimitable and cocreated with humans—rather than
separate from humans. This is evident in Parse’s
(1998, 2007d) assumptions about humans and becoming:
 The human is coexisting while coconstituting rhythmical
patterns with universe (coexistence, coconstitution, and
pattern).
 The human is open, freely choosing meaning with
situation, bearing responsibility for decisions
(situated freedom, openness, and energy field).
 The human is continuously coconstituting patterns of
relating (energy field, pattern, and coconstitution).
 The human is transcending illimitably with possibles
(pandimensionality, openness, and situated freedom).
 Becoming is human-living-health (openness, situated
freedom, and coconstitution).
 Becoming is rhythmically coconstituting with
humanuniverse (coconstitution, pattern, and
pandimensionality).
 Becoming is the human’s patterns of relating value
priorities (situated freedom, pattern, and openness).
 Becoming is intersubjective transcending with possibles
(openness, situated freedom, and coexistence).
 Becoming is the human’s emerging (coexistence, energy
field, and pandimensionality) (Parse, 1998, 2007d).
 Parse (1998, 2007d) synthesized the original nine
assumptions about humans and becoming into three
assumptions about humanbecoming, as follows:
1. Humanbecoming is freely choosing personal meaning with
situation, intersubjectively living value priorities.
2. Humanbecoming is configuring rhythmical patterns of
relating with humanuniverse.
3. Humanbecoming is cotranscending illimitably with
emerging possibles.
Three themes arise from the assumptions of the
humanbecoming theory. These include (1) meaning, (2)
rhythmicity, and (3) transcendence (Parse, 1998). The
postulate’s illimitability, paradox, freedom, and mystery
(Parse, 2007b) permeate the three themes. Meaning is borne
in the messages that persons give and take with others in
speaking, moving, silence, and stillness (Parse, 1998).
Meaning indicates the significance of something and is
chosen by people. Outsiders cannot decide the meaning or
significance of something for another person. Nurses
cannot know what it will mean for a family to hear news of
an unexpected illness or change in health until they learn
the meaning it holds from the family’s perspective.
Sometimes people may not know the significance of
something until meaning is explored and possibilities
examined. Personal meanings are shared with others when
people express their views, concerns, hopes, and dreams.
According to Parse (1998), meaning is linked with moments
of day-to-day living, as well as with the meaning or
purpose of life itself.
Rhythmicity is about patterns and possibility. Parse
(1981) suggests that people live unrepeatable patterns of
relating with others, ideas, objects, and situations.
Their patterns of relating incarnate their priorities, and
these patterns are changing constantly as they integrate
new experiences and ideas. For Parse, people are
recognized by their unique patterns. People change their
patterns when they integrate new priorities, ideas, and
dreams, and when they show consistent patterns that
continue like threads of familiarity and sameness
throughout life.
Transcendence is the third major theme of the
humanbecoming school of thought. Transcendence is about
change and possibility, the infinite possibility that is
humanbecoming. “The possibilities arise with…
[humanuniverse]…as options from which to choose personal
ways of becoming” (Parse, 1998, p. 30). To believe one
thing or another, to go in one direction or another, to be
persistent or let go, to struggle or acquiesce, to be
certain or uncertain, to hope or despair—all these
options surface in dayto-day living. Considering and
choosing from these options is cotranscending with the
possibles.
Nursing
Consistent with her beliefs, Parse does not write about
nursing as a concept in the metaparadigm of the
discipline. However, she has written extensively about her
beliefs concerning nursing as a basic science. Parse
(2000) wrote, “It is the hope of many nurses that nursing
as a discipline will enjoy the recognition of having a
unique knowledge base and the profession will be
sufficiently distinct from medicine that people will
actually seek nurses for nursing care, not medical
diagnoses” (p. 3). For longer than 30 years, Parse has
been advancing the belief that nursing is a basic science,
and that nurses require theories that are different from
other disciplines. Parse believes that nursing is a unique
service to humankind. This does not mean that nurses do
not benefit from and employ knowledge from other
disciplines and fields of study. It means that nurses
primarily rely on and value the knowledge of nursing
theory in their practice and research activities. Parse
(1992) has articulated clearly that she believes “nursing
is a science, the practice of which is a performing art”
(p. 35). From this view, nursing is a learned discipline,
and nursing theories guide practice and research. The
belief that nursing is a unique discipline requiring its
own theories is often not understood, but discussions
around this issue continue to clarify the opportunities
nurses have by creating nursing science.
Nursing practice for those choosing Parse’s theory is
guided by a specific methodology that emerges directly
from the humanbecoming ontology. The practice dimensions
and processes are illuminating meaning (explicating),
synchronizing rhythms (dwelling with), and mobilizing
transcendence (moving beyond). For details of practice
methodology, see The Humanbecoming School of Thought: A
Perspective for Nurses and Other Health
Professionals (Parse, 1998). “Nurses who value the
humanbecoming belief system live the theory in true
presence with others” (Parse, 1993, p. 12). Parse
(1993) described practice in the following way:

The nurse is in true presence with the individual (or

family) as the individual (or family) uncovers the
personal meaning of the situation and makes choices to
move forward in the now moment with cherished hopes and
dreams. The focus is on the meaning of the lived
experience for the person (or family) unfolding “there
with” the presence of the nurse…The living of the
theory in practice is indeed what makes a difference to
the people touched by it (p. 12).
 Nursing, for Parse, is a science, and the performing art
of nursing is practiced in relationships with persons
(individuals, groups, and communities) in their processes
of becoming. Parse (1989) has offered the following set of
fundamentals as essential for practicing the art of
nursing:
 Know and use nursing frameworks and theories.
 Be available to others.
 Value the other as a human presence.
 Respect differences in view.
 Own what you believe and be accountable for your
actions.
 Move on to the new and untested.
 Connect with others.
 Take pride in self.
 Like what you do.
 Recognize the moments of joy in the struggles of living.
 Appreciate mystery and be open to new discoveries.
 Be competent in your chosen area.
 Rest and begin anew (p. 11).

Humanuniverse, Humanbecoming, and Health

Parse (1998, 2007b) views the concepts human, universe, and
health as inseparable and irreducible. To emphasize this
inseparability, she recently (Parse, 2007b) specified
humanuniverse and humanbecoming as one word. For Parse,
health is humanbecoming. Health is structuring meaning,
configuring rhythmical patterns of relating, and
cotranscending with possibles. Parse (1990) speaks of
health as a personal commitment, which means, “an
individual’s way of becoming is cocreated by that
individual, incarnating his or her own value priorities”
(p. 136). For Parse (1990), health is a flowing process, a
personal creation, and a personal responsibility. Personal
health may be changed as commitment is changed, which
“include[s] creative imagining, affirming self, and
spontaneous glimpsing of the paradoxical” (Parse, 1990,
p. 138).
Human beings come into the world through others and live
their life cocreating patterns of communion-aloneness.
This means that persons change and are changed in relating
with others, ideas, objects, and events. People become
known and understood as they cocreate patterns of relating
with people, ideas, culture, history, meanings, and hopes.
To understand human life and human beings, an individual
must start from the premise that all people are
interconnected with predecessors, contemporaries, and even
people who are not yet present in the world. Parents may
imagine and have a relationship with a child long before
the child is conceived and long after a child is lost
through death (Pilkington, 1993). Experience has shown
that many people at various times have relationships with
their parents and other loved ones who are no longer in
this world. These are examples of the indivisibility and
complexity of humanuniverse and humanbecoming.
THEORETICAL ASSERTIONS
Parse’s (1981, 1998) principles are the assertions of the
humanbecoming theory. Each principle interrelates the
following nine concepts of humanbecoming: (1) imaging, (2)
valuing, (3) languaging, (4) revealing-concealing, (5)
enabling-limiting, (6) connecting-separating, (7)
powering, (8) originating, and (9) transforming (Figure
24-1). Research projects generate structures that further
specify relationships among the theoretical concepts. For
example, Wang (1999) studied hope for persons living with
leprosy in Taiwan, and she presented the following
theoretical structure: The lived experience of hope is
imaging the connecting-separating in originating valuing.
Theoretical structures can be used to enhance
understanding of specific phenomena as readers consider
the detailed participant descriptions that are linked to
the concepts of humanbecoming theory. For more information
about humanbecoming research, refer to the comprehensive
overview of studies compiled by Doucet and Bournes (2007).

FIGURE 24-1 Relationship of principles, concepts, and

theoretical structures of the human becoming theory.(From
Parse, R. R. [1981]. Man-living-health: A theory of
nursing [p. 69]. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Principles
updated from Parse, R. R. [2007]. The humanbecoming school
of thought in 2050. Nursing Science Quarterly, 20, 308-
311.)
LOGICAL FORM
The inductive-deductive process was central to the
creation of the humanbecoming theory. The theory
originated from Parse’s personal experiences with her
readings and in nursing practice. She deductively-
inductively crafted major components of humanbecoming from
the science of unitary human beings and existential-
phenomenological thought. With her intuitive sense, Parse
methodically derived the assumptions, concepts,
principles, and practice and research methodologies of the
humanbecoming school of thought. Figure 24-1 shows how the
principles, concepts, and theoretical structures can be
linked. The figure shows the most abstract view of
humanbecoming—the simplicity and the complexity of the
theory are evident. Abstraction and complexity create
possibility for growth, scholarship, and sustainability.
ACCEPTANCE BY THE NURSING COMMUNITY
Practice
The following bibliography demonstrates the broad scope
of acceptance by the nursing community. A strong and
influential group of nurse scholars is advancing
humanbecoming in practice, research, and education. The
theory has made a difference to nurses and to persons
(patients) who experience humanbecoming practice. The
theory informs nurses who work with older persons and with
children. The theory guides practice for nurses who work
with families and with persons in hospital settings,
clinics, and community settings. A community-based health
action model, for instance, has been developed and is
receiving support from the local community and other
funding agencies (Crane, Josephson, & Letcher, 1999). The
theory of humanbecoming has also helped to generate
controversy and scholarly dialogue about nursing as an
evolving discipline and a distinct human science. It is
interesting to note that the theory of humanbecoming
provides a set of beliefs that can be lived by nurses who
have opportunities to be with human beings. It is not a
question of whether or not the theory works in any
particular setting. The theory has been lived by nurses in
the operating theater, in parishes, in shelters, in acute
care hospitals, and in other long-term and community
settings. A more important question for nurses may be,
What settings consistently provide opportunities for
nurses to have relationships with persons and families?
Education
The humanbecoming school of thought and the philosophical
assumptions and theoretical beliefs specified by Parse
have helped fuel many scholarly dialogues and comparisons
about outcomes in practice, research, and education when
different theories guide professional activities.
In Nursing Science Quarterly and other journals, nurses
informed by the humanbecoming theory have advanced
dialogue and debate about the role of theory in nursing
practice, the limitations and contributions of the medical
model, the ethics of nursing diagnoses and the nurse-
person relationship, paternalism and health care, the
knowledge of advanced nursing practice, paradigmatic
issues in nursing, the limitations of evidence-based
nursing, the possibilities and politics of human science,
freedom and choice, the focus of community-based nursing,
the nature of truth, leadership and nursing theory, and
the scope of mistakes in nursing.
Parse (2004) created a humanbecoming teaching-learning
model that is consistent with the assumptions and
principles of humanbecoming. The assumptions, essences,
and processes of the model have been used in a variety of
ways with students in academic settings (Letcher & Yancey,
2004) and practice settings (Bournes & Naef, 2006).
Teachers in academic and practice settings have
contributed new understanding and new processes of
teaching-learning, and Parse’s theory has been used as a
model for explicating pros and cons of teleapprenticeship
(Norris, 2002). The humanbecoming school of thought also
informs nursing courses at the undergraduate and graduate
levels in many schools of nursing.
 In the text, Man-Living-Health: A Theory of Nursing,
Parse (1981) presented a sample master’s in nursing
curriculum that incorporated the assumptions, principles,
concepts, and theoretical structures of humanbecoming
theory. She outlined this process-based curriculum in
detail, including course descriptions and course
sequencing. The curriculum plan was updated in the 1998
text, The Humanbecoming School of Thought: A Perspective
for Nurses and Other Health Professionals, in which Parse
outlined a program philosophy and goals, a conceptual
framework with themes for the curriculum, program
indicators, course culture content, and the evaluation
process, and provided a sample curriculum plan consistent
with humanbecoming.
A master’s degree in nursing curriculum consistent with
humanbecoming has been developed at Olivet Nazarene
University in Kankakee, Illinois (Milton, 2003a). Many
schools of nursing offer students some learning of
humanbecoming theory. To date, most students who study the
humanbecoming theory and who are guided by the theory in
their practice and research activities were introduced to
Parse’s work at the master’s level. Parse’s ideas and
the humanbecoming theory are increasingly being integrated
into undergraduate programs, which will help to expand
options for students being taught that nursing is an art
and a science that supports multiple perspectives. For
example, an undergraduate degree curriculum has now been
designed and implemented at California Baptist University
in Riverside, California (C. Milton, personal
communication, March 11, 2008). In addition, undergraduate
and graduate students at York University in Toronto,
Ontario, Canada, have the opportunity to study
humanbecoming.
Research
Humanbecoming theory has guided research studies in many
different countries about numerous lived experiences,
including feeling loved, feeling very tired, having
courage, waiting, feeling cared for, grieving, caring for
a loved one, persisting while wanting to change, feeling
understood, and being listened to, as well as time
passing, quality of life, health, lingering presence,
hope, and contentment (see Doucet & Bournes, 2007, for
examples). The Parse and the humanbecoming hermeneutic
method, underpinned by the humanbecoming school of
thought, generate new knowledge about universal lived
experiences (Cody, 1995b, 1995c; Parse, 2001a, 2005, 2007a).
For instance, research findings have helped to enhance
understanding about how people experience hope, while
imaging new possibilities and how people create moments of
respite amid the anguish of grieving a loss. Research
findings are woven with the theory so that findings can
inform thinking beyond any particular study.
For instance, in several of the grieving and loss
studies, researchers described a rhythm of engaging and
disengaging with the one lost and with others who remind
the one grieving about the one lost (Cody,
1995a; Pilkington, 1993). Women who had a miscarriage
already had a relationship with their babies, and the
anguish of losing the child was so intense that women
invented ways to distance themselves from the reality of
the lost child. When they were alone, the pain was
unbearable, and when they were with others, the anguish
was both eased and intensified as consoling expressions
mingled with words acknowledging the reality of the lost
child (Pilkington, 1993). Women described rhythms of
engaging-disengaging with the lost child and close others,
pain, and respite. Linking the rhythm to the theoretical
concept connecting-separating means that readers can think
about and be present with others’ expressions of
engaging-disengaging as they surface in discussions about
grieving and loss. How do families in palliative care
express their engaging and distancing from the one who is
moving toward death? How do parents losing adult children
engage and disengage with the absent children? Additional
research studies about loss and grieving may further
enhance understanding about the connecting-separating
concept and other concepts of humanbecoming.
In 2004, Mitchell developed a framework for critiquing
humanbecoming research that is expanding options for
critics engaging humanbecoming-guided nursing science, and
the Parse (2001b) research method continues to be refined.
For example, in the text, Qualitative Inquiry: The Path of
Sciencing, Parse introduced a process in which the
researcher constructs each participant’s story, including
core ideas of the phenomenon under study. Most recently,
Parse changed the name of the participant proposition to
language-art, and she added a process that requires the
researcher to select or create an artistic expression that
shows how the researcher was transfigured through the
research process (Parse, 2005). The artistic expression
enhances understanding of what the researcher learned
about the phenomenon under study. For instance, in her
recent study on the experience of feeling respected, Parse
(2006) reported that the 10 adult participants in her study
described feeling respected as “an acknowledgement of
personal worth” (p. 54). They described, for example,
feeling confident, being trusted, feeling appreciated, and
experiencing joy when feeling respected (Parse, 2006).
Parse showed that in each case, the participant spoke
about feeling respected as a “fortifying assuredness amid
potential disregard emerging with the fulfilling delight
of prized