AE- 355 ~ i\IRFlz/\iVlF M.A.

INTENANCE AND REPAfR PRACTIC8S

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·DN1T-l
AIRFRAME: I
tThe stmcture of an aircraft without the power plant.
\ c .
The structure or airframeof an aircraft is designed to carry the loads imposed by the forces of lift, thrust,
dragand Hft.
AnY'structure can be dividcd in to individual elements that will behave ina~ertain way when loaded in any
dU-~i<m.::Further, structure is made of three types of members, that is beam,'strut, and tie.
AmeqlQer subjected to bending is known as BEAM .
.Al'rierhbersubjected to compression is STRUT .
. Ametnber l.ubjected to tension is TIE
S'tiut is usually hollow.

'"
TIe made from a solid rod or even (\ \vire

tOAD FACTOR: j
,//
The loads imposed on the wings in flight are stated in terms ofload~

Total weight supported by the illrcralt \"'ll1g/actual weight of the aircraft and its co~s.-

4000/2000 t. = 2.0 load factor

4000> aerodynamic load, 2000t > aircraft gross weight + fuel.

Normally all transport civil aircral) are comes under the normal category.
Normal category load factor limit IS 3.8 If exceed the limit on.8, then some repair is there.

WELDING EQUIPMENT:

WELDiNG: Welding isa proccs~~used for joining metal parts by either fusion or forging.

FORGE WS!LDING:

.Is
tl:!c;elUfs
thf.., • ocess
are inused by a state
a plastic blacksl1l1th when
and then heating
ltniting thenthe
by ends of wrought ofiron
the application or steel parts
mechanical in a forge fire until·
pressure.
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'RfSIONWELDlNG:

Is the procesi used by welders in the aviation and in which enough heat is ~p~lied to melt the edges or
surfaces of the metal so that molten parts flow together, leaving a single solid piece of metal when CQQl.

TYPES OF FUSION \VELDfNG~

1. Oxyacetylene (Gas Welolng).

L Electric Arc. Welding.
3. InertGas Arc Wetding:.
~ •I I

GAS WELDING: I
Gas Welding produces heat by burning a properly balanced mixiure of oxygen and
acetylyne, flows from the tip of a welding torch. The temp. of flame may be 5700"C to 6000C, it is not
enough to melt any of the common metals.

H. The heat required for the fusion of metal parts Clm be produced by an electric current. Electric
welding includes, electric arc, Electric Resistance Welding.
Electric Arc Welding:
 The heat of an electric arc is used to produce_J~sion of the pilrts by IJIl:lting thl: edges of the parts being
joined and the end of the welding electrodes and then allowing the molten metals to solidify in a welded
joint.

Electric Resistance Welding:

Is a process, whereby a low voltage, high ampere current is brought to the work through a heavy copper
conductor offering' very little resistance to its flow. The parts are placed in the path of the current flow,
where they set up a great resistance to it. The heat generated by the current tlow through this resistance is
enough to fuse the parts at their point of contact.

fNERT GAS-ARC WELDING:

Is a process in which an inert-gas such as helium or argon, blankets the weld area to prevent oxidation of
the heated metal.. This is important in welding Titanium, Magnesium, stainless steel.
a. Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TlO)
b. Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG).

Oxidation:
It means a chemical action in which a metallic element is united with oxygen
Oxidation process is greatly accelarated when heated.

If the atoms of two pieces ofmet1l1 could be brought close enough together to pemlit inter atomic attraction.
Then two pieces would become one. Using heat provides the means of getting atoms close enough to each
other to have mutual attraction.

JOINT;

A joint is that portion of a structure, when separate base metal parts are united by welding.

Butt Joint:
Is a joint made by placing two pieces of material edge to edge in the same plane so that there is no over
lapping. ****

TEE JOINT:
Is a form of joint made by placing the one edge of one base part on the surface of the other base part, so
that thie surfaces of the II part extends on either side of the joint in the form ofT ****'"

LAP JOINT: 1----.-----.-1

Is a joint made by lapping one base over the other and is used in b;H, tubing and pipe.

"'------ [ _. ~---
__ ..

CORNER JOINT ~l ------

--------
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 Is a joint made by placing the edge of one part or an angle on an edge. The structure resembling the corner
of a rectangle. ***

EDGE JOINT:
Is a form of joint made by placing a surface of one base part on a surface of the other base part in such a
manner that the weld will be on the outer surface planes of both parts joined,*"'*

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WELDING NOMENCLATURE: (parts of the weld)
_

The FACE is the exposed surface of the weld.

The ROOT is the zone at the bottom or base of the weld.
". The THROAT is the distance through the centre of the weld from the root to die face.
The TOE is the edge funned when the face of the weld meets the base metal. i,e,\~g~ ()fth~,~ion 1-Onein

the
The base metal Qn each sideisofthethequantitY
REINFORCEMENT weld. of maId metal added
' ~cr~":~
above the ,.surface o{ilie'1>~metal, td give

• The BEAD:istbe'metaI
'0' '.:0• ·,thc·\,'{eId
"' gf~te'r·thid(ness
.•
deposited
in crossassection
the weld
.. is made. **f*****
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. ::OxY-ACETYLENE WELDING EQUIPMENT: .

G:
....
,+' lA Weldmgequipment may be ,;tb"
:.... LCJXYgenCylinder
portable 0' "";ooery equipmen" .
2. Acetylene Cylinder.
3; O/AReguIator 4. Pressure Gauges and connections
S.Welding Torch with mixing head.
6. Tips 7 Two lengths of coIored hose.
S.Adaptor connections for the torch and regulator, Special Wrench, Welding Goggles, Gas Lighter
:'Pire Extinguishers ..

Acetylene is a Flammable, colorless gas with a odor is easily detected. It is a compound 'of'hydrQgen and
carbon' having the chemical symbol C2H2 __ -~ two atoms of carbon are combined with two
atoms of hydrogen,
When acetylene cylinders are holding up to 300 ft at maximum pressure of250 psi.

Oxygen is a tasteless, colorless, odorless gas, Oxygen is necessary to~e ~tylene bum 'at atempl:llgh' .
enough to melt metal in welding oxygen supports the combustion oftbe gas USed in produ.cingtheWeidirig '"
flame .. '> ' .• , •..

Oxygen charged at a pressure of250 psi at a temp of70F having capacity of220 ft.

ACETYLENE OXYGEN REGULA TORS:

. -.- ".-

Are mec~cal instruments used to reduce the high pressure'ofthe ~s floWiri&fro~their(;()n4i~,tp':' ..•..
supply the gases to ,the torch' at a constant pressure and volume as requIred by the toreh tip. , '::." .. .....
,. , .'
Two gauges:
High Pressure gauge shows the pressure ofthegas in the ~yjinder
Low Pressure indicates the pressure of the gases flowing to the torch
..

WELDING TORCH:

Is a device used to mix oxygen and acetylene together in the correct proportions and to provide a means of
directing and controlling the quantity and size of the flame.
The welding gases flow from the inlet port, pass needle valves, through tubes in the torch to a mixing valve
and then through the tip.
Needle valves are used to regulate the volume of acetylene and oxygen that flow in to the mixing head.
Then purpose of rriixing head is to provide for the correct mixing of the gases for the best burning
conditions.
Welding torches may be divided in to two types
I. Balance Pressure type 2.Injector type/
The.torches are available in different style and size. The selection of the style and size of the torch depend
upon the class of work to be done.
The selection of the tip size depends upon the amount of heat and the size of the tlame required for the
kind aoo thickness of the metal to be welded.

TIP NOZZLE:

Tip nozzle may hAve a one piece hard copper tip.

Welding tips are made in variety of sizes and styles. The tip size difters in the diameter of the orifice,
which provides the correct amount of gas mixture at a velocity that will produce the heat necessary do the
job,
Both the velocity and volume of gases are important. Velocity is a important because it regulates the
amount of heat that the technician will be able to apply to the materiaJ to be welded. The tl~mp is regulated
by the mixing head but the amount of that temp is regulated by the velocity of gases.

WELDING HOSE:
Welding hose is a specially made rubber tube attached to the torch at one end and to a pres~>ureregulator at
the other end. Itls used to carry the gases from their containers to the torch
ACETYLEN.s HOSE - Red Color .
. OXYGEN HOSE :;\
- Green
'. ":..
Calor.

WELDING FILLER ROD:

Welding rod or filler rod is filler metal in wire or rod form, usetito supply the additional metal required to
form a joint. '
During welding the rod is melted in to the joint, where -it fuses with the molten base metal, the metaLfrom ,
the rod forming a large proportion of the actual weld metal. Welding rods are usually composed of only
one metal or alloy. Ifa rod has a very small diameter, it is usually known as a wire.
Welding rods are 3 feet length and diameter ranging frOm 0.50 mm to 65 mm)

SAFETY EQUIPMENT:

WELDING GOGGLES:

Welding goggles are titted with colored lenses to keep out heat and ultraviolet and infrared rays produced
during welding.
The goggles should hugthe.face so closely thtu sparks and tiny pieces of hot metal cannot g(~ inside,

WELDING GLOVES:
 Welding gloves protect the hands and wrists from bums and flying sparks. They are usually made of
asbestos or of chemically treated canvas.

FIRE EXTINGUISI-fER is normally. C02 is used One or more portable are kept.

TORCH FLAME:

The flame should be large, very white and smoky on the outer edges.
If the flame produces much smoke, the welder should crack the oxygen needle valve very slightly as soon
as the flame appears to be under control, continue slowly to open the oxygen needle valve until a weII
shaped bluish white inner cone appears near the tip of the torch. This cone is surrounded by second outer
cone, that varies in length. This is known as a neutral flame. *******

A welding flame is called neutral when the gas quantities are adjusted so all the oXygen and acetylene are
. burned together.

Theoratically 2.5 volumes of 02 are required to burn J volume of acetylene in order to produce this
neutral flame.
NEUTRAL FLAME:·

Prqduced by bu~ing approximately equal volumes of acetylene and oxygen oxidi:esalJ·p'~i<.;les.ofcarbon

arid hydiogen in the acetylene. This neutral flame have IIwell rounded smooth,dearly:defined,bltie white· .
centr.~!..c9t1e~ . The outer cone flame should be blue neutral flame melts metals" 'without:, changi~jts'
propefticsar..d..leaves the metal clear and clean. If the ~ure ofaceloXyiscorrect the neutraIflame.'aUows'·
them01t~rimetal to flow smoothly ...
- ..:;.:.~~:.'- -:?- ." ."" ",:.

':::~'R:EbUCING FLAME OR CARBURIZING:

this o~rswhen there is more acetylene than oxygen feedinginto the flame.': .,,;, ...
'.' siltce the oxygen furnished through the torch is not, suflicient to complete th~.com~usti~nofthe·~n,.·
.caI!:>onescapes without being burned ... ' .

OXIDIZING FLAME:

It is caused by an excess of oxygen flowing through the torch..

. In addition to the size, shape, and coJor the oxidizing flaJ1le can be reCognised by~· ffi~,~jmtsound,similar
to the noise of air and pressure escaping through a very small' nozzle. , .. ' .. ,.::: :':'

SOFT FLAME:

This flame is produced when the gases flow-to the weldingtip at ~ coill{laratively low ~p~.
HARSH FLAME

Jfthe gases tlow to the welding tip at a high speed, under (00 much pressure, they produce a harsh tlame

BACK FIRE:

Is a momentary backwards flow of gases at the torch tip, causing the flame to go out and [hen Immediately
to come on again. The common causes of back lire

I. There may be dirt or obstruction in the end ot'the weldin~ Ill'

2 The gas pressure may be incorrect
3 The tip may be loose
4 The tip may be overheated.
The welder may have touched the wurk WI[h ll1l' tip ,)(tl1e lUII:!\

FLASH BACK

Is the burning back of the flame in to the mixing chamber ohhe to/ch. When flash back occurs, the flame
disappears entirely from the tip of the torch and does not return \
I
/
GAS WELDING TECHNIQUES:

Holding the torch:

One method for holding the torch when welding light gauge metal ill Ilil~ nldl,o(f. the lorch 1$ had as one
might hold a pencil.
When welding heavier work, the torch is held as one would hold a hammer

PUODLE:

In the fusion welding process the base material are brought to a molten state in the area of the joint,
producing puddle.
The puddle is moved over the joint area, allowing the molten material tram one part to intemlingle with the
other.
To provide reinforcement to the joint, tiller material is added by placing the tiller rod in the puddle
The heat ITom the molten metal melts the tiller material and it wo intermingles. Note that the filler
material is melted by the puddle not the torch flame.
The purpose of the rod is to add reinforcement material

TORCH MOTION:

The welder may use either a semicircular, crescent or continuous clrcul"r motlLHI
Regardless of the motion, the welder keeps the moticlfl oftht: torch a~ u!1if~Jftn a~ p(l~sible in ,xder to make
smooth, even spaced ripples

RIPPLES

Are the small wave like marKS len on the surface ut" [he (ul11pktd ,,<;;Id by tll<;;action of rhe torch and
welding rod."""**u"
 FOREHAND WELDING:

ForehandlfOlward welding is a welding technique in whi«h the torch flame is pointed fOI:Wardin the
di1:~ion the weld is progressing.******** .

Backward welding is a technique in which the flame is directed back toward the weld away from the

(~"WELD
·.:...ection the weld is progressing.
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QUALIfy:

The properly completed weld should have the following characteristics.

1.. The seam should be smooth and a uniform thickness.

2 ... The weld should be build up to provide extra thickness at the sea.
'. 3, The weld metal should taper off smoothly in to the base metal.
4. No oxide should be formed on the base metal at .a·distance of more t:haa:thidfinchfrom the weld.

6. The base metal should show no sign of~itting,

.. burning, cracking or distortion.
. . .

5. The. weld
STAGGER should show no of signs. of blow h91~, porosity.
WEWING: SJ
..'.
Putting a smaller amount of heat in to a weld is difficult. The skill that eomefrom experience. One of the
"Tricks of the trade" is to use. a method called stagger welding.
The operator welds briefly.at the beginning of the seam, skips to the center, then jumps to the end, come
back to where the first weld ended and repeat this staggered process until the weld"is finished.

SKIP WELDING:· ..
"'-----'

Another term for stagger welding is skip welding, which is defined as a welding teciulique in,which
alternate intervals are skipped in the welding of a joint on the first pass and completed on the second pass.
The purpose is to prevent anyone area of the metal from absorbing a great deal of heat, thus avoiding
buckling and the tendency toward cracking. *****

P"
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING:
•• _

Electric Arc Welding also refer to as Stick Electrode Welding. S~ed metal arc weIdingi~ W!edhere to
denote the standard arc process which utilize an electrode fill~ is generally employedf.Qf welding
heavysteel. ..... ;::.' .
This method requires a special generator to provide a Iow-voltage, High. ~perage
'.'" .'
:etfri~
\ ~~·I . :
for the arc .
The power supply may be own electric motor driven generator,Electn~ dnven' g~etator or a special
transformer ..
The electric arc is made between the tip end of small metal wire, called the electrode, which is clamped in
holder held in the hand, and the metal being ;'~ided A gap i.s made in the welding circuit by holding the
tip of the electrode (1.5mm to ~.Omm) away from the work.
The Electric current jumps the gap and makes an arc, which is held and moved along the joint to be welded.
The heat of the arc melts the metal. The arc is first caused by torching the electrode to the metal, and then
the electrode is withdraVvl1slightly to establish the current gap across which the arc flows

WELDING CIRCUIT

Where the electrode cable is attached to the welding
attached to the welding machine.
When direct current -straight polarity is used, the current
holder, through the holder to the electrode and across the
From this work side of the arc, the current nows through
welding machine. "'***"'*
machine and ends where the generator cable is
tlows through the electrode cable to the electrode
arc.
the base metal to the ground cable and back to the

The circuit must be complete for the current to now, which means that it is impossible to weld if the cables
are not connected to the machine or either the electrode or the work .
All connections must be tirm so the current can tlow easily through the entire circuit.

WELDING ARC:

The arc stream is the electric arc created by the current tlowing through the air between th~ end of the
electrode (anode) and the work (cathode)
As the current flows through the arc stream, a column of ionized gas called the PLASMA is tormed
The arc is very bright as well as hot, cannot be looked at with the naked (:ye, the operator wear a suitable
protective hood.
The plasma is a combination of both neutral and excited gas atoms. In this centre, are electrons, atoms and
IOns. The heat of the arc is caused by the collision of these particles at the acce1arated speeds caused by
voltage drop as they move between the anode and cathode.
The temp of this arc is from 6000F to I 1000F , which is more than enough to melt the metal. *,,****

The arc melts the plate or base, actually digs in to it

The molten metal form a pool, and tends to flow away from the arc. As it moves away from the arc, it
cools and solidified. A slag forms on the top of the weld to protect it during cooling The slag comes
from the nux coating on the electrode.
 Arcs for welding are produced by different kinds of power supplies. The power supplies may be
. DIRECT CURRENT, STRAIGHT POLARITY ------DCSP
DIRECT CURRENT, REVERSE POLARITY -----DCRP.

DCSP: provides the deepest penetration for a given amperage and is used when welding rusty surfaces
and tight fit joints
DCRP: produces the smoothesl bead and less splatter due to the lessened penetration. Thinner materials
and joints with wide gap

INERTGAS WELDING'

The term Inert Gas welding describes an electric arc welding process in which an inert gas is used to shield
the arc and molten metals to prevent oxidation and burning.
The process originally employed Helium for the gas shield.

Inert Gas Welding 1. Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)

2. Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG)
3.Plasma Arc Welding (PAW).

TUNGSTEN INERT GAS ('fIG) WELDING: Classified as gas tungsten arc welding (GT AW) is
accomplished tungsten electrode. The electrode IS used to sustain the arc and molten pool of metal.
Filler rod is added to the pool to develop the desired thickness of bead.
Inert gas usually (Argon) is fed to the weld area through the gas cup on the torch.
The gas cup surrounds the electrode and direct the gas in a pattern to prevent the intrusion of Nitrogen and
oxygen from the air.

METAL INERT GAS (MIG) WELDING

MIG welding utilizes a metal electrode, which melts and is carried in to the weld pool to provide the eJo..'tra
thickness desired.
This type of weld has been called MIG and is classified Gas metal arc welding. In this type of welding the
metal electrode must be of the same material as the base metal being welded. Since the electrode is
consumed in this process, the electrode wire is automatically fed through the torch so that the torch is held
a constant distance from the work surface.

PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW)

PAW is often used in application where GTA W is preferred but, more heat or speed is required such as
the welding of exotic metals. In plasma arc welding the flow of the plasma is restricted but, is at an
increased speed through an orifice, resulting in higher temp and improved concentration of heat.

ADVANTAGES OF INERT GAS WELDING:

1. 100% p'rotection tram the atmosphere, arc stronger, more ductile, more corrosion resistance than
welding made with oxidizing metal arc processes.
2. No flux is required, makes welding applicable to variety of join types.
3. Corrosion due to flux entrapment cannot occur.
4. Expensive post welding cleaning operations are eliminatyd.
5. The entire welding action take place without splatter sparks.
6. Fusion welds can be made in nearly all metals include Aluminium, Stainless Steel, Titanium.
7. Used for welding various combination of dissimilar metals ..
sbLDERlNG AND BRAZING
"

Soldering described as either soft or hard depending upon the types of material used for the soldering
bond, which determine the temp required in the process.
The difference between soft soldering and brazing is in the temperature

By definition, if the filler metal has a melting point o(more than ~WUF, the process is brazing,
Variety of techniques used to apply solder to joints

MASS PRODUCTION technique of Dip Soldering ----- when the joint is lowered in to a pot of molten
solder.

RES!STANCE SOLOEIUNG --- where heat is produced by passing dectric current through the joint
materials,

INDUCTION SOLDERlNG ----- where the passing ofa magnetic field over the joint materi,.! produces an
electric current

FURNACE SOLDERING: ----- Where units are to be soldered are passed through an electric or gas
furnace,

In all cases, property designed and soldered joints use capillary action to draw the solder material in to the
joint. Soldering process depend upon capillary a action to draw the solder in the joint soldered joints
require very small clearances,
Solder is available In variety offorms such as wire, rod, bar, ribbon, It)ii and powered

~RON SODERING:

It requires the use of a tool with an electrically heated head or tip The tip is usually fabricated from
copper. This tool is called a soldering iron or solder Copper,
If electric power is available, it is common practice to employ electric soldering irons because of their
convenience. The e1ectric'tool contains a resistance heating element inside the Hollow copper head,
The use of soldering iron are limited to safe soldering.

SWEAT SOLDERING:

Is called sweating is a method of soldering in which the parts to be soldered first tipped and then the melted
solder is drawn between ~ surfaces to be soldered by capillary attraction with the application of heat

FLUX:

Fluxes are chemical compounds that assist in

I ,Cleaning the surface of the joint area of the oxides
2, Prevent the tonnation of oxides during the soldering process.
4, Lowering the surface tension of the solder improves its sticking properties
Fluxes such as borax, Ammonia Chloride, sodium carbonate united with oxides and other impurities in
molten metal and flow to the surface,

SOFT SOLDERING:

In soft soldering, the sealing and securing of a joint between two metal process is accomplished with solder
that consist of an alloy of tin and lead. '
The percentage of two metals have a substantial effect on the melting point of the solder
[n son soldcring thc Illclted solder IS sprcad ovcr the adjoining surfaces with a soldering iron (Copper) The
solder does not actually fusc with the mctals being joincd, but bonds to thcn on thc surfacc, that is, thc hase
metal does not melt. Soldering produces a'weak joint but is satisfactorily for many purposes.
Ordinary L\:.ad-Tin solder cannot be used for all soldering.

BRAZING:

Brazing means the joining of materials by a process in which a molten filler alloy is drawn by capillary
attraction in to space between the adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined.

Low temp brazing also known as silver soldering or hard soldering, is a brazing process which uses
FILLER ALLOYS based on the metals silver and copper, with a melting temp with in the range 600C to
850C.
When brazing is carTies out with ti Iler alloys of high melting temp, grain growth and softening of the part
metal often occurs, thus necessitating further heat treatment to restore the required properties Strength of
joint depends on the area of the film which unites the surfaces of the parts fonning the joint and the
thickness of the film, a thin film usually producing the strongest joint.

FiLLER ALLOY:

Filler alloys are available in rod, wire, and strip and in some instances in granular fonn.
Majority of hand torch operation require the filler alloy to be fed by hand from a rod.
Flux: The function of the flux is to dissolve oxides, it has the--effect of reducing the surface tension of the
molten filler alloy, thus assisting the alloy to flow readily between the surface of joint. Fluxes are
normally supplied in power torm.

BRAZING METHOD:

Capillary attraction is the major factor in making a brazed joint, there·is noUmit to the ext~d of
penetration by capillary attraction. The best results are obtained., .when a joint gap of O.05mm to O.lmm is
used. The method of applying heat used in brazing may be classified in to four categories.

INDUCTION BRAZING When brazing titanium pipe fittings.

RESIST ANCE BRAZING
FURNACE BRAZING steel or nickel alloy using a copper or bronze tiller alloy
TORCH BRAZING Gas mixture (Acetylene and Hydrogen) is suitable for torch brazing.

WELDING nGs:

Framework or alignment structure used in the repair of an alc to hold all the parts in the proper alignment
while they are fastened together. .
The accurate assembly of welded parts may necessitate the use of special jigs which will be unaf1ited by
changes in temp ..
The type orjoint, the nature of the metal to be welded, accessibility are fe,ctors which influence the d~n
of the jigs .. '.
The jigs should permit free acc'ess to the area to be welded. The iig~~s~embly should be fairly rigid, but
not so rigid that the parts become stressed during cooling, and'~Iear~mce should be allowed for the
expansion and contraction of the parts.
When clamping or locking devices are incorporated with jigs to control distortion, they should align3tlie
component to a degree of accuracy which does not pennit the overall distortion.'
When tubular section to be welded, the parts should be correctly fitted in to the jigs in~constructt'!t'tttat
there is no possibility of misplacing the tubes from the intended position, otherwise"'Uneven joiniJ;~d
unequal distribution of stresses may result.
~HEET METAL:

Metal of any thickness up to 11.8of an inch.

There are'two grouping of sheet metal components, structural and non-structural components.
Structural Components are those components of the alc that transfer the forces exerted on the aircraft from
one location to another or absorb the forces during tlight.
Ribs, Stringers, Longeron, bulkheads and the alc's skin are structural components
Non-structural components are those components that do not transmit or absorb the torces of tlight. Non-
structural component provide aerodynamic functions, such as a fairing or direct air t10w in a manner similar
to cowlings or intake and exhaust ducts.

DAMAGES OF SHEET METAL

As the aircraft ages, it is subjected to a variety of stresses. These stresses come from load appl ied on the
ground, during taxing, take-<lff, and landing, aircraft pressurisation and during flight.
The accelaration of these stresses over time results in a weakening of the material. This \Veakening is
called fatigue.
Each material has a average stress and elastic limit, ultimate tensile strength, yield point, materials also
have standard fatigue limits.

CRACKS AND SCRATCHES:

Crack: Partial separation of material usually caLJsed by vibrations, overloading, internal stress, defective
assemblies and fatigue.
Scratch: The most common cause is carelessness in handling and any part may be so affected.
In some instances these scratches and cracks are referred to as stress risers.
Stress is the force applied over given area. That area may be the cross sectional area of the material In
such case, material thickness and width are the two linear measures used to determine the cross sectional
area.

If there are no scratches in the material, the stress on the material is constant throughout.
If there is a scratch in the material the thickness in the area of the scratch is reduced, lessening the cross
sectional area.
Cross sectional area is the denominator of the stress equation, as the area lessens the stress risl~r, resulting
in term stress riser,

Stress = Force! Area.

Cracks in a material have the same etlect as scratches in that they reduce [he stress bearing capabilities ora
material. Since a crack is a void in the material, the area of the crack cannot carry any of the stress load

STRESS CORROSION:

As stress is applied to a material, additional minute cracks are fomled or existing cracks grew As the
cracks start or grow, new surface area of the metal are exposed [0 the atmosphere Because these newly
exposed areas are not protected from corrosion, oxides from the atmosphere quickly oxidizes with these
areas. Since the cause of this increase in corrosion is applied stress .. this phenomenQn is called stress
corrosion.

SHEET METAL INSPECTION:

Aircraft sheet metal and structural component Ciresubjected to a variety of forces during their use, as well
as the weakneing that comes from exposure to the environment
Aircraft structural inspection must be able to identify" potential problems ranging from inter granular
corrosion, to missing fasteners, using processes ranging from simple visual inspection to testing equipment
inspections are classitied as destructive c1r non-destructive maintenance by its very nature is concerned
only with NUT, since destructive testing eliminates the service ability of the part or material being tested.

INSPECTIONS OF DAMAGE

When visually inspecting damage, remember that there may be other kinds of damage that caused by
impact tram foreign objects or colliSion
A rough landing may overload onc of the landing gear, causing it to become sprung, this would be
classified as load damage
During inspection considering how far the damage caused by the sprung shock strut extends to supporting
structural member.
A shock occuring at the end of a member will be transmitted through its length, therefore, inspect closely
all rivets, bolts, and attracting structure along the complete member for any evidence of damage. Make a
close examination for rivets that have partially failed and for holes which have been elongated
Another kind of damage to watch for is that caused by weathering or corrosion. This is known as corrosion
damage Corrosion damage of aluminium material is usually detected by the white crystalline deposits that
form around loose rivets, scratches or any portion of the structure that may be a natural spot for moisture to

settle. ')
DEFINITIONS OF DEFECT: .

Types of defects and damage which may be observed on part oftrus assembly are defined as tollows:

BRINELUNG

Occurrence of shallow ..spherical depressions in a surface, usually produced by a part having a small radius
in contact vviththe surface under high load

BURNISHING

Polishing of one surface by sliding contact with a smooth, harder surface. Usually no displacement nor
removal of metaL

BURR:

A small this section of metal extending beyond a regular surface, usually located at a corner or on the edge
of a bore or hole

CORROSION

Loss of metal from the surface by chemical or e1ectrochemical action. The corresponding products
generally are easily removed by mechanical means. Iron rust is an example of corrosion.

CRACK:

A physical separation of two adjacent portions of metal, evidenced by a fine or thin line across the surface,
caused by excessive stress at that point It may extend inward from the surface from a few thousands inch
to completely through the section thickness

CUT:

Loss of metal usually to an appreciable depth over a relatively long and narrow area by mechanical means,
as would occur with the use of a saw blade, chisel or sharp edged stone striking a glancing blow.
DENT

Indentation in a metal surfa.ce produced by an object siriking \vit h force. ihe surface surrounding the
indentation will usually be slightly upset,

EROSION:

Loss of metal from the surface by mechanical action of foreign objects such as grit, or fine sand. The
eroded area will be rough and may be lined in the direction in which the foreign material moved relative to
the surface.

CHATTERING:

Breakdown or deterioration of metal surface by vibratory or chattering action Usually no loss of metaJ or
cracking of surface but generally showing similar appearances

GALLING

Breakdown of metal surfaces due to excessive friction between two pans having relative motion. Particles
of the softer metal are tom loose and welded to the harder

GOUGE:

Grooves in a metal surface from contact with toreign material under heavy pressure Usually indicates
metal loss but may be largely displacement of material.

INCLUSION:

Presence of toreign or extraneous material wholly within a portion of metal. Such material is introduced
,.during the manufacturer of rod, bar or tubing by rolling or forging.

NICK:

Local break or notch on edge. Usually displacement of metal rather than loss

PITTING:

Sharp, localised brerakdown of metal surface usually with defined edges.

SCRATCH:

Slight tear or break in metal surface from light, momentary contact by foreign material.

SCORE:

Deeper tear or break in metal surface from contact under pressure. May show discoloration from temp
produced by friction.

STAlN:

A change in calor, locally causing a noticeably ditferent appearance trom the surrounding area.

UPSETTING:

A displacement of material beyond the normal contour or surface, usually indicates no metal loss.
 CLASSIFICATION OF DAMAGE

Damages may be grouped in to four general classes, in many cases, the availability or lack of repair
materials and time are the most important fact<;irs in determining whether a part ..should be repaired or
replaced.

NEGLIGIBLE DAMAGE

Damage which does not atlect the structural integrity of the member involved, or damage which can be
corrected by a simple procedure without placing flight restrictions on the aircraft, is classified as negligible
damage. Small dents, scratches, cracks or holes that can be repaired by smoothing, sanding, stop drilling or
hammering out, or otherwise repaired without out the use of additional materials, fall in this classification.

DAMAGE REPA[RABLE BY PATCHING

Damage repairable by patching is any damage exceeding negligible damage limits which can be repaired
by bridging the damaged area of a component with a material splice. The splice or patch material used in
internal riveted and bolted repairs is normally the same type of material as the damaged part, but one gage
heavier, . In a patch repair, filler plates of the same gage and type of material as that in the damaged
component may be used for bearing purposes or to return the damaged part to its original contour.

DAMAGE REPAIRABLE BY INSERTION:

Damage which can be repaired by cutting away the damaged section and replacing it with a like section,
then securipg the insertion with splices at each end is classified as damage repairable by insertion.

DAMAGE NECESSIT ATfNG REPLACEMENT OF PARTS:

Replacement of an entire part is considered when one or more of the following conditions exist.
I. When a complicated part has been extensively damaged.
2 When surrounding structure or inaccessibility makes repair impractical.
3. When damaged part is relatively easy to replace.
4. When forged or cast fittings are damaged beyond the negligible limits.
/
.;----
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

"-N'on-destructive inspection is also referred to as non-destructive testing (NDT), The philosophy of NOT is
to veritY the presence of certain attributes without causing the material to fail. In effect, this is an effort to
validate the ~xistence of other attributes that have been determined to identitY the existence of yet others.
For example, if a metal has a certain composition, hardness and thickness, it has been determined to have a
s'QCClific
ultimate tensile strength

VISUAL INSPECTION

The most obvious form of NDT is the visual check. This check may be perfor,med with the naked eye or
assisted by magnification. Magnification is specified in terms of power. The most frequently used
magnification level employed in aviation is 10 power, designed as" I OX" ..

For example, loose or improperly installed countersink rivets disrupt the airflow around the rivet. As the
air flows around these rivets, dirt in the air accumulates, leaving what appears to be dirt trail around the
rivet.
 -
It is much easier to identify these dirt trails p~iqr to cleaning the aircrafl than atter the cleaning process is
completed. It should be noted that pre-cleaning inspection, does not satisfy the requirement of a traditional
complete inspection .

More detailed inspections of an area may be performed by dye-penetrant inspection, magnetic-particle

inspection, x-ray inspection, fluorescent penetrant inspection, ultrasonic inspection and eddy-current
inspection. These inspection processes are used to 'cjetect discrepancies that are not detectable using only
the human senses.

DYE-PENETRANT fNSPECTION

Inspection of metal structure is easily accomplished by means of dye-penetrant inspection In this process
the dye penetrates any small cracks or fissures and then seeps out when a developer is applied to the joint
Thus the crack is revealed as a bright red line.

FLUORESCENT- PENETRANT INSPECTION:

FP inspection can be used for detecting cracks or other flaws in a welded structure. A liquid containing a
fluorescent material is applied to the part to be inspected and is allowed to penetrate cracks, laps and other
discontinuities. The part is then washed with a suitable solvent and dried, after which a developing powder
is applied to draw the penetrant to the surface. Excess powder is brushed ott: and the part is examined
under ultraviolet light, cracks and other flaws are revealed as fluorescent markings

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

MP inspection by means of magnetic powder applied to a magnetized part is an etlicient, practi<;al, and
non-destructive'fuethod that will reveal the presence of tiny cracks and other flaws in a part. The surface to
be examined should be reasonably smooth and free from scale, because it is difficult to find ':ratks in the
irregular surface of the weld metal. Sandblasting is suitable method tor cleaning the surface of metal parts
in preparation for the magnetic particle inspection
Magnetization of tubular clusters and other welded joints in tubular structures is usually accomplished by
means of cables wrapped in coils around the area to be inspected.

RADIOLOGICAL INSPECTION:
X-ray inspection was limited to in values in the past, because of the inaccessibility of many joints and the
necessity of taking exposures from several angles to make certain that all the defects were tound.
The use of radioactive cobalt "bombs" has made it possible to x-ray joints at almost any location.

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION:

U inspection apply high tTequency sound waves to the part being Inspected. These sound waves are
ret1ected from the opposite side of the material or lrom any 11a\\'that they encounter Wave signals from
the flaws are compared with the normal wave to detem1ine the location and size of the flaw

EDDY-CURRENT INSPECTION:

In an Eddy-Current inspection, electrical currents are generated in the part by means of electromagnetic
waves. The electrical current flows in the part in a circular fashion, similar to the eddies observed when
draining a bath tub. If a flaw exists, the indicator will show a value different from the normal response.

RIVET REPAIR DESIGN:

PURPOSE OF REPAIR
The primary purpose of a repair to ~heet metal part is to return the damaged area to its original strength
Fasteners join the patch material to be original material in such a manner that the loads applied to the
original material are transterred through fasteners to the patch material. These loads are then transmitted
through the patch material across the damaged area, and then the loads are returned to the original material
through fasteners. The transmission of these loads for a fastener repair is accomplished at a lap joint.
A patch typically consist of two lap joints, one to pick up the load another to return the load

Reinforcement plates and plugs

It will be required to fabricate repairs that do not alter the basic aerodynamics of the original material. In
such instances a plug and reinforcement plate may be used The plug is used to maintain the surface plane
and does not carry any loads. The reinforcement plate is the medium by which the loads are transferred
The actual thickness of the reinforcement plate wi 11depend upon a relationship between the load carried
and the type and number of rivets used.
Reinforcement plates are also used to provide additional strength to specific areas of a large section of an
aircraft's skin .

GENERAL RIVET REPAIR DESIGN GUIDELINES:

The guidelines include

RlVET REPLACEMENT

In replacing rivets, the original size should be used if this size will properly fit and fill the next larger
rivet. If not, the holes should be drilled or reamed for the next larger rivets. Care should be taken when
enlarging a rivet hole that the minimum criteria for rivet spacing and edge distances are maintained

RIVET DIAMETER

The rivet diameter for a sheet metal joint should be approximately three times the thickness of the heavier
sheet or some what larger for thin sheets.

RlVETY SPACiNG:
The space between rivets in a single row is called pitch, and the distance between rows of rivets is called
gauge.
The spacing between any two rivets is measured from the center of the shank of one to the center of the
shank of the other.
Edge distance is the distance between the center of the rivet shank and the nearest edge.
The minimum spacing for aircraft rivet specified by three times the diameter of the rivet shank. Except tor
two row applications, the rivet spacing should be 40
The minimum edge distance is two times the diameter of the rivet shank.
Minimum edge distance is two times the diameter of the rivet shank. This will assure adequate strength of
material along the edge of the sheet

.
REPAlR WIDTH

The width of the repair should be twice that of the damaged area.

GENERAL DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS

I. Stop- Drill all cracks

2. Round all corners.
3 Be sure the thickness of the patch materja,! used in a repair is at least equal to that of the original
material. .
4. Design rivet pattern so that the rivet ro\VSare parallel with cracks and perpendicular to the relative load
factoL

The structural loads that relate to aircraft rivet repairs may be expressed as a single load even when there is
more than one load. The general direction of the crack may be used to estimate the directional vector that
represents the effective load.

The effective load vector may be assumed to be directly perpendicular to a line drawn from the beginning
to the end of the crack for a single crack. If the crack is multidirectionaL more than one load may be used.
As a general rule, in establishing a rivet pattern each force vector must be compensated for on an individual
basis ..

"Rivet spacing should be equal in all directions so that concentrations of the load are not pennitted.

* The width of the patch material should exceed the width of the damage, so that no significant loads are
applied to the ends of the crack where stress risers will be created