002 Cell Membrane Physiology

A&P: Organization of the Human Body
College of Rehabilitation Sciences

Del La Salle Medical & Health Sciences Institute
PART 2: CELL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Cell Anatomy
 The cell is the smallest unit of life. They are the structural and functional building blocks of an organism.
 The following are the characteristic functions of the cell:
1. Cell metabolism and energy use. Cell metabolism involves all chemical reactions that occur within the cell. These reactions often
involve the transfer of energy. The energy released can be used to fuel cellular activities, which in turn can help in maintaining
homeostasis.
2. Synthesis of molecules. Different cells in the body synthesize various types of molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and
lipids.
3. Communication. Cells communicate with each other by using chemical and electrical signals.
4. Reproduction and inheritance. Most cells contain a complete copy of all genetic information of the individual. This information
determines the structural and functional characteristics of the cell.
A. Plasma Membrane
 This is the outermost component of a cell. It functions as a boundary separating the intracellular substances, substances inside the
cell, from extracellular substances, those substances outside of the cell.
 The plasma membrane encloses and supports the cell contents.
 It attaches cells to the extracellular environment or to other cells.
 This is the site of cell communication to other cells.
 The plasma membrane consists primarily of lipids (45-50%) and proteins (45-50%), with a very small amount of carbohydrates (4-
8%).
 Structure: lipid bilayer composed of phospholipids and cholesterol with proteins that extend across or are embedded in the lipid
bilayer.
© Ram Janzen C. Fauni, PTRP

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Lipid Bilayer
 This is the basic structural framework of the plasma membrane. The lipid bilayer are two back-to-back layers made up of
three types of lipid molecules – phospholipids (75%), cholesterol (20%), and glycolipids (5%).
 The bilayer arrangement occurs because the lipids are amphiphatic molecules, meaning they have both polar (the
hydrophilic heads) and nonpolar parts (the hydrophobic tails).
 The polar heads are exposed to the extracellular and intracellular fluids of the cell, while the tails face one other in the
interior of the plasma membrane.
 This layer is selectively permeable, meaning this allows lipid soluble substances (e.g., O 2, CO2, and alcohol) to pass/diffuse
directly through the membrane through simple diffusion. Most non-lipid soluble ions and substances do not diffuse directly
and pass through membrane channels or transport proteins.
Membrane Proteins
 Membrane proteins are seen on the surface of the phospholipid molecules (peripheral proteins) and, in some cases,
extends to the inner surface of the plasma membrane (integral proteins).
 These proteins can function as marker molecules, attachment proteins, transport proteins, receptor proteins, or enzymes.
Functions of Membrane Proteins

Protein Function Illustration
Marker  Allows cells to identify other cells or other molecules.
Molecules  They are mostly glycoproteins (proteins attached to
carbohydrates) or glycolipids
 Example: allows immune cells to distinguish between self-
cells and foreign cells such as bacteria
Attachment  Integral proteins that allow cells to attach to other cells

Proteins (cadherins) or to extracellular molecules (integrins).

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Receptor  Functions as binding sites for chemical signals in the

Proteins extracellular fluid
 Binding of chemical signals to receptor triggers cellular
responses
 Example: Acetylcholine receptor of ligand-gated Na+ channel
Enzymes  Are protein catalysts which increase the rate of chemical

reactions on either the inner or outer surface of the plasma
membrane
Transport Moves ions or molecules across the plasma membrane. Since

Proteins most non-lipid soluble molecules and ions do not pass readily
through the lipid bilayer, transport proteins will need to move
these substances across it.
Have 3 types: Channel proteins, carrier proteins, and ATP-

powered pumps
Types of Transport Proteins

Channel  Form a tiny channel through the plasma membrane.
Proteins  Channel proteins include leak ion channels and gated ion
channels.
a. Leak or nongated ion channels- are always open and
are responsible for the plasma membrane’s permeability
to ions when at rest.
b. Gated ions channels- open and close in response to
chemical signals binding to the ion channel.
i. Ligand gated ion channels: gated channels that
respond to chemical signals
ii. Voltage gated ion channels: gated channels that
respond to membrane potentials
Carrier  Also known as transporters, are integral membrane proteins

proteins that move ions or molecules from one side of the plasma
membrane to the other.
 They have specific binding sites to which the ions or
molecules attach on one side of the plasma membrane.
 They change shape or their conformation to move ions or
molecules. After which, they resumes to their original shape
and is available to transport once again.
ATP  Are carrier proteins that use energy derived from the
powered breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to move specific
pumps ions and molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to
the other side.

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B. The Cytoplasm & The Cytoplasmic Organelles

 Cytoplasm: consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.
 This has two components: the cytosol and the organelles
Cytosol
 This is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds the organelles and constitute to about 55% of the total cell volume.
 The cytosol is a colloid, a viscous solution containing dissolved ions and molecules as well as suspended molecules, especially
proteins.
Cytoskeleton
o A network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytosol that supports the cell and holds the nucleus and other
organelles in place.
o Serves as a scaffold that helps determine the shape and organize the cellular contents.
o Three filaments contribute to the cytoskeleton: microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments.
 Microtubules: hollow tubes that provide support and structure in the cell, plays a role in cell division, and in the
transport of intracellular materials.
 Actin filaments/ microfilaments: small fibrils that form bundle sheets or networks in the cytoplasm. These are
the thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton. They help generate movement and mechanical support for microvilli. It
also support the plasma membrane and define the shape of the cell.
 Intermediate filaments: provides mechanical strength to cells
Cytoplasmic Organelles

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C. The Nucleus
 It is a spherical or oval-shaped, membrane bound structure that usually is the most prominent feature of a cell located at its center.
 Most cells have a single nucleus, although, there are some who have none, such as the matured red blood cell. There are also cells
that have multiple nuclei such as the skeletal muscle.
 The functions of the nucleus include: (a) controls cellular structure, (b) directs cellular activities, and (c) produces ribosomes in
nucleoli.
 Parts of the Nucleus:
1. Nuclear envelope- separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The outer membrane of the envelope is continuous with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum and resembles it in structure.
2. Nuclear pores- openings that extends through the nuclear envelope. They control the movement of substances between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.
3. Nucleoli- Functions as producers of ribosomes. Each nucleolus is simply a cluster of protein, DNA, and RNA; it is not enclosed
by a membrane.
4. Chromatin- the complex of DNA, proteins, and some RNA found within the nucleus. In cells that are not dividing, the
chromatin appears as a diffuse, granular mass.

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Cell and Cell Membrane Physiology
Concentration of Electrolytes and Substances

Substances Extracellular Fluid Intracellular
Sodium (Na+) 142 mEq/L 10 mEq/L
Potassium (K+) 4 mEq/L 140 mEq/L
Calcium (Ca++) 2.4 mEq/L 0.0001 mEq/L
Magnesium (Mg++) 1.2 mEq/L 58 mEq/L
Chlorine (Cl-) 103 mEq/L 4 mEq/L
Bicarbonate (HCO3) 28 mEq/L 10 mEq/L
Phosphates 4 mEq/L 75 mEq/L
Sulfate (SO4) 1 mEq/L 2 mEq/L
Glucose 90 mg/dl 0-20 mg/dl
Amino Acids 30 mg/dl 200 mg/dl
Proteins 2 mEq/L 40 mEq/L
 Things to take note:

o Extracellular fluid contains large amounts of sodium, calcium, and chlorine.
o Intracellular fluid contains more concentration of potassium, amino acids, and proteins
 It is important to take note that the plasma membrane is described as selectively permeable. This characteristic of the plasma
membrane allows substances, but not others, to pass into and out of the cell.
 Cells are able to maintain proper intracellular concentration of ions and molecules because of the permeability of the plasma
membrane and their ability to transport certain ions and molecules.
 Transport of substances can occur two general ways: active transport and passive transport. In passive transport mechanisms, the
cell does not spend metabolic energy. This is in contrast to active transport mechanisms, wherein the cell is required to expend
metabolic energy.
A. Diffusion
 Diffusion is the tendency for ions and molecules to move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
(towards the concentration gradient).
 Since movement follows the concentration gradient, it only uses normal kinetic motion of the matter to transport substances across
the plasma membrane.
 Diffusion through the plasma membrane is divided into two subtypes: simple and facilitated diffusion

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Facilitated Diffusion
 This type of diffusion requires interaction of a carrier protein.
 The proteins aid the passage of the molecules or ions through the membrane by binding chemically with them and
shuttling them through in this form.
 The carrier protein changes its shape to move bound ions to the other side.
Simple Diffusion
 This means that the kinetic movement of molecules or ions (high to low concentration) occurs through a membrane
opening, through intermolecular spaces (directly through the lipid bilayer) or through channel proteins without any
interaction with carrier proteins in the membrane.
 There are two ways simple diffusion can occur:

a. Through the lipid bilayer: lipid soluble molecules such as O2, N, CO2, and alcohol diffuse directly in the cell
membrane.
b. Through the channel proteins:
o Non-lipid soluble substances pass through protein tubes or pores through simple diffusion. However, the
diameter of the pores and its electrical charge provides selectivity that permits only certain molecules to pass
through.
o The protein channels are also distinguished by two important characteristics: (1) They are often selectively
permeable to substances, and (2) many of the channels can be opened or closed by gates that are regulated
by electrical signals (voltage-gated channels) or chemicals that bind to the channel proteins (ligand-gated
channels).

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Gating of Protein Channels

 This provides a means of controlling ion permeability of the channels.
 Voltage gating: the molecular conformation of the gate or of its chemical bonds responds to the electrical potential across the
cell membrane.
 Chemical (ligand) gating: binding of a chemical substance with the protein, causes a conformational or chemical bonding
change in the protein molecule that opens or closes the gate.
B. Osmosis
 This is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane, from a solution with higher water concentration (low
solute/ less concentrated solution) to a solution with low water concentration (high solute/ more concentrated solution).
 Osmotic pressure is the force required to prevent water from moving by osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane. The
greater the concentration of the solution is, the higher the osmotic pressure. This occurs because in a solution of higher
concentration, there is greater tendencies of water to move into the solution and the osmotic pressure must be able to prevent
that movement.
 Three terms describe the osmotic pressure of solutions:
a. Isosmotic- solutions with the same concentration of solute particles (isotonic) that have the same osmotic pressure.
b. Hyperosmotic- if one solution has a greater concentration of solute particles (hypertonic), thus having a greater osmotic
pressure than the other solution.
c. Hyposmotic- the more dilute solution (hypotonic) has a lower osmotic pressure.

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C. Active Membrane Transport

 Active transport is a mechanism by which there is movement of ions or molecules across the membrane from an area of lower
concentration to an area of higher concentration (against a concentration gradient).
 Since movement is against the concentration gradient, it will require an additional source of energy (e.g., ATP) besides the kinetic
energy of the ions/ molecules.
 Active transport is divided into two types depending on the source of energy used to transport: Primary active transport and secondary
active transport.
Primary Active Transport

 In this type of active transport, the energy is derived directly from breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or some other
high-energy phosphate compound.
 An example of this type of transport is the Sodium-Potassium Pump.
The Sodium-Potassium Pump

o This is a transport process that pumps sodium ions outward through the cell membrane of all cells and at the same time
pumps potassium ions from the outside to the inside.
o This pump is responsible for maintaining the sodium-potassium concentration differences across the cell membrane
(maintaining the concentration gradient between the two sides of the membrane).
o This also help maintain a negative electrical voltage inside the cells because the two positive potassium ions enter the cell,
3 sodium ions are moved out of the cell, leaving a net deficit of positive ions inside the cell, thus maintaining its negativity.
o How does it work:
1. When two potassium ions bind on the outside of the carrier protein and three sodium ions bind on the inside, the
ATPase function of the carrier protein becomes activated.
2. This then cleave one molecule of ATP, splitting it to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and liberating a high energy
phosphate bond of energy.
3. The liberated energy is then believed to cause a conformational change in the carrier protein, extruding the three
sodium ions outside and 2 potassium ions inside.

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Secondary Active Transport

 In this type of active transport, the energy is derived secondarily from the energy that has been stored in the form of ionic
concentration differences between two sides of the membrane, which is created originally by the primary active transport.
 This type of transport can also be classified into two: co-transport and counter-transport.
Co-Transport
o When sodium ions are transported out of the cell by primary active transport (Na-K pump), a large concentration gradient
of sodium ions across the cell membrane usually develops (high concentration outside, low concentration inside).
o This gradient represents a storehouse of energy because the excess sodium outside the cell membrane is always attempting
to diffuse inside. The diffusion energy of sodium can pull other substances along with the sodium through the cell membrane.
o A common example of this transport is the co-transport of glucose along with sodium ions.

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Counter-Transport
o In counter-transport, sodium ions again attempt to diffuse to the interior of the cell because of the large concentration
gradient created by the Na-K pump. However, this time, the substance to be transported is located inside the cell and
must be transported out of the cell.
o The sodium ion binds to the carrier protein while the substance to be transported (e.g., Ca+ and H+) binds to the interior
projection of the protein. Once both have bound, a conformational change occurs, such that energy released by the sodium
ion moving to the interior causes the other substance (Ca+ and H+) to move out of the cell.
D. Vesicular Transport
 This is the movement of larger volumes of substances across the plasma membrane through the formation or release of vesicles,
membrane-bound sacs, in the cytoplasm.
 This type of transport requires energy in the form of ATP and therefore is an active membrane transport process.
 This can be further classified as either exocytosis or endocytosis.
Endocytosis
o This occurs when material moves through the plasma membrane and into the cytoplasm by the formation of a vesicle.
o In this vesicular transport, a portion of the plasma membrane wraps around a particle or droplet in the extracellular fluid,
and then fuses, so that the particle is surrounded by a membrane.
o Two types of endocytosis:
 Phagocytosis: also known as “cell eating,” is a form of endocytosis in which the cell engulfs large solid particles,
such as worn-out cells, whole bacteria, or viruses. This is a vital defense mechanism that helps protect the body
from diseases.
 Pinocytosis: also known as “cell drinking,” a form of endocytosis in which tiny droplets of extracellular fluid are
taken up.

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Exocytosis
o Vesicular transport process that ejects substances from the cell interior into the extracellular fluid. Exocytosis accounts for
hormone secretion, neurotransmitter release, mucus secretion, and ejection of wastes.
o The substance to be removed from the cell is first enclosed in a protein-coated membranous sac called a secretory vesicle.
The vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane, fuses with it, and then ruptures, spilling the contents of the sac out of the
cell.
PART 3: ANATOMY OF TISSUES
Tissues and Histology
 Tissues are groups of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related function.
 Body tissues are classified into 4 categories: epithelial tissues for covering, connective tissue for support, muscle tissue for
movement, and nervous tissue for control.

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002 Cell Membrane Physiology

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A&P: Organization of the Human Body

College of Rehabilitation Sciences

PART 2: CELL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

© Ram Janzen C. Fauni, PTRP

Functions of Membrane Proteins

Attachment  Integral proteins that allow cells to attach to other cells

© Ram Janzen C. Fauni, PTRP

Receptor  Functions as binding sites for chemical signals in the

Enzymes  Are protein catalysts which increase the rate of chemical

Transport Moves ions or molecules across the plasma membrane. Since

Have 3 types: Channel proteins, carrier proteins, and ATP-

Types of Transport Proteins

Carrier  Also known as transporters, are integral membrane proteins

© Ram Janzen C. Fauni, PTRP

B. The Cytoplasm & The Cytoplasmic Organelles

© Ram Janzen C. Fauni, PTRP

© Ram Janzen C. Fauni, PTRP

Cell and Cell Membrane Physiology

Concentration of Electrolytes and Substances

 Things to take note:

© Ram Janzen C. Fauni, PTRP

 There are two ways simple diffusion can occur:

© Ram Janzen C. Fauni, PTRP

Gating of Protein Channels

© Ram Janzen C. Fauni, PTRP

C. Active Membrane Transport

Primary Active Transport

The Sodium-Potassium Pump

© Ram Janzen C. Fauni, PTRP

Secondary Active Transport

© Ram Janzen C. Fauni, PTRP

© Ram Janzen C. Fauni, PTRP

PART 3: ANATOMY OF TISSUES

Tissues and Histology

© Ram Janzen C. Fauni, PTRP

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