2.1.

Fundamentals of Heat Transfer and Thermodynamics

2.1.1. Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that studies the relationship
between heat, work, temperature, and energy (Drake, 2020). Thermodynamics primarily
deals with the transfer of energy from one place to another and from one form to the
next. The main concept is that heat is a form of energy that correlates to a certain amount
of mechanical work.
There are four major thermodynamic laws. Each law refers to the concept of
thermodynamic properties that allow us to understand and predict how a physical system
operates (Hall, n.d.).
2.1.1.1. The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics. 
When two systems with a third system are each in thermal equilibrium, the first two
systems are in thermal equilibrium. This property makes the use of thermometers as the
"third system" and the concept of a temperature scale important.
2.1.1.2. The First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics is also referred to as the law of conservation of
energy. The change in internal energy of a system is equivalent to the difference between
heat from its surroundings applied to the system and work performed by the system on
its surroundings.
2.1.1.3. The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Heat does not flow naturally from a colder region to a hotter region, or it can not be
transformed entirely into work at a given temperature. Consequently, a closed system
entropy, or heat energy per unit temperature, increases over time toward a certain
maximum value. Therefore, all closed systems lead towards a state of equilibrium in
which entropy is at its maximum, and there is no energy left for useful work.
2.1.1.4. The Third Law of Thermodynamics
The entropy of an element's perfect crystal in its most stable state tends to be zero, as
the temperature reaches absolute zero. This allows the establishment of an absolute scale
for entropy, which measures the degree of randomness or disorder in a system from a
statistical point of view.
Though thermodynamics evolved rapidly in response to the need to improve the
efficiency of steam engines during the 19th century, the sweeping generality of
thermodynamic laws makes them applicable to all physical and biological systems. The
laws of thermodynamics in particular provide a full explanation of all changes in the
energy state of any system and their ability to perform useful work on its surroundings.
2.1.2. Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is a thermal engineering discipline which is associated with the
generation, use, conversion and exchange of thermal energy among physical systems.
Heat transfer is divided into various processes, such as conduction, convection, radiation,
and energy transfer by phase changes (“Heat Transfer,” 2019).
2.1.2.1. Heat Conduction
Conduction is the process of transfer of heat within a body or from one body to the
other due to the transfer of heat by molecules vibrating at their mean positions. The
bodies through heat transfer should be in contact with each other. There is no actual
motion of matter when heat is being transferred from one place to another.
Conduction typically occurs in solids where molecules in the structure are strongly
bound together by intermolecular forces of attraction among them, and so they vibrate
only around their mean positions as they acquire heat energy and therefore transfer it by
vibration to the surrounding molecules.
2.1.2.2. Thermal Convection
Elert (n.d.) defines convection as the transfer of internal energy into or out of an
object through the physical movement of a surrounding fluid, which along with its mass
transfers the internal energy. But while the heat is initially transferred by conduction
between the body and the fluid, the bulk energy transfer comes from the fluid's motion.
Convection can occur spontaneously (or naturally or freely) through forming convection
cells, or can be forced through the fluid by propelling the fluid across the object or by the
object.
2.1.2.3. Radiation
Radiation is another way of transferring heat. It needs no medium, and can
also be used in a vacuum to transfer heat. This method employs electromagnetic
waves that transfer heat from one location to another. In our solar system the heat
and light from the sun enter the earth by radiation only. (“Heat Transfer,” 2019)
2.2. Thermal Properties of Materials (include table)
Thermal Analysis Labs (n.d.) lists the thermal properties of common materials in the
following table. The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise
the temperature by one degree Celsius. Thermal conductivity is a measure of a material’s
ability to conduct heat. Lastly, thermal effusivity is the square root of the product of the
material's volumetric heat capacity and its thermal conductivity. It pertains to the
material’s ability to store and dissipate heat.

Thermal Thermal
Density Specific Heat
Conductivity Effusivity
Material Name
kg/m3 J/kg K W/m K Ws.5/m2K

Air 1.29 1004 0.025 6

Aluminum 2698 921 226 23688

Bronze, silicon, high 8530 377 33 10369

Carbon, graphite (typical k) 2250 707 167 16318

Concrete, lightweight 950 657 0.209 361

Copper 8940 385 397 36983

Epoxy, unfilled, cast 1200 1046 0.188 486

Fireclay brick, missouri 2000 753 1.004 1230

Fused silica glass 2200 745 1.381 1504

Gold 19300 128 318 28027

Limestone (h2o 15.3) 1650 921 0.92 1182

Magnesium 1740 1004 151 16221

Mica insulating powder 330 837 0.121 183

Polymethyl methacrylate 1180 1464 0.209 601

Polystyrene, foamed-in-place, rigid 100 1130 0.035 63

Polyvinyl butyral 1100 1674 0.084 393

Polyvinylidene chloride 1700 1339 0.126 535

Pyroceram 9608 ceramic glass 2500 808 2.05 2034

Rubber, butyl 900 1966 0.088 394

Rubber, natural 930 2092 0.138 518

Rubber, natural, foam 100 2092 0.042 94

Silver 10500 236 427 32520

Soil, sandy dry 1650 795 0.264 588

Steel, stainless 304 7920 502 15 7631

Steel, stainless 446 7600 460 23 8955

Steel, stainless 501 and 502 7800 460 38 11626

Teflon 2170 1004 0.251 740

Titanium alloy imi 679 (sn11, zr5, al2) 4840 481 7 3949

Water (liquid) 1000 4184 0.603 1588

Window glass, lime 2480 753 1.318 1569

References
Drake, G. W. F. (2020, March 24). Thermodynamics. Retrieved March 31, 2020, from
https://www.britannica.com/science/thermodynamics

Elert, G. (n.d.). Convection. Retrieved March 31, 2020, from

https://physics.info/convection/

Hall, N. (n.d.). Thermodynamics. Retrieved March 31, 2020, from

https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/thermo.html

Heat Transfer: Conduction, Convection, Radiation, Videos and Case Study. (2019,
November 22). Retrieved March 31, 2020, from
https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/thermal-properties-of-matter/heat-transfer/

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2019, July 4). Heat transfer. Retrieved March
31, 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/science/heat-transfer

Thermal Properties of Common Materials. (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2020, from
http://thermalanalysislabs.com/thermal-properties-of-common-materials/