FREUD'S AND ERIKSON'S THEORY

FREUD'S THEORY

Sigmund Freud

 Viennese Physician

 He went to Paris (1885) to study hypnosis and this experience turned him towards psychopathology.

Born: May 06, 1856

Died: September 23, 1939

Psychoanalytic - view of development shaped by unconscious forces that motivates human behavior.

Unconscious - our personalities have beliefs, urges, drives, and instincts that we are all not aware of.

Libido – also known as “sexual desire”. It is a natural energy source that fuels the mechanism of the mind. When Libido
is stuck in very early stages of psychosexual development conflict can occur that have one life effect.

FREUD'S THEORY

- People are born with biological-drives that must be redacted as to live society.

Biological Drives – its purpose is to keep us alive and out of danger.

5 Maturationally Base Stages of Psychosexual Development

1. Oral (12-18 months)

- Baby's chief of source of pleasure involves mouth-oriented activities (sucking and feeding).

- The oral phase in the normal infant has a direct bearing on the infant's activities during the first 18 months of
life. For the newborn, the mouth is the all-absorbing organ of pleasure.

- Freud's believed the oral phase begins to shift towards the end of infants 1 st year to the anal region.

- Freud's believed that all people have sexual desire.

2. Anal (12-18 months to 3 years)

- Child derives sensual gratification from withholding and expelling faces. Zone of gratification is anal region, and
toilet training is important activity.

3. Phallic (3 to 6 years)

- Child becomes attached to the parent of the other sex and later identifies with same-sex parent.

4. Latency (6 year to puberty)

- Time of relative calm between more turbulent stages.

- Freud's thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be
sublimated.

5. Genital (puberty through adulthood)

- Reemergence of sexual impulses of phallic stage, channeled into mature adult sexuality.

3 Hypothetical Parts of Personality

1. Id
- Newborns are governed by the Id, which operates under the pleasure principle.
- Id is the drive to seek immediate satisfaction of its needs and desires.
- When infants have to wait to be fed, they begin to see themselves as separate from the outside world.

2. Ego
- The ego, which represents reason, develops gradually during the first year or so of life and operates under the
reality principle.
- The ego's aim is to find realistic ways to gratify the id.
3. Super Ego
- The superego develops during early childhood. It includes the conscience and incorporates socially approved
"should" and "should not" into the child's own value system.
- If its standards are not met, a child may feel guilty and anxious. The ego acts as a mediator between the
impulses of the id and the demands of the superego.

ERIKSON'S THEORY

Erik Homburger Erikson

 a German Developmental Psychologist

 Psychoanalyst

 known for his theory on Psychological Development of Human beings.

 Modified and extended the Freudian Theory that emphasize the influence of society on the developing
personality

 Applied his own theory through psychohistories of Martin Luther and Mahatma Gandhi.

Born: June 15, 1902

Died: May 12, 1994

Psychosocial Development

- is refer to the long term changes in relationship and interaction involving self, peer, and family.

- Erikson emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to the development by mastering attitudes, ideas,
and skills at each stage of development.

Psychosocial Stages of Erikson's Theory

1. Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (from birth to 1year)

- As infants, we depend on our caregiver to provide for our basic needs and develop trust when these needs met.
Otherwise we may grow up to be suspicious and mistrustful.

- This stage is about the child’s parents, their nurturing ability and ways of caring for the child especially in terms
of visual contact and touch.

- The kid will automatically develop a sense or optimism, trust and the feel of security if properly cared for and well
handled. However, if the child were neglected, he/she will develop a sense of insecurity, the feel of worthlessness and
general mistrust to the world.

- Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope.

- Virtue: Hope

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Despair (12-18 months to 3 years)

- Child developed a balance independence and self- sufficiency over shame and doubt.

- Virtue: Will

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

- ages 3-6, when children became initiative they continue to develop their self-concept and gain desire to try new
things and to learn something that they will learn how to be responsible for their actions to some extinct. If the parents
continue to give their child a safe space to experiment and appropriate stimuli to learn the children will continue to find
their purpose, however if the parents create to many responsibilities on kinds, children will feel extreme guilt for inability to
complete tasks.

- Virtue: Purpose

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

- ages 6-12 years, this is the stage when the child peer group will gain greater significance and will become a
major source of the child's self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific
competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishment. If children are
encouraged and reinforced for their initiative they begin to feel confident in their ability to achieve goals.
 - Virtue: Skills

5. Identity vs. Confusion (puberty to young adulthood).

- Adolescent must determine own sense of self (“Who am I?”) or experience confusion about roles.

- Virtue: Fidelity

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)

- Person who seek to make commitments to others; if unsuccessful, may suffer from Isolation and self-
absorption.

- Virtue: Love

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle-adulthood)

- Mature adult is concerned with establishing and guiding the next generation or else feels personal
impoverishment.

- Virtue: Care

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)

- Elderly person achieves acceptance of own life, allowing acceptance of death or else
despair over inability to receive life.

- According to Erikson’s, it is important to find meaning and satisfaction in life rather than become bitter and
disillusioned.

- Virtue: Wisdom

PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget

- Born in Switzerland in the late 1800s.

- His interest in the cognitive development was inspired by his observations of his own daughter and nephew.

- Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller versions of adults. Piaget was one of
the first to identify that the way that children think is different from the way adults think.

- He proposed that intelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of stages.

- Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think
differently.

- Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of
mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on
understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are:

The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

- The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations.

- Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening.

- Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence).

- They are separate beings from the people and objects around them.

- They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.

The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

- Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.

- Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.

- While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete
terms.
 - The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is the
emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.

- Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to think very
concretely about the world around them. 

- At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other
people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.

- Likely choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

- During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events.

- They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to
that in a tall, skinny glass, for example.

- Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete.

- Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle.

The Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and Up)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

- At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems.

- Abstract thought emerges.

- Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical
and abstract reasoning.

- Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.

BRUNER'S THREE MODES OF REPRESENTATION

Learning Modes

Enactive – learn through movement or action (play with a book).

Iconic – learn through images or actions (look at pictures).

Symbolic – learn through abstract symbols (read for research).

Enactive (0-1 year)

- The first kind of memory. This mode is used within the first year of life (corresponding with Piaget’s sensorimotor
stage). Thinking is based entirely on physical actions, and infants learn by doing, rather than by internal representation (or
thinking).

Iconic (1-6 years)

- Information is stored as sensory images (icons), usually visual ones, like pictures in the mind. For some, this is
conscious; others say they don’t experience it.

- This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to
accompany the verbal information. Thinking is also based on the use of other mental images (icons), such as hearing,
smell or touch.

Symbolic (7 years onwards)

- This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such as language. This
mode is acquired around six to seven years-old (corresponding to Piaget’s concrete operational stage).

- In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol
systems, such as music.

Summary of Jerome Bruner’ Theory

Jerome Bruner’ theory is very influential and has direct implications on the teaching practices. The main ideas of the
theory can be summarized as follows:

- Learning is an active process. Learners select and transform information.

- Learners make appropriate decisions and postulate hypotheses and test their effectiveness.

- Learners use prior experience to fit new information into the pre-existing structures.

- Scaffolding is the process through which able peers or adults offer supports for learning. This assistance
becomes gradually less frequent as it becomes unnecessary.

- The intellectual development includes three stages. The enactive stage which refers to learning through actions.
- The iconic stage which refers to the learners use of pictures or models. The symbolic stage which refers to the
development of the ability to think in abstract terms.

- The notion of spiral curriculum states that a curriculum should revisit basic ideas, building on them until the
student grasps the full formal concept.

- Although extrinsic motivation may work in the short run, intrinsic motivation has more value.

Implications on the learning process:

Bruner’s learning theory has direct implications on the teaching practices. Here are some of these implications:

1. Instruction must be appropriate to the level of the learners. For example, being aware of the learners’ learning modes
(enactive, iconic, symbolic) will help you plan and prepare appropriate materials for instruction according to the difficulty
that matches learners’ level.

2. The teachers must revisit material to enhance knowledge. Building on pre-taught ideas to grasp the full formal concept
is of paramount importance according to Bruner. Feel free to re-introduce vocabulary, grammar points, and other topics
now and then in order to push the students to a deeper comprehension and longer retention.

3. Material must be presented in a sequence giving the learners the opportunity to:

a. acquire and construct knowledge,

b. transform and transfer his learning.

4.Students should be involved in using their prior experiences and structures to learn new knowledge.

5. Help students to categorize new information in order to able to see similarities and differences between items.

6.Teachers should assist learners in building their knowledge. This assistance should fade away as it becomes
unnecessary.

7.Teachers should provide feedback that is directed towards intrinsic motivation. Grades and competition are not helpful
in the learning process. Bruner states that learners must “experience success and failure not as reward and punishment,
but as information.

BRONFENBRENNER’S BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY

Urie Bronfenbrenner

Born: April 29, 1917

Died: September 25, 2005

 American Psychologist

 It describes the range of interacting influences that affect a developing person.

 According to Urie, development occurs through increasingly complex processes of interaction between a
developing person and the immediate, everyday environment – processes.

 He saw the process of human development as being shaped by the interaction between an individual and their
environment.

 Bronfenbrenner conceives of his theory of human development, The Ecological Systems Theory.

 There are many different levels of environmental influences that can affect a child’s development.

Microsystem
 - Is the smallest and most immediate environment in which children live.

- It comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group and community environment of the children.

- It says that the child’s development is best understood by examining the context of the child’s environmental
influences.

Mesosytem

- It encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which children find themselves in.

Exosystem

- It pertains to the linkages possible for siblings who find themselves in the same ecological system to experience
very different environments. Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible for the
development of them to progress in different manners.

Macrosystem

- Is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the children that still have significant influences
on them.

- This is composed of the children’s cultural patterns and values, specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas.

Chronosystem

- It adds the useful dimension of time, it is made up of the environmental events and transitions that occur
throughout a child’s life, including any sociohistorical events.

VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

Lev Semonovich Vygotsky

Born: November 17, 1896

Died: June 11, 1934

 “The Mozart of Psychology”

 He was a seminal Russian psychologist who made a great contribution in the fields of child development and
cognitive psychology and was known for his sociocultural theory.

Sociocultural Theory

- The main assertion of the Vygotsky’s theory is that the cognitive development of children is advanced through
social interaction with other people, particularly those who are more skilled. In other words, he believed that social
learning comes before cognitive development, and that children construct knowledge actively.

- Did not focus on the individual child but on the child as a product of social interaction, especially with adults.

- Focus on dynamic interactions rather than child by himself.

- Vygotsky theorized that children develop their behaviors and habits from their cultures and through experiences;
he referred to this phenomenon as cultural meditation. People thinking differs dramatically between cultures because
different cultures stress different things.

Two Main Principle

1. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

- This zone is the area of exploration for which a child is cognitively prepared, but requires help and interaction to
fully develop.

- This zone is the gap between what a child knows and what he does not yet know. The process of acquiring that
information requires skills that a child does not yet possess or cannot do independently, but can do with the help of a
more knowledgeable other.

- The concept of Zone of Proximal Development underscores Vygotsky’s conviction that social influences,
particularly getting instructions from someone, are of immense importance of the cognitive development of children.

2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

 - According to Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development, children learn through social interaction that include
collaborative and cooperative dialogue with someone who is more skilled in tasks they’re trying to learn. He called these
people with higher skill level the More Knowledgeable Other.

- Normally thought of as being teacher, trainer or older, adult, but MKO could also peers, a younger person, even
computers.

Scaffolding

- Refers to the temporary support given to a child by a More Knowledgeable Other that enables the child to
perform a task until such time that the child can perform this task independently.

- The process of helping a child to do something without actually doing it for him or her.

- Scaffolding entails changing the quality and quantity of support provided to a child in the course of a teaching
session. The MKO adjusts the level of guidance in order to fit the student’s current level of performance.

- Vygotsky believed that educators should help students learn within their ZPD so that they can increase their
skills and knowledge without becoming frustrated by things that are currently too difficult for them to accomplish.

- Example: An example of Scaffolding in the classroom setting could include a teacher first instructing her children
on how to write a sentence using commas and conjunctions. As the week goes on, she has her students practice writing
these sentences with peers, gives students feedback and eventually has the kids to complete this skill without her
guidance.

Scaffolding Approaches

 Use of first language.

 Read aloud.

 Modeling or gestures.

 Intentional small group or partner work.

 Sentence structures or starters.

 Connect to background knowledge.

 Graphic organizers.

 Visuals and realia.

SCAFFOLDING – SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Cognitive structuring – providing explanatory and values structures that organize and justify

Reduction in degrees of freedom – taking over those parts of a task the students is not yet able to perform, or breaking
it into smaller steps

Direct maintenance – keeping the learner and the learning focused on specific goals

Metacognitive coaching – helping learners identify and modify their learning and problem solving strategies

Recruitment – getting the learner interested in a task and helping him adhere to the requirements of the task

Contingency management – facilitating learning using rewards as well as keeping learners motivated.

BOWLBY’S ATTACHMENT THEORY

Edward John Mostyn Bowlby

Born: February 26, 1907 in Bournemouth, England

Died: September 02, 1990 in Isle of Skye, England

 British Psychologist

 Psychiatrist

 Psychoanalyst
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

Attachment - deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space.

- does not have to be reciprocal. One person may have an attachment to an individual which is not shared

- is characterized by specific behaviors in children, such as seeking proximity to the attachment figure when upset
or threatened.

- Attachment theory explains how the parent-child relationship emerges and influences subsequent development.

Bowlby proposed that attachment can be understood within an evolutionary context in that the caregiver provides
safety and security for the infant. Attachment is adaptive as it enhances the infant’s chance of survival.

- Bowlby believed that attachment behaviors are instinctive and will be activated by any conditions that seem to
threaten the achievement of proximity, such as separation, insecurity, and fear.

- Bowlby also postulated that the fear of strangers represents an important survival mechanism, built in by
nature.  Babies are born with the tendency to display certain innate behaviors (called social releasers) which help ensure
proximity and contact with the mother or attachment figure (e.g., crying, smiling, crawling, etc.) – these are species-
specific behaviors.

Main Points of Bowlby’s Theory

Pre-Attachment (Birth to 6 Weeks) – Baby shows no particular attachment to specific caregiver.

Infants do not show any particular attachment to a specific caregiver. The infant's signals, such as crying and fussing,
naturally attract the attention of the caregiver and the baby's positive responses encourage the caregiver to remain close.

Indiscriminate (6 Weeks to 7 Months) – Infant begins to show preference for primary and secondary caregivers.

Infants begin to show preferences for primary and secondary caregivers. During this phase, infants begin to develop a
feeling of trust that the caregiver will respond to their needs. While they will still accept care from other people, they
become better at distinguishing between familiar and unfamiliar people as they approach seven months of age. They also
respond more positively to the primary caregiver.

Discriminate (7+ Months) – Infant shows strong attachment to one specific caregiver.

At this point, from about seven to eleven months of age, infants show a strong attachment and preference for one
specific individual. They will protest when separated from the primary attachment figure (separation anxiety), and begin to
display anxiety around strangers (stranger anxiety).

Multiple (10+ Months) – Growing bonds with other caregivers.

After approximately nine months of age, children begin to form strong emotional bonds with other caregivers beyond
the primary attachment figure. This often includes the father, older siblings, and grandparents.

Patterns of Attachment

Secure Attachment

is marked by distress when separated from caregivers and joy when the caregiver returns. Remember, these children
feel secure and able to depend on their adult caregivers. When the adult leaves, the child may be upset but he or she
feels assured that the parent or caregiver will return. When frightened, securely attached children will seek comfort from
caregivers. These children know their parent or caregiver will provide comfort and reassurance, so they are comfortable
seeking them out in times of need.

Ambivalent Attachment

Ambivalently attached children usually become very distressed when a parent leaves. This attachment style is
considered relatively uncommon, affecting an estimated 7 percent to 15 percent of U.S. children. Ambivalent attachment
may be a result of poor parental availability. These children cannot depend on their mother (or caregiver) to be there when
the child is in need.

Avoidant Attachment

Children with an avoidant attachment tend to avoid parents or caregivers. When offered a choice, these children will
show no preference between a caregiver and a complete stranger. Research has suggested that this attachment style
might be a result of abusive or neglectful caregivers. Children who are punished for relying on a caregiver will learn to
avoid seeking help in the future.

Disorganized Attachment
 Children with a disorganized attachment often display a confusing mix of behavior and may seem disoriented, dazed,
or confused. Children may both avoid or resist the parent. Some researchers believe that the lack of a clear attachment
pattern is likely linked to inconsistent behavior from caregivers. In such cases, parents may serve as both a source of
comfort and a source of fear, leading to disorganized behavior.

HAVIGHURST’S DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

Robert J. Havighurst

Born: June 5, 1900, De Pere, Wisconsin, United States

Died: January 31, 1991, (90 years old), Richmond, Indiana, United States, Alzheimer’s Disease

 chemist - an expert in chemistry; a person engaged in chemical research or experiment

 physicist – an expert responsible for designing experiments, implementing them using the scientific method

 educator

 expert on human development and aging

Development is a process that creates growth, progress, positive change or the addition of physical, economic,
environmental, social and demographic components.

Developmental Stages

A development task is a task which arises at or about a certain period in the life of the individual, successful
achievement of which leads to his happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the
individual, disapproval by society, and difficulty with later tasks.

The main assertion of Havighurst’s theory is that development is continuous throughout an individual’s entire
lifespan, occurring in stages. An individual moves from one stage to the next by means of successful resolution of
problems or performance of certain developmental tasks. These tasks are typically encountered by most people in the
culture where the individual belongs.

Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5 years old)

Learn to walk, talk, use the toilet, and to form relationship with others.

Middle Childhood (6-12 years old)

Learn school-related skills such as reading, learn about conscience and values, learn to be independent.

Adolescence (13-17 years old)

Establish emotional independence.

Learn skills needed for productive occupation.

Achieve gender-based social role.

Establish mature relationships with peers.

Early Adulthood (18-35 years old)

Choose a life partner, establish a family, take care of a home, establish a career.

Middle Age (36-60 years old)

Maintain a standard of living.

Perform civic and social responsibilities.

Maintain a relationship with spouse.

Adjust to physiological changes.

Later Maturity (Over 60 years old)

Adjust to deteriorating health, to retirement.

Meet social and civil obligations.

Adjust to loss of spouse.

 Havighurst proposed a bio-psychosocial model of development. According to Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks
Theory, the developmental tasks at each stage are influenced by an individual’s biology (physiological maturation and
genetic makeup), his psychology (personal values and goals), as well as his sociology (specific culture to which the
individual belongs).

 Biological Influences

 Psychological Influences

 Social Influences