200612-Cocept-Tongo Assosa - Draft

Consultancy services for the Route Selection and Survey, Feasibility and Environmental Impact,
Assessment (EIA) Studies, Concept Engineering Design, Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) and Ethiopian Roads Authority
Tender Document Preparation for Tongo - Asosa DB Road Project. June, 2020
Concept Design (Draft)
Executive Summary
This report contains an illustrative presentation of the detailed site investigation carried out by the consultant from
February 28, 2020 to March 9, 2020 vis-a vis a detailed analysis of the initial findings in consideration of ERA 2002 &
2013, AASHTO Geometric Design Manual 2001&2004, NCHRP, FHWA and ASTM standards and the surfacing
situation of the proposed route.
Prior to commencing the design, all the design criteria had been organized. Accordingly, a Traffic count was conducted.
The road`s functional classification was set to be Main Access Road. For the same, considering 20 years period of
Design Life the future traffic was projected resulting AADT for Assosa town is 5434 and for the remaining section AADT
is 945. The AADT for PCU is less than 300, implying that there is no need for adjustment. The Design speed and
criteria was set to be DC7 for Assosa town and DC 5 for the remaining section of the proposed project.
In consideration of the field study results and the data provided by the standards mentioned vide supra in paragraph
one with vaunt courier usage of ERAGDM, 2013 manual, a typical section sketch showing the proposed geometric
section, such as finished subgrade width, ditch dimensions, crown and super elevation, cut and fill slope sections was
contained within chapter 8 of this report.
Accordingly, a median width of 2.0m and 2.5m are provided for developing town and town sections. Climbing lane was
totally cancelled by the employer for this project. Due considerations had been taken to avoid mis phasing of vertical
and horizontal curves. Further, it was designated that the profile grade roll with the terrain avoiding high fills and cuts
providing smooth grades as viably as possible.
As well, to minimize discrepancies related to unanticipated departures from the standard special attention given to the
issue. Consequently, the only anticipated departure from the standard is departure from Maximum gradient.
Three towns, one developing town and fifteen villages are crossed by the proposed road alignment. Due to the close
proximity of the towns and villages along the existing road and also during consultation all the three Weredas; preferred
the existing route except in town sections in which the alignment shall follow new routes as per the master plan of the
city.
A lieu attention shall be given to the geometric design and ROW cost minimization of the project road sections from
0+000 to Km 4+500, which is part of Assosa town. For the remaining sections, mitigative plans and cost minimizations
related to ROW issues should have to be considered throughout the project commencement life.
A soil profile sample of the proposed route was also taken and the engineering characteristics was determined in
laboratory as per the requirements of the TOR and standard procedures. Based on the sub grade condition
investigation the sub grade class was set to be S4 and the traffic loading was T6 for Assosa town considering 20-
years design period and the traffic loading T5 and sub grade class S4 for the road stretch from 7+000 to 130+020.33
considering 20-years design period. Here of, the AC thickness for Assosa town is AC 50mm, GBR 200mm and Sub-
GS 275mm; the outskirt of Assosa town AC 50mm, GB 175mm and GS 250mm for the remaining sections AC thickness
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of 50mm, CRB 175mm and Sub-base 225 mm is recommended. Moreover, a DBST shoulder with the pavement layers
extended up to the edge of the shoulder is recommended.
Locations of possible source of materials had been indicated. Thus, four natural gravel sources for sub base material
three borrow pits embankment fill sources, three rock quarries and five water sources have been identified during the
study of the project road. To check the quality of the water for the intended purposes, the PH was tested, and total
dissolved solids, chloride and sulphate contents were identified. The laboratory test results are attached in Appendix
5-1 of this report.
The geotechnical aspects had been considered and mitigative measures had been proposed for problematic soils.
Safety aspects of the proposed route had also been considered. Finally, the consultant put uttermost effort to provide
environmentally friendly, economically viable and practicable concept design.
This document “Concept Design Report” is a crude guide that is prepared based on the consultants detailed site
investigation and initial findings. The Design-Builder shall develop the Project design so as to meet all the requirements
of the Contract Documents. If the Design-Builder adopts the Conceptual Design as the basis from which it will design
the Project, the Design-Builder is responsible for:
• Ensuring that the resulting design meets the requirements as specified in the Contract Documents.
• Assuming full responsibility for any project requirements as per this provision arising from using the
Conceptual Designs as the basis of the Project design and construction.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ I
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. X
LIST OF PHOTOS ........................................................................................................ XIII
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................XIV
1. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction and purpose ..................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Contract Data....................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Scope of the Consultancy Service and Objectives .............................................................................. 4
1.3.1 Objective of the Study ........................................................................................ 4
1.3.2 Scope of the Study .............................................................................................. 4
1.4 Project Description............................................................................................................................... 6

2.TRAFFIC STUDY ...........................................................................................................9
2.1 General ................................................................................................................................................ 9

2.2 Traffic Count ........................................................................................................................................ 9
2.3 Classified Traffic Volume Counts ......................................................................................................... 9
2.3.1 Estimation of Average Daily Traffic (ADT) .................................................... 10
2.3.2 Traffic Variation: Day and Night .....................................................................10
2.3.3 Seasonal Variation in Traffic and Estimation of Seasonal Conversation Factors..10
2.3.4 Estimation of Average Annual Daily Traffic ................................................... 11
2.3.5 Recommended Road Section and Estimation of Average Annual Daily Traffic13
2.4 Conversion of Non-motorable Traffic to Motorable Traffic ................................................................. 13

2.4.1 Conversion of Non Motorable to Motorable Traffic ........................................14
2.5 Generated Traffic ............................................................................................................................... 15

2.5.1 Travel Time to Determine Generated Traffic ................................................... 16
2.5.2 Generated Traffic Factor Determination .......................................................... 17
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2.6 Origin and Destination Survey ..................................................................................................... 18
2.7 Traffic Projection .......................................................................................................................... 19
2.7.1 General……………………………………………………………………………19
2.7.2 Project Schedule ............................................................................................... 19
2.7.3 Traffic Projection .............................................................................................. 19
2.7.4 Analysis of Past Traffic Data ............................................................................20
2.8 Elasticity of Transport Demand……………………………………………..2-2

2.9 The National Economic Context…………………………………………….2-2
2.9.1 General ............................................................................................................ 2-2
2.9.2 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Ethiopia ................................................... 2-3
2.9.3 Fuel Consumption........................................................................................... 2-4
2.9.4 Transportation Demand Elasticity .................................................................. 2-4
2.9.5 Projections ...................................................................................................... 2-6
3. ROUTE SELECTION…………………………………………………………………….3-8
3.1 Identification of alternative routes ..................................................................................................... 3-8

3.2 Public Consultations ......................................................................................................................... 3-8
3.3 Route assessment of the existing road ............................................................................................. 3-8
4.TOPOGRAPHYSURVEY……………………………………………………………4-10
4.1 Sampling of stretches for surveying ................................................................................................ 4-10

4.2 Mobilization of Surveyors and Equipment’s .................................................................................... 4-10
4.3 Data Collection ............................................................................................................................... 4-10
4.4 Scope of Topographic Survey......................................................................................................... 4-11
4.5 GPS Surveying Methodology .......................................................................................................... 4-11
4.5.1 Establishment of Geodetic Control Points Using Global Positioning System (GPS)
4-11
4.5.2 Tying with National Coordinate System ...................................................... 4-11
4.5.3 Coordinate System ........................................................................................ 4-12

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4.5.4 Verification of Positioning............................................................................ 4-12
4.5.5 Data Processing and Mapping ...................................................................... 4-12
4.6 Benchmark Setup ........................................................................................................................... 4-13

4.6.1 Control Traverse-Line .................................................................................. 4-13
4.6.2 Geometric Level-Line................................................................................... 4-13
4.7 Collection of Cross-section Data ..................................................................................................... 4-14

4.8 Data Processing and CADD ........................................................................................................... 4-14
5. CONCEPT HYDROLOGY/HYDRAULICS REPORT ............................................................ 15
5.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT ....................................................................................... 15

5.1.1 Location ............................................................................................................15
5.1.2 Soil types ..........................................................................................................16
5.1.3 Land use ............................................................................................................17
5.2 DATA COLLECTION & DESKTOP STUDIES ................................................................................... 18

5.2.1 Climatic data .....................................................................................................18
5.2.2 Stream Flow Data ............................................................................................. 20
5.2.3 Topographic Maps and GIS Data .....................................................................20
5.2.4 Relevant Design Manuals & Documents .......................................................... 21
5.3 Hydrology/Hydraulics Analysis & Design ........................................................................................... 22

5.3.1 Drainage Design Manuals Adopted ..................................................................22
5.3.2 Hydrologic Regime of the Project Area ........................................................... 23
5.3.3 Return Periods & Rainfall Intensities ............................................................... 23
5.3.4 DEPARTURES FROM STANDARDS ........................................................... 26
5.3.5 DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROJECT AREA ................... 26
5.3.6 CATCHMENT DELINEATION......................................................................27
5.3.7 COMPUTATION OF CATCHMENT PARAMETERS ..................................27
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5.3.8 PEAK DISCHARGE COMPUTATION .......................................................... 27
5.3.9 OPENING SIZE DETERMINATION ............................................................. 28
5.4 STRUCTURES IN THE ROAD PROJECT......................................................................................... 28

5.4.1 BRIDGES & MAJOR DRAINAGE STRUCTURES ......................................28
5.4.2 MINOR DRAINAGE STRUCTURES............................................................. 32
5.4.3 Road Side DitchES Design ............................................................................... 41
5.5 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR Cross Drainage Structures ........................................................................ 42

5.5.1 CULVERT DESIGN CRITERIA .....................................................................42
5.5.2 BRIDGE DESIGN CRITERIA ........................................................................43
6. FIELD INVESTIGATIONS OF SUBGRADE AND CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 44
6.1 GENERAL ......................................................................................................................................... 44

6.1.1 SUBGRADE SOIL INVESTIGATIONS ......................................................... 44
6.1.2 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL INVESTIGATION ......................................44
6.1.3 LABORATORY INVESTIGATION ............................................................... 44
6.1.4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ............................................... 44
6.2 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF LABORATORY TEST RESULTS .................................. 46

6.2.1 FIELD INVESTIGATION WORKS ..........................................................................46
6.2.1.1 GENERAL.....................................................................................................46
6.2.2 EXISTING PAVEMENT CONDITION SURVEY ....................................................... 46
6.2.3 SUB GRADE SOIL INVESTIGATION .....................................................................49
6.3 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL INVESTIGATION ........................................................................... 52

6.4 LABORATORY INVESTIGATION ................................................................................................... 59
6.4.1 LABORATORY TESTS .................................................................................. 59
6.4.2 LABORATORY TEST DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION .......60
6.4.3 SUBGRADE SOIL TEST DATA INTERPRETATION .................................67
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6.4.4 ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERAILS ......69
6.5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .................................................................................... 72

6.5.1 SUBGRADE MATERIALS .............................................................................72
6.5.2 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ...................................................................73
7. PAVEMENT DESIGN .................................................................................................74
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 74

7.2 Design Standards and Departure ...................................................................................................... 74
7.2.1 Design Standards ......................................................................................................... 74
7.2.2 Design Period ............................................................................................................... 74
7.3 Traffic Loading ................................................................................................................. 74
7.3.1 Mean Equivalency Factor (EF) ..................................................................................... 74
7.3.2 Design Traffic in terms of cumulative number of ESA (CESA)...................................... 75
7.3.3 DESIGN TRAFFIC CLASSES ...................................................................................... 77
7.4 ANALYSIS OF SUBGRADE SOILS ................................................................................................... 78

7.4.1 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF THE SUBGRADE SOILS .................................79
7.4.2 DETERMINATION OF HOMOGENOUS SECTIONS AND DESIGN CBR .................. 80
7.4.3 SUBGRADE AND TRAFFIC CLASSES BASED ON ERA’S PAVEMENT DESIGN MANUAL
86
7.5 PAVEMENT DESIGN ........................................................................................................................ 86

7.5.1 PAVEMENT DESIGN USING ERA’s PAVEMENT DESIGN MANUAL 2013 ............... 86
8. GEOTECHNICAL CONCEPT DESIGN............................................................................... 90
8.1. General ............................................................................................................................................. 90

8.1.1 Regional Geology & Structures..................................................................................... 90
8.1.2 Local Geology & Structures .......................................................................................... 92
8.1.3 Geomorphological settings of the area ......................................................................... 95
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8.1.4 Tectonics and structures……………………………………………………………………………. ….95
8.2. Site Reconnaissance for Slope Stability ........................................................................................... 95

8.3. Preliminary Foundation Investigation ................................................................................................ 98
8.4. Other Geotechnical Issues................................................................................................................ 99
8.4.1 Seismic Hazard…………………………………………………………………………….99
8.5 GEOMETRIC DESIGN………………………………………………………………100
8.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 100

8.6 Design Control and Criteria ....................................................................................................... 103
8.6.1 Functional Classification ..........................................................................103
8.6.2 Design Standards ...................................................................................... 103
8.6.3 Type of area Classification .......................................................................107
8.6.4 Road users and their characteristics .......................................................... 108
8.6.5 ROW obstructions ..................................................................................... 111
8.6.6 Geotechnical considerations .....................................................................111
8.6.7 Seasonally wet ground .............................................................................. 112
8.7 Selection of Design Standard Parameters and their Limiting Values ......................................... 113
8.7.1 Geometric Design Elements ...........................................................................113
8.7.2 Typical Cross sections .................................................................................... 118
8.7.3 Side slopes for cuts and fills ...........................................................................118
8.7.4 Climbing lanes ................................................................................................ 119
8.7.5 Medians and median openings........................................................................119
8.7.6 Phasing of horizontal and vertical alignment ................................................. 119
8.7.7 At Grade Intersections .................................................................................... 120
8.7.8 Departures from standard ............................................................................... 121
9 STRUCTURES DESIGN ............................................................................................ 122
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9.5 Structures Design Standard ....................................................................................................... 122
9.6 Design Methodology .................................................................................................................. 122
9.7 Loading ...................................................................................................................................... 122
9.8 Materials .................................................................................................................................... 122
9.9 Structure Type Selection ........................................................................................................... 123
9.10 Structural Evaluation of Existing structures ............................................................................... 124
9.10.1 Detail Design ............................................................................................ 125
9.10.2 Structures in the Project ............................................................................ 127
10 ROAD SAFETY ........................................................................................................129
10.5 Review of Existing Accident Data .............................................................................................. 129

10.6 Road Safety Design ................................................................................................................... 133
10.6.1 Road safety Philosophy............................................................................. 133
10.6.2 Risk factors influencing crash involvement .............................................. 134
10.6.3 Road safety design principles and strategies ............................................ 136
10.6.4 Road Safety Audit ..................................................................................... 137
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List of Tables
Table 1- 1: Contract Data ..............................................................................................................................................3
Table 1- 2: Project Description .......................................................................................................................................6
Table 2- 1: Seasonal Conversion factor along the road (Bambasi Begi)......................................................................11
Table 2- 2 AADT and Traffic count at Station 1 &2 ......................................................................................................11
Table 2- 3: AADT and Traffic count at station 3 ...........................................................................................................12
Table 2- 4: AADT and Traffic count for the first sections (1 &2) ...................................................................................13
Table 2- 5: AADT and Traffic count for the second section at station three .................................................................13
Table 2- 6: Non Motorable Traffic on the project Road ...............................................................................................14
Table 2- 7: Converted NMT to Motorable Traffic ..........................................................................................................15
Table 2- 8: Result of Travel Time Survey along the Project Road Section ..................................................................17
Table 2- 9: Generated Traffic Factor for the project Road Section ..............................................................................18
Table 2- 10: OD Survey matrix.....................................................................................................................................18
Table 2- 11: Project Schedule ......................................................................................................................................19
Table 2- 12: Historical ERA’s AADT (2011-2018) Volumes and Volumes and Trends in Begi - Bambasi Road..........21
Table 2- 13: Projected Traffic of the Road Section One...............................................................................................22
Table 2- 14: Projected Traffic of the Road Section Two...............................................................................................23
Table 2- 15:Vehicle Kilometer of Travel in Ethiopia (2001 – 2016) ............................................................................ 2-1
Table 2- 16: Growth rate of Vehicle Kilometers.......................................................................................................... 2-2
Table 2- 17: Percentage Growth rate of Real GDP and GDP by Sectors ................................................................. 2-3
Table 2- 18: Expected GDP Growth in Ethiopia (2010 – 2030).................................................................................. 2-3
Table 2- 19: Fuel Import of the Country ..................................................................................................................... 2-4
Table 2- 20: Traffic Growth rate based on Population, Income and GDP (Medium Scenario) ................................... 2-6
Table 2- 21: Comparison of Derived Traffic Growth Rates ........................................................................................ 2-7
Table 4- 1: List of Survey instruments...................................................................................................................... 4-10
Table 5- 1: List of collected Topographic maps (1:50,000 scale) .................................................................................21
Table 5- 2: 24 Hours depth-frequency Table................................................................................................................24
Table 5- 3: Design Storm Frequency Criteria ...............................................................................................................25
Table 5- 4: Summary of Hydrologic Analysis - Bridges & Major Drainage Structures ..................................................29
Table 5- 5: Summary of Hydraulic Analysis - Bridges & Major Drainage Structures ....................................................30
Table 5- 6: Summary of Hydrologic Analysis - Slab & Box Culverts ............................................................................33
Table 5- 7:Summary of Hydraulic Analysis- Slab & Box Culverts ................................................................................37
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Table 6- 1: Subgrade soils distribution along the project road .....................................................................................45
Table 6- 2: Summary of the roadbed materials for Assosa -Tongo Road Project ........................................................50
Table 6- 3: Locations of Natural Gravel Materials Identified along the road project .....................................................53
Table 6- 4: Locations of Rock Sources & Quality Test Results Identified along the road project .................................55
Table 6- 5: Location of Sand sources and the quality test results ................................................................................57
Table 6- 6: Location of Water sources along the route and Quality Test Results ........................................................58
Table 6- 7: Testes conducted on sub grade and Construction Materials. ....................................................................59
Table 6- 8: showing degree of plasticity of the subgrade soils .....................................................................................62
Table 6- 9: Subgrade Soil Composition along the project Road ..................................................................................63
Table 6- 10: Unsuitable soil stretches along the Road Project .....................................................................................68
Table 6- 11: Waterlogged stretches along The Project Road ......................................................................................69
Table 6- 12: Summary of Test results of the Quarry Sources ......................................................................................69
Table 6- 13: Summary of Natural gravel Sub base Test Results .................................................................................70
Table 6- 14: Laboratory Test Results of Materials for capping layer and borrow fill.....................................................71
Table 6- 15: Summary of Laboratory Test Results of Natural Sand sources ...............................................................71
Table 6- 16: Summary of Laboratory Test Results of water sources ...........................................................................72
Table 7- 1: Equivalency Factors: ERA 2013 PDM, Section 2.4.4, Table 2.6................................................................74
Table 7- 2: Adopted growth rates of Traffic for Assosa-Tongo Road Project ...............................................................75
Table 7- 3: Tongo Town & Rural Sections Cumulative number of vehicles in both directions .....................................75
Table 7- 4: Assosa Town Section Cumulative number of vehicles in both directions ..................................................76
Table 7- 5: Tongo Town and Rural Sections Design Traffic Class ...............................................................................77
Table 7- 6: Assosa Town Section Design Traffic Class ...............................................................................................78
Table 7- 7: Summary of Design Traffic Classes ...........................................................................................................78
Table 7- 8: Summary of the roadbed materials for Assosa - Tongo Road Project .......................................................79
Table 7- 9: Homogenous section, native design CBR and subgrade strength Class ...................................................82
Table 7- 10: Homogenous section unit-1 .....................................................................................................................82
Table 7- 11 : Design CBR for the section from Km 1+650 to Km 19+70 ......................................................................83
Table 7- 15: Summery of 90 percentile for the whole road section ..............................................................................85
Table 7- 16: Traffic Classes and Subgrade Strength Classes According to ERA 2013 PDM ......................................86
Table 7- 17: Design CBR and Subgrade Class after Treatment ..................................................................................87
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Table 7- 18: Summery of sub grade and traffic class for the section of the road. ........................................................87
Table 7- 19: Roadway Pavement Thicknesses & Compositions as per ERA 2013, PDM -Chart B1 ...........................88
Table 7- 20: Walkway and Shoulder Pavement thicknesses and Compositions ..........................................................88
Table 8- 1:Recommended cut and fill slopes – Vertical to Horizontal ..........................................................................96
Table 8- 2: Traffic forecast for section one (station one and two) .............................................................................. 104
Table 8- 3: Traffic forecast for section two (station three- Assosa town).................................................................... 105
Table 8- 4: ERA GDM, 2013 Terrain classification..................................................................................................... 106
Table 8- 5: Terrain Classification ............................................................................................................................... 106
Table 8- 6: Percentage distribution of terrain ............................................................................................................. 107
Table 8- 7: Area classification along the route ........................................................................................................... 107
Table 8- 8: Weighted average traffic at mid-life of 2035 and percentage proportions ................................................ 108
Table 8- 9: Design vehicle characteristic (ERAGDM,2013, Table 5-2) ...................................................................... 109
Table 8- 10: Non- Motorized Average Daily Traffic Volume ....................................................................................... 110
Table 8- 11: Expansive Soil Stretches ....................................................................................................................... 112
Table 8- 12: Seasonally Water logged stretches along proposed route ..................................................................... 113
Table 8- 13: Design Standards .................................................................................................................................. 114
Table 8- 14: Geometric Design Parameters of DC-5 ................................................................................................. 116
Table 8- 15: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal ............................................................................................. 118
Table 8- 16: List of major and moderate intersections ............................................................................................... 120
Table 8- 17: Roundabouts as per the master plan of town ........................................................................................ 121
Table 9- 1: List of compulsory structural drawings ..................................................................................................... 126
Table 10- 1: Severity of traffic accidents in Ethiopia .................................................................................................. 130
Table 10- 2: Road Traffic Fatality Crashes by Road Type and Road Pavement July 2005-June 2011 ..................... 131
Table 10- 3: Fatal and Injury Crashes in the Six Year Period by Lanes/Medians, Road Alignment, Junction Type and
Illumination Conditions ............................................................................................................................................... 131
Table 10- 4: Crashes by Land Use ............................................................................................................................ 132
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List of Photos
Photo 1- 1: Project start Tongo town [667559.215E, 1111912.614N] ............................................................................8
Photo 1- 2: Project End ( Assosa Town ) .......................................................................................................................8
Photo 3- 1: Steep gradient at Asosa Town ................................................................................................................ 3-9
Photo 8- 1: Massive, slightly weathered/sheared granite, exposed around Megel-32 Village ....................................93
Photo 8- 2: Slope of the cut section at mountain side from Assosa to Kushmegene; Sherkole Engi ...........................93
Photo 8- 3: Massive, slightly weathered/sheared granite, exposed around Megel-32 Village .....................................94
Photo 8- 4: Massive, slightly weathered granite, exposed at Beldegis village ............................................................94
Photo 8- 5: Slope of the cut section at mountain side from Assosa to Kushmegene; Sherkole Engi ..........................97
Photo 8- 6: Detail view of the slope cut section where discontinuity features are dipping out from the slope; favorable
for sliding......................................................................................................................................................................97
Photo 8- 7: Inaccessible mountainous side from Fufur to Bangatorka village viewed LHS from Asossa; where due care
will need during the construction of the project road ....................................................................................................98
Photo 8- 8: Fufur River; at the enterance to Fufur village from Asosa side, where thick river deposit noted ...............99
Photo 8- 9: Kulu River; from Fufur to Bangatorka village where thick, about 2m, sandy silt deposit noted..................99
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List of Figures
Figure 1- 1: Project Location ..........................................................................................................................................7
Figure 2- 1: Trends of Traffic in the project area (Begi – Bambasi), 2011 -2018 and Trends Estimate 2019 - 2020 2-1
Figure 5- 1: Weredas around the project area ............................................................................................................16
Figure 5- 2: Zones around the project area..................................................................................................................16
Figure 5- 3: Soil Types of the project area ..................................................................................................................17
Figure 5- 4: Land use of the project area .....................................................................................................................17
Figure 5- 5: Mean annual rainfall of the project area....................................................................................................19
Figure 5- 6: Daily maximum & minimum temperature of the project area ....................................................................19
Figure 5- 7: Mean annual rainfall & mean daily temperature .......................................................................................20
Figure 5- 8: Project area rainfall region (ERA Drainage Design Manual 2013/2002) ...................................................23
Figure 5- 9: IDF curve & 24 hours depth-frequency table of the project area .............................................................25
Figure 5- 10: Drainage Map of the Project (Map rotated left by 90o) ............................................................................27
Figure 6- 1:- Assosa to fufur Kebele Accessible Road .................................................................................................47
Figure 6- 2: Tongo to BangaTerko kebele Accessible Road ........................................................................................48
Figure 6- 3: Assosa Town DBST Road (Existing) .......................................................................................................48
Figure 6- 4: Composition of soil extension along the project road ...............................................................................51
Figure 6- 5: Potential Natural gravel sub base source @ Km 19+000 .........................................................................53
Figure 6- 6: Potential Natural gravel sub base source @ Km 128+020 .......................................................................54
Figure 6- 7: Potential Hard rock source at km 119+560 offset 2.3km ..........................................................................56
Figure 6- 8: Potential Hard rock source at km 0+390 offset 11km ...............................................................................56
Figure 6- 9: Potential Natural sand source at km 57+470 ............................................................................................57
Figure 6- 10: Potential water source at Yakobo River ..................................................................................................58
Figure 6- 11: potential water source at Komosha River ...............................................................................................59
Figure 6- 12: Variation of Plasticity Index (PI) For The Road Project ...........................................................................61
Figure 6- 13: Variation of Liquid Limit (LL) For The Road Project ................................................................................62
Figure 6- 14:Plasticity Chart of Sub grade samples .....................................................................................................63
Figure 6- 15: Percentage Compositions of Subgrade Soil for the Road Project ..........................................................64
Figure 6- 16: Variation of MDD Along the Project Road...............................................................................................65
Figure 6- 17: Variation of OMC for the Project Road ...................................................................................................65
Figure 6- 18: Variation of CBR Value for the Project Road ..........................................................................................66
Figure 7- 1: Tongo Town & Rural Sections Cumulative number of vehicles in two directions .....................................76
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Figure 7- 2: Assosa Town Section Cumulative number of vehicles in two directions...................................................77
Figure 7- 3: Composition of soil extension along the project road. ..............................................................................79
Figure 7- 4: Analysis of unit delineation by cumulative sum from Km 1+650 to Km 130+020.33 .................................81
Figure 7- 5: Analysis of unit delineation by cumulative difference along the project Road ...........................................81
Figure 7- 6: Design CBR for the section from Km 19+270 to Km 46+270....................................................................84
Figure 7- 7: Design CBR for the section from km 46+270 to km 76+950 .....................................................................85
Figure 7- 8: Pavement Thicknesses and Compositions of Table 7-20: (a) for Assosa Town Section; (b) for outskirt of
Assosa Town, and (c) for Tongo Town Section and Rural part of Assosa – Tongo Road Project ...............................89
Figure 7- 9: Shoulder & Walkway Pavement Thicknesses and Compositions of Table 7-20: Shoulder is to be applied
on both sides of rural part of the Assosa – Tongo road project and walkway pavement thicknesses are to be applied
on Assosa and Tongo Town Sections ..........................................................................................................................89
Figure 8- 1: Regional Geology of Assosa Area ............................................................................................................91
Figure 8- 2: Geology along the project road alignment ................................................................................................92
Figure 8- 3: Ethiopia’s seismic hazard map in terms of ground acceleration ES EN 1998:2015 ............................... 100
Figure 8- 4: Design Vehicle template, (ERADGM,2013 Figure 5-3) ........................................................................... 110
Figure 10- 1: Trends in Reported Road Traffic Death , Source ( (WHO, 2018) ......................................................... 129
Figure 10- 2: Major causes of traffic accident (WHO,2015) ...................................................................................... 130
Pure Consulting Engineers PLC in Sub-Consultancy with Sound Engineering Solutions PLC xv
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction and purpose
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has launched Road Sector Development Program (RSDP) to enhance
development objectives and the living standard of the population all over the country. Accordingly, Ethiopian Roads
Authority, on behalf of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) is implementing various road projects
including new road construction, rehabilitation or upgrading of main trunk, link and rural roads to expand the Roads
Network all over the country.
The Government of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) represented by the Ethiopian Roads Authority
(ERA) has allocated funds towards the Consultancy Services to carry out Concept Design, Feasibility and EIA, RAP,
and Tender Document Preparation & Engineering Cost Estimate of Tongo Assosa road project.
The Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (the Employer) signed an
Agreement with Pure Consulting Engineers PLC in Sub-Consultancy with Sound Engineering Solutions PLC for
Consultancy Service for the Concept Design, Feasibility, EIA, RAP, Risk Assessment and Tender Document
Preparation & Engineering Cost Estimate of Tongo Assosa Road Project.
The Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) has been entrusted the responsibility of implementing this road project. ERA, on
the behalf of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, intends to utilize part of its budgetary allocation to finance
the Consultancy services for the project under reference. The provision of this service is procured through National
Competitive Bidding (NCB).
The preparation of Works tender documents on Design and Build basis dictates the application of the highest possible
Engineering and Contract standard so that the implementation of the construction project can be realized without undue
imbalance of risk between the contracting parties. Therefore, based on this premise the Consultant carries out such
services with utmost care, diligence and expertise.
The Consultant shall perform all necessary services and activities to fulfill the stated objectives whether or not a specific
activity is stated in the Scope of Services in the Terms of Reference.
The purpose of this concept design document is to present findings on sensitive areas such as landslide area, swampy
areas, high embankment stability, flood plains; and identified Environmental and Social problems and together with
their corresponding recommendations for mitigation measures given as Engineering solutions. The findings on
identified Environmental and Social problems shall include but not limited to:
Pure Consulting Engineers PLC in Sub-Consultancy with Sound Engineering Solutions PLC 1
• ROW issue such as identification of spoil areas, resettlement/land use demand of the design, reinstatement
• Effects of deep cuts and high fills on the livelihood of local residents
• Traffic management issues in town sections, difficult terrains
• Health and safety on site
1.2 Contract Data
Table 1- 1: Contract Data
Project Name : Bule Hora – Shakiso – Kibremengist Road Project, Lot 1: Kibremengist-
Bule Kero & Tango-Assosa Road Project And Bule Hora – Shakiso –
Kibremengist Road Project, Lot 1: Tongo Assosa Road Project
Lot : Tongo Assosa Road Project
Project No. : S/01/NCB/RFP/GOE/2012 EFY
Funding : The government of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE)
Consultant : Pure Consulting Engineers PLC in Sub-Consultancy with Sound
Engineering Solutions PLC
Type of Services : Concept Design, Tender Documents and Engineering Cost Estimate
Project Period : Six (6) Months
Consultancy Contract
Signed on: : January 3, 2020
Commencement Date : 14 January 2020 (ERA’s letter dated 14 January 2020 with reference
No. AA19/26/10-155
Planned Duration : Six (6) Months
Project Cost : Ethiopian Birr 15,458,875 (Ethiopian Birr Fifteen Million Four Hundred
Fifty Eight Thousand Eight Hundred Seventy Five Only) inclusive of
15%VAT and local taxes.
Concept design of Lot 1 and Phase : Ethiopian Birr 4,098,071.00 (Ethiopian Birr Four Million Ninety Eight
I of Detailed engineering Design of Thousand Seventy One Only) inclusive of 15%VAT and local taxes.
the first section/Lot
1.3 Scope of the Consultancy Service and Objectives
1.3.1 Objective of the Study
The main objective of the consultancy service is to prepare the Concept Design, Engineering Cost estimate and Tender
Document preparation for the Design-Build type of works contract of Tongo Assosa Road Project.
The specific objective and an immediate aim of an environmental impact assessment of this project is to properly guide
the decision making processes through identifying potentially significant environmental effects and proposing realistic
environmental management and monitoring plan of the proposed project so that it will serve as a guide for the upcoming
works Contract and eventually help achieve the overall objective of road sector development program.
1.3.2 Scope of the Study

The scope of services of the proposed project is to execute the committed assignment with an utmost care, diligence
and experience so that the implementation of the construction project can be realized without undue imbalances of
risks between the contracting parties. To achieve these intentions, the scope of work includes but not limited to the
following.
✓ Confirm the project start and end control points and determine intermediate control points of the project in an
acceptable way from social point of view while fitting the overall purpose of the project with due consideration
for technical and environmental matters;
✓ Select at least three alternative alignments that pass through the control points and eventually choose the
preferred alignment with full justification based generally on qualitative parameters supplemented by
quantifiable ones where possible. This is expected to be done in consultation with key stakeholders (Region,
Zone and Wereda Administration) with particular emphasis on Wereda Administration;
✓ Identify and locate project road sections where it is impossible to implement ERA’s Design Standards,
especially on mountainous and escarpment terrains and propose to what extent the design criteria can be
relaxed on such problematic areas;
✓ Determine the terrain condition of the preferred route as well as its length and then conduct ground survey of
the 20% of the project route length; giving priority in order of escarpment, mountainous, rolling and flat terrains
of the road;
✓ Conduct at least preliminary site visits and identify problematic areas such as landslide areas (existing and
potential), extent of expansive soil and swampy areas and propose possible recommendation to be taken as
remedial measures;
✓ Carryout identification of town sections along the route alignment in terms of length, XY coordinates of the
start and end points of the same. This has to be done in close consultation and involvement of Wereda and
Zone Administrations;
✓ Conduct preliminary soil extension survey, identification of construction materials sites as well as the type,
size and number of crossing structures and side drains;
✓ Produce the Employers’ Requirements Components of the tender document and estimate the duration of the
project which is believed to be sufficient to execute the work load of the project with an optimum cost-time
relationship;
✓ Prepare a complete cost estimate for the Design and Build works contract based on current market prices
while determining the roadway (carriageway) surfacing;
Similarly, the specific scope the EIA work of this Concept Design Project includes but not limited to:
✓ Determine the extent of adverse impacts of the project on landslide, soil erosion associated with excessive
earthworks and extent of deforestation;
✓ Identify the impact of drainage channels on the surrounding resources and propose appropriate scour and
erosion control measures;
✓ Identify adverse impacts of the project on sensitive natural environment such as wildlife resources, natural
and manmade vegetation, sensitive habitats like parks, sanctuaries, game reserves and ecosystem bio
diversities;
✓ Identify the possible impacts of the project on cultural heritage and historical sites, possible contamination of
soil and water resources by hazardous substances, surface and subsurface water resources due to earthwork
operation and works of drainage structures as well as erection, operation and rehabilitation of temporarily
used construction facilities such as camp site, borrow pits and quarry sites, material production and storage
areas, etc…;
✓ Briefly define the site reinstatement activities, the method and level of reinstatement, cost of reinstatement
and how to compel the contractor for failure to not to reinstate the damaged sites.
✓ Conduct public consultation with key stakeholders and proposed waste disposal areas if found practicable;
In summary, the scope of the environmental impact assessment study will therefore, include assessment of all
environmental and social baseline conditions such as physio-chemical, biological, ecological and social issues
prevailing at the project sites and its environs. The negative and positive environmental and social impacts of the
project components will be articulated. The study will be carried out by categorizing possible impacts or influence areas
as direct and indirect impact zones. Generally, the scope of the study will be confined to assessment of overall
environmental and social aspects of the road project.
1.4 Project Description
The Tongo – Asosa Design and Build Road Project is located entirely in Benishangul Gumuz National Regional State,
and is having a total length of about 130 km. The starting point of the project i.e. Asosa Town is located at about 665km
from Addis Ababa. The project starts at Asosa town which is located in the Benishangul Gumuz Regional State: Asosa
zone. The approximate coordinates in ADINDAN projection for the starting point are (E=671392.065, N=1115410.685)
(UTM: ADINDAN, Zone 36). The project traverses through Asosa Town Administration, Megele 32, Megele 33,
Abrehamo, Sherkole-Engi, Sherkole-ofendi, Kushmagan, Budur Kebeles, Fufur Kebele, Banga kebele, Baldegis
kebele, Shoshor kebele, Mimi kebele and ends at Tongo town with approximate ending point coordinates of
(E=659537.007, N=1035295.758).
Table 1- 2: Project Description
Project Name Construction Works of Tongo – Asosa Design and Build Road Project
Benishangul Gumuz National Regional State of the Federal Democratic Republic

Region/Zone
of Ethiopia, Asosa Zone.
Asosa Town (Approximate Coordinates: (E=671633.262, N=1115491.962) which
Starting Point Description
is located at Benishangul Gumuz Region
Ending Point Description Tongo Town (Approximate Coordinates: (E=659537.007, N=1035295.758)
Length (km) 130km

Road Functional DC7 for town sections and DC5 for the section from End of Assosa town section
Classification up to the End of the project
Climate Classification Weynadega and Kola
Elevation (m) (min – max) 618.334 – 1984.975
Traffic Volume vpd For Assosa town AADT is 5434, for the remaining section AADT is 945
Project Location
Figure 1- 1: Project Location
Photo 1- 1: Project start Tongo town [667559.215E, 1111912.614N]
Photo 1- 2: Project End ( Assosa Town )
2. TRAFFIC STUDY
2.1 General
This chapter presents traffic studies and analyses carried out for addressing various objectives and issues pertaining
to improvement of the project road. The results of analysis will form inputs for designing the pavement and carrying out
a reliable economic analysis thereafter.
The traffic study aims at estimating the base year daily traffic and travel characteristics on the project corridor and
forecasting the Average Annual Daily Traffic for project horizon year considering various constituent streams namely
normal, induced and divertible traffic on the project road considering immediate influence area and surrounding road
network of the project road. Various aspects of traffic study are presented in subsequence sections of this chapter.
2.2 Traffic Count
In view of the available information and data requirements of the project road, the Consultants identified the data-gaps,
and planned to conduct a series of traffic surveys. In consideration of the TOR requirements, following traffic surveys
were conducted;
➢ 7 Days Classified Traffic Volume Counts; and
➢ Days Origin-Destination Surveys.
The programme of classified traffic counts was conducted at the two sites, along the project road. Traffic count points
were established at the outskirts of the towns where there was little local traffic associated with junctions within the
towns. This was to ensure that the counts represent the average traffic volume on a given section of road and not
influenced by local traffic movements.
The surveys on the project road were conducted for seven consecutive days, for 12-hour day counts from 6.00 a.m. to
6.00 p.m. and during the period two 4-hour night counts were taken due to insecurity to count at night in the project
area.
Vehicle counts were summarized on hourly intervals and were recorded in each direction at each site.
The vehicle classification system used for traffic programs has been in line with the ERA system consisting of eight
vehicle types.
Based on the reconnaissance survey and observation of the project road and its expected traffic movement, these
traffic survey locations were selected, as given below:
Classified Count conducted at:
Staion1) Tongo Round About
Station 2) At Refuge Camp at out outskirt of Assosa town
station 3) Assosa Round About
OD Survey conducted at:

OD 1) Gure (at the Junction of Guqua and Tongo)
2.3 Classified Traffic Volume Counts

Classified traffic volume counts were conducted seven days between, February 15 –2020 to February 21, 2020. The
traffic counts were normally carried out for 12 hours (6:00 am-6:00 pm) each day and 4 hours’ night count for two days.
The vehicles were classified into eight categories following the ERA’s practice as indicated below:
I. Motorized Vehicles
Cars (including taxis);
Utilities (also termed L/Rover);
Small Buses;
Large Buses;
Small Trucks (2-axle);
Medium Trucks (2-axle);
Heavy Trucks (3-axle); and
Truck -Trailers (or Articulated).
2.3.1 Estimation of Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
In order to obtain traffic information needed for the design of the road project, the raw traffic data was processed
manually. It is evident that the traffic information needed for the detailed engineering design of the road project are the
Average Daily Traffic (ADT) and Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) which shows average 24 hours’ traffic movement
during all seasons (for a year) respectively. To this effect, the following steps were followed in computing the ADT and
the AADT: -
➢ Seven-day time (6:00 am to 6:00 pm) count of each vehicle type was summed up.
➢ The sum of day time traffic count of each vehicle type was divided by seven to get the average day time traffic
(for 12 hours).
➢ The average day time traffic was multiplied by the night factor to get ADT for 24hrs.
➢ The ADT was adjusted with seasonal adjustment factor to get the AADT.
2.3.2 Traffic Variation: Day and Night
As the traffic counts were carried out for 12hours for seven days and 16 hours for two days respectively in a period of
seven days. One of the night count was done on market day and the second on normal week day. So, to determine
the ADT the ratios of the 16-hr count/12-hr count (termed as “night factor”) for each category of vehicle was calculated,
at survey station as shown in Table 2-2 below.
2.3.2.1 Limitations of Night count
The night factors shown in both count stations are Error! Reference source not found.suffer from the limitation that
they are not count for the 12 hours due to security reasons on the project area mostly count up to 4 hours at night.
However, count was taken for both stations at normal day and market day.
2.3.3 Seasonal Variation in Traffic and Estimation of Seasonal Conversation Factors
ERA implements three regular short period counts every year. The objective of these regular counts is to define Annual
Average Daily Traffic (AADT) following adjustment for seasonal variations in traffic flows. The twelve months of a year
are split into three equal seasons for its traffic monitoring and network planning purpose. The seasons on which traffic
surveys are executed are referred to as Cycle 1, 2, and 3. Accordingly while traffic being surveyed during cycle 1 is
considered representative of January- April season; cycle 2 refers to May – August and 3 for September – December.
The project under references traffic counts were executed in April so should be considered as Cycle 1. In this project
ERA’s Bambasi - Begi Road Cycle traffic for years (2015-2018) is used as seasonal traffic count as presented as Table
2-1 below:
Table 2- 1: Seasonal Conversion factor along the road (Bambasi Begi)
Year Cycle Car 4WD S.Bus L.Bus S.Truck M.Truck H T.T Total
.Truck
2015 1st 0 37 53 0 37 50 44 0 221
2nd
Cycle 0 26 64 10 45 36 24 10 215
3rd
Cycle 0 34 41 7 34 35 30 3 184
Annual Mean Cycle 0.0 32 53 6 39 40 33 4 207
2016 1st 0 67 112 16 89 68 58 10 420
2nd
Cycle 0 67 112 16 89 68 58 10 420
3rd
Cycle 0 67 112 16 89 68 58 10 420
Annual Mean Cycle 0 67 112 16 89 68 58 10 420
2017 1st 0 67 82 2 69 85 89 18 412
2nd
Cycle 0 51 57 3 61 36 29 29 266
3rd
Cycle 0 54 64 2 60 37 43 33 293
Annual Mean Cycle 0 57 68 2 63 53 54 27 324
2018 1st 0 62 82 2 66 42 43 37 334
2nd
Cycle 0
3rd
Cycle 0 58 153 16 76 71 44 11 429
Annual Mean Cycle 0.0 60 118 9 71 57 44 24 254
Seasonal 1st 1.00 0.93 1.06 1.65 1.00 0.89 0.80 1.00 0.96
Factors 2nd
Cycle 1.00 1.50 1.50 1.14 1.34 1.55 1.69 1.33 1.47
3rd
Cycle 1.00 1.02 0.95 0.80 1.01 1.03 1.07 1.14 1.00
Cycle
Seasonal Average 1.00 1.15 1.17 1.20 1.12 1.16 1.19 1.16 1.14
Source: Computed ERA Traffic Count by Cycles, 2020
Three SCFs were developed for each type of vehicle. The average SCF was thus computed from the three conversion
factors and this average SCF was used to estimate the AADT. Error! Reference source not found.Table 2-1 above
shows the SCFs by vehicle type for all stations and the next tables shows the estimated AADTs at two stations.
2.3.4 Estimation of Average Annual Daily Traffic
Table 2- 2 AADT and Traffic count at Station 1 &2
Date Cars 4WD Small Large Small Medium Heavy Truck Total
15/6/12 Normal 15 245 173
bus 79
bus 134
truck 96
truck 46
truck 16
tailer 804
16/6/12 Normal
Day 20 327 177 132 115 78 89 14 952
17/6/12 Market
Day 21 225 210 122 113 56 114 13 874
18/6/12 Normal
Day 22 228 146 71 134 82 140 11 834
19/6/12 Normal
Day 27 130 171 94 136 71 133 15 777
20/6/12 Normal
Day 21 229 120 68 90 88 86 14 716
21/6/12 Market
Day 17 187 171 112 104 69 83 14 757
Motorable NightDay
Count
1. market day
Date Cars 4WD Small large Small Medium Heavy Truck total
21/6/12 Market 0 60 40
bus 16
bus 45
truck 22
truck 31
truck 4tailer
2.Normal day Day
Date Cars 4WD Small large Small Medium Heavy Truck Total
19/6/12 Normal 6 53 39
bus 11
bus 44
truck 40
truck 29
truck 3tailer
Day
Night Factor
Market day 1 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.3
Non Market 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.2 1.2
ADT
day
15/6/12 Normal 18 345 212 88 177 150 56 19 1065
16/6/12 Normal
Day 24 460 217 147 152 122 108 17 1247
17/6/12 Market
Day 21 297 259 139 162 74 157 17 1126
18/6/12 Normal
Day 27 321 179 79 177 128 171 13 1095
19/6/12 Normal
Day 33 183 210 105 180 111 162 18 1002
20/6/12 Normal
Day 26 322 147 76 119 138 105 17 950
21/6/12 Market
Day 17 247 211 128 149 91 114 18 975
Average Day 24 311 205 109 160 116 125 17 1067
AADT
ADT
Seasonal Correction Factor ( SCF )
0.68 0.91 0.98 0.87 0.96 0.95 1.07 1.19
AADT MT 16 282 201 95 153 110 133 20 1018
Converted 26 1 0 1 0 0
AADT,
NMT 2020 16 282 227 96 154 111 133 20 1039
Table 2- 3: AADT and Traffic count at station 3

Date Car 4WD Small Large Small Medium Heavy Truck Total
21/07/2012 Normal 6s 383 292
bus 14
bus 118
truck 85
truck 87
truck 0tailer 985
22/07/2012 Normal
Day 11 343 305 38 77 39 23 4 840
23/07/2012 Normal
Day 23 402 502 50 146 100 63 5 1291
24/07/2012 Normal
Day 0 260 284 32 40 51 23 0 690
25/07/2012 Normal
Day 93 266 311 22 38 28 26 1 785
26/07/2012 Market
Day 15 465 421 25 53 75 51 21 1126
27/07/2012 Normal
Day 26 126 161 43 66 58 27 0 507
Motorable NightDay
Count
1. market day
Date Car 4WD Small large Small Medium Heavy Truck total
26/07/2012 Market day 3s 149 41
bus 5bus 15
truck 16
truck 13
truck 0tailer 242
2.Normal day
Date Car 4WD Small large Small Medium Heavy Truck Total
22/07/2012 Normal 8s 36 36
bus 0bus 8truck 42
truck 12
truck 0tailer 142
Night Factor day
Market day 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.0
Non Market 1.7 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.1 2.1 1.5 1.0
ADT
day
21/07/2012 Normal 10 423 326 14 130 177 132 0 1213
22/07/2012 Normal
Day 19 379 341 38 85 81 35 4 982
23/07/2012 Normal
Day 40 444 561 50 161 208 96 5 1565
24/07/2012 Normal
Day 0 287 318 32 44 106 35 0 822
25/07/2012 Normal
Day 161 294 348 22 42 58 40 1 965
26/07/2012 Market
Day 18 614 462 30 68 91 64 21 1368
27/07/2012 Normal
Day 45 139 180 43 73 120 41 0 642
Average Day 42 369 362 33 86 120 63 4 1079
AADT
ADT
Seasonal Correction Factor ( SCF )
1.1 1.17 1.20 1.12 1.16 1.19 1.16 1.14
AADT MT 48
5 431 434 37 100 143 73 5 1271
Converted 57 0 0 2 0 0
AADT,
NMT 2020 48 431 491 37 100 145 73 5 1330
2.3.5 Recommended Road Section and Estimation of Average Annual Daily Traffic
As we have seen from section 2.3.1 the AADT estimation we have three stations and AADT is estimated separately
for each station. However, the design team critically investigate the stations and recommended that the four station
should be grouped into homogenous sections of the road segment (please see the detail in Pavement section).
Accordingly, the section is categorized as section one& two and the remaining as section three Hence, AADT is
regrouped into two and presented as Table 2-4 below.
Table 2- 4: AADT and Traffic count for the first sections (1 &2)
Small Large Small Medium Heavy Truck
Date Cars 4WD Total
bus bus truck truck truck trailer
ADT
Average ADT 24 311 205 109 160 116 125 17 1067
AADT
SCF 0.68 0.91 0.98 0.87 0.96 0.95 1.07 1.19
AADT MT 16 282 201 95 153 110 133 20 1010
Converted
26 1 0 1 0 0
NMT
AADT 2020 16 282 227 96 154 111 133 20 1039
Table 2- 5: AADT and Traffic count for the second section at station three
Vehicles Cars 4WD Small large Small Medium Heavy Truck total
bus bus truck truck truck trailer
ADT
Average 23 46 58 64 67 72 33 12 375
ADT
AADT
SCF 0.68 0.91 0.98 0.87 0.96 0.95 1.07 1.19
AADT MT 15 42 57 55 64 68 35 14 350
NMT 0 0 6 0 0 1 0 0
Converted
AADT, 2020 15 42 63 55 64 69 35 14 357
2.4 Conversion of Non-motorable Traffic to Motorable Traffic
Since the road is a new road, it is not trafficable. The possible way to estimate traffic of the road is counting the non-
motorable traffic and changing this to motorable traffic. To this effect, the following steps were followed in changing
Non-motorable (NMT) to motorable traffic to compute ADT and the AADT: -
➢ Seven-day time (6:00 am to 6:00 pm) count of each NMT was conducted. NMT are pedestrian, pack animals,
animal drawn carts etc.
➢ The seven day counted NMT were summed up.
➢ The sum of day time traffic divided by seven to get Average Daily Time Traffic (ADTT) NMT
➢ ADTT is multiplied by Night Factor to get Average Daily Traffic (ADT) ADT is multiplied by Seasonal
conversion factor (SCF) to get the Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
Table 2- 6: Non Motorable Traffic on the project Road
Section one (Station 1 & 2) Section Two(Station 3)
Day Pack Pack
Cycle Pedestrians Carts Cycle Pedestrians Carts
Animal Animal
30/08/2012 87 3,611 77 128 62 1738 0 235
01/08/2012 65 14,224 182 215 137 2825 0 261
02/08/2012 80 3,708 115 140 192 3336 1 425
03/08/2012 96 4,063 253 231 174 3603 0 189
04/08/2012 90 3,704 125 366 198 4600 0 296
05/08/2012 124 3,420 197 239 328 5230 10 593
06/08/2012 260 4,526 498 397 95 1775 2 114
ADT 114 5322 207 245 170 3301 2 302
SCF 0.9
AADT 103 4790 186 221 153 2971 2 272
2.4.1 Conversion of Non Motorable to Motorable Traffic

The communities in the wereda have problems of access to road transport, it can be said that there is no properly
designed standard road that connects the project area community to the neighboring towns and weredas. They should
use long routes to access their neighboring weredas and towns. The impact is sever particularly on section two of the
project road. Consequently, the community is obliged to bear high cost of transportation and livelihood. Rural roads
are particularly critical to market the agricultural products from the community and to purchase modern products, due
to the absence of standard roads; the community does not have such an access. This hampers the socio-economic
development of the population.
The construction of the proposed road will play a significant role in the socio-economic development of the community
in the wereda and around the wereda by creating a great potential for the use of local resources, creating decent jobs,
support the local economy and strengthening local commerce and have therefore important implications for poverty
reduction. Furthermore, the construction of the proposed road will reduce travel time and burdens related to it and
reduce transportation cost. Hence, it will encourage & enhance the demand to travel more frequently. In addition, there
will be a modal shift from Non Moterable Traffic to Moterable Traffic; improving the modes from pack animals to animal
carts and animal carts to motorized freight traffic. There is a high probability that the impacts itemized hereunder will
be observed: -
• Freight transport employing animals will partly shift to trucks.
• Pedestrian traffic and passengers using horseback can partly shift to vehicular traffic.
• Passengers currently travelling by trucks are likely to shift to buses and other type of motorized transport.
With the opening of road, it is assumed that people who are bringing their produce to nearby market on the head or
using pack animals, will be converted to animal cart.
Modal shift of passenger traffic is also considered and approximated for population residing within area of influence
(AOI) of the road. Procedure adopted for estimating this is presented as follows:
a) Total Non-motorable traffic is counted and the proportion of pedestrian and pack animals are computed based
on the traffic count and proportional composition made on the project area.
b) The proportion of the motorable traffic counted in the project area is used to generate the share of vehicles
from non-motorable. If count is not available, the count made near the vicinity of the area, is applied to the
Non motorable traffic to get the share of vehicles (passenger traffic and freight traffic proportion).
c) Multiplying the proportion of freight traffic and passenger traffic obtained in step (b) we arrived at the number
of passenger who probably change to passenger vehicle and freight vehicles.
d) The result in (c) is divided by the number seats for Buses and Ton / Kg for trucks to get the number of vehicles
e) Based on the travel characteristics of the project area observed during the survey it is assumed that 50% of
pedestrian will shift to passenger traffic and 30% of pack animals will shift to fright traffic.
f) The travel modes (mini bus, standard bus and truck types) are estimated based on the motorable traffic count
of the project
g) Values obtained as in step (e) are taken as a modal shift traffic to the road. Table 2- 7 provides estimate of
base case passenger traffic by modal shift.
Table below briefly summaries the above steps discussed to reach the estimated modal shift of the project road.
Table 2- 7: Converted NMT to Motorable Traffic
Standard
Small bus bus of 45 Small Medium Heavy Truck
Vehicles classification of 12 seats capacity seats trucks trucks trucks Trailer Total
Stations 1&2 90 0 0 3 0 0 93
Station 3 58 0 0 2 0 0 60
Total Modal Shift (AADT) 148 0 0 5 0 0 153
2.5 Generated Traffic

The generated traffic refers to the economic “law of demand”, which states that the consumption of any goods and
services increases as its price declines. So the generated traffic depends on the saving in transportation cost and
increase in, the transport demand, which is largely guided by the transport market. That is, the evaluation of demand
for transport due to change in price (the demand elasticity w.r.t. changes in price), in turn, triggered by improvement of
transport infrastructure.
The proposed project road is proposed as a standard Asphalt road with improvement in geometric features of road,
are expected to result in faster movement, decreased transportation cost and increased demand for transportation –
passenger and freight.
The proposed upgrading of the roads leading to widen and surfaced with asphalt. This will have significantly improved
access to the project road and will have increased the traffic levels through generated and induced traffic during the
period.
The present condition is bad for the first section with an estimated roughness of 16-17 IRI (1999, TN. RT-2) and driving
speeds of around 30-40km/hr. for light vehicles while it is fair with an estimated roughness of 11-13 for the second
section and driving speed of 40km. An upgrade to asphalt will undoubtedly improve the roughness and increase the
driving speed on the road and will result in generated and induced traffic. At 2020 the observed existing traffic must be
considered as normal traffic as this is what exists now and the growth rates observed will reflect the effect of diversion,
generated and induced traffic in addition to the normal traffic growth due to increased numbers of vehicles.
Generated traffic benefits are estimated as half the benefits of normal traffic benefits (Rule of Half). Rule of half” in
economic theory suggests that when consumers change their travel in response to a financial incentive, the net
consumer surplus is half of their price change so the economic appraisal is influenced by the assumptions made.
The other category of generated traffic which occurs in response to the provision or improvement of a road relates to
the reduction in travel time is discussed and estimated below.
Currently, agricultural activities and passenger mobility are depressed due to bad condition of the existing road. Thus,
generated traffic is the induced traffic, which will use the road following road construction or improvement that would
not occur without the project road. These changes may lead to new or increased economic activity or higher volumes
of consumption or marketed products, or increased frequency or new patterns of personal trip making, leading to
increased passenger traffic.
In other words, some new vehicles start to travel along the constructed road as operating cost decreases and vehicles
that are currently travelling on the existing road make some more trips as the riding quality of the existing road improves
(and VOC decreases). The existing gravel road will be upgraded to higher standard roads. In the project area crop
production including cash crop, livestock and livestock products are available in the area of influence of the road. There
is an initiative to change the area by the potential private investors and governmental agencies. Intensive and extensive
agricultural and agro-industry could be developed by local society and investors that would contribute to the Regional
and National economic growth.
The amount of traffic that is generated will depend on the size of the unit cost reduction and on the ability of the
consumer to take advantage of this cost reduction; the greater the cost reduction, the more trips that will be generated.
In other words, generated traffic will be materialized for the project under reference mainly because of reduction in
vehicle operating cost (VOC) due to better service traceable to improved road conditions. When this reduction in VOC
results in lower transport costs (i.e. reduced tariffs for passenger and goods traffic) the benefits of additional investment
on road improvement will reach the ultimate beneficiaries. Such reduction in transport cost creates a situation of
consumer surplus which in turn induces additional traffic. Further, level of generated traffic is observed to be inversely
proportional to the reduction in transport cost and is worked out as a percentage of normal traffic.
2.5.1 Travel Time to Determine Generated Traffic
The proposed road improvement program is expected to result in saving in travel time along the route through the
combination of better riding surface, widening and changes to a number of geometric attributes including increase in
carriageway width, reduction in existing levels of curvature, gradients. The travel time of the project road section has
been assessed based on operating speed (km/hr.) and travel time in terms of minutes for sub sections. Table2-8 below
presents results of the travel time to examine the implication assessed in terms of cost of transport (i.e., amount of time
spent to travel along the proposed road before commencement of construction on the route) at existing condition and
after construction of the proposed project.
Table 2- 8: Result of Travel Time Survey along the Project Road Section
Length Without Project With project
(km) Speed Travel Speed Travel
Road Segment
(km/hr.) Time (km/hr. ) Time
(min) (min)
Sections other than Assosa town (123km) 123 40 175 70 100
Town section (7.03 km) 7.03 40 20 50 16
Source: Consultant`s Assessment: 2020
The average speeds observed on the road section provides an indication of the riding condition of the road. In principle
areas with lower speed implies bad surface condition and /or town section with limited speed and sections with higher
speed implies better surface condition to ride freely. Concerning the area under reference, implies the gravel surfacing
material of rural road at bad to fair condition. Generally, both on rural and towns sections of the road, bad to fair road
condition reveals low speed and improvement of the road condition improves the riding speed. From Table 2-8 shown
above, it can be observed that measured travel time implies an average of 40km speed for the first and second section
without project at existing condition and 70 and 50km/hr. after improvement for project road sections1 and 2.
The existing road on the proposed route is deteriorated and of lower standards that requires upgrading. The upgrading
of the proposed road scheme, involving geometric improvements and provisioning of better ride quality is expected to
significantly contribute to transport cost reduction, which in turn encourages additional trips by the existing users,
together with likelihood of induced economic development as well. The proposed improvement is expected to greatly
improve the existing damaged road, with roughness to a reasonable level of quality following upgrading the road. Upon
completion of the up-gradation works, it is assumed that the road quality enhances significantly, featuring lower
roughness and increase in carriage way width. Upgrading the road implies a substantial decline in travel time. From
this, travel time of the road is reduced from about 175 minutes on the existing road to about 100 minutes after
construction of the proposed road in the first section and from 20 minutes to 16 minutes in the town section.
2.5.2 Generated Traffic Factor Determination

Evidence from several evaluation studies carried out in developing countries give a range of between - 0.6 to - 2.0 for
the price elasticity of demand for transport, with an average of about 1.0 (Overseas Road Note 5, TRL, 2005). This
means that a one percent decrease in transport costs leads to a one percent increase in traffic. Where the change in
transport costs are relatively small, generated traffic benefits will represent a small component of total benefits. By
contrast, when the change in transport costs is large, then generated traffic benefits are more likely to be high.
In line with reduction of travel time, elasticity of the demand for transport is used for estimating generated traffic of the
project. The estimation of generated traffic is based on estimating the shape of the demand function, which is expressed
as an elasticity of demand. This shows the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in cost. In the case of
generated traffic, the demand for trip making is related to expected reductions in journey costs and travel time. In this,
savings in journey time have been used. This is expressed as a travel cost function time. The generated traffic factor
is used the simplified model (RAFU, 2006) of the form:
Generated Traffic Factor = β [(Cijp / Cijb) – 1];
Where;
β is the elasticity;
Cijp is the with project travel cost
Cijb is the base case, without project travel cost
Table 2- 9: Generated Traffic Factor for the project Road Section

Parameter Low Medium High
First Section one
β (elasticity) -0.6 -1 -2
Cijp (time in minutes) 100 100 100
Cijb (time in minutes) 175 175 175
Generated Traffic Factor 0.26 0.429 0.86
Second Section two
β (elasticity) -0.6 -1 -2
Cijp (time in minutes) 16 16 16
Cijb (time in minutes) 20 20 20
Generated Traffic Factor 0.12 0.20 0.40
Improvement of project road section will improve the existing deteriorated rural road. For overall impact of the
improvement, medium elasticity is used for the section. Hence, the generated traffic factor of 0.43 is derived (about 43
%) as shown in Table 2-9 above that is applied to normal traffic for the first section of the road and 20% for the second
section of the road. The saving resulting from VOC passes onto users through decreased transport fare (public
transport) and freight rate (cargo transport), and passage of the benefit through lower retail prices of goods and services
again governed by the competitive environments under which the different industries (including the transport sector)
operate. Based on this 43% and 20% of the current traffic is assumed to be taken as generated traffic.
2.6 Origin and Destination Survey

In order to establish the movement pattern on the project road, roadside interviews with vehicle drivers/crew were
conducted side by side at the traffic survey locations, to ascertain the origins and destinations of the vehicles using the
road. However, due to the uncertainty of the project area regarding security it was not possible to conduct sufficient
OD and get sufficient information. With this limitation, we collected data as much as possible.
Table 2- 10: OD Survey matrix
Destination
Origin Assosa Gedama Gure Keshimande Kober Tongo Yeha Total
Adama 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Asosa 0 1 0 0 0 15 0 16
Banbice 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2
Gure 1 0 1 0 1 2 0 5
Kober 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2
Tanaze 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Tongo 10 0 6 2 0 0 1 19
Tsotser 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
12 1 11 2 1 19 1 47
Table 2-10 above shows that, the dominant origin and destination areas are dominant origin and destination areas are
Assosa, Tongo and Gure. It can be seen that about 85% of the traffic goes from these areas while about 15% goes
from other areas. In terms destination similar pattern is observed.
The traffic surveys and analysis have been discussed in the above section, which has established the base year traffic
in terms of AADT on the project road. Whereas the sections below present the traffic demand forecast model, and
estimating the future traffic on the project road with the help of primary and secondary data. The results of this exercise
will form the basis for the traffic projection on the project road. To carry out the above exercises, the data base, methods
and surveys undertaken by the Consultants are illustrated in the following sections along with the different functional
activities involved in the entire process of the traffic projections.
The results of this exercise will form the basis for the traffic projection on the project road. To carry out the above
exercises, the data base, methods and surveys undertaken by the Consultants are illustrated in the following sections
along with the different functional activities involved in the entire process of the traffic projections.
2.7 Traffic Projection
2.7.1 General
The traffic surveys and analysis have been discussed in the previous sections, which had established the base year
traffic in terms of AADT on the project road. Whereas the present sub section aims at carrying out the traffic demand
forecast model, and estimating the future traffic on the project road with the help of primary and secondary data.
The results of this exercise will form the basis for the traffic projection on the project road. To carry out the above
exercises, the data base, methods and surveys undertaken by the Consultants are illustrated in the following sections
along with the different functional activities involved in the entire process of the traffic projections.
2.7.2 Project Schedule

The economic evaluation of the investment in road improvement mainly depends on the level of traffic, which would
take place in future on the project road. The analysis period for the economic evaluation has been considered as 20
years starting after the completion of the improvement, and opening the project road to traffic. In this context, the project
schedule is envisaged in the Table 2-11 below.
Table 2- 11: Project Schedule

Activity Period
Contractor Selection 2020
Implementation (4 years) 2021 – 2024
Opening to traffic after implementation 2025
Traffic service period (20years) 2025-2044
2.7.3 Traffic Projection

Investments in the transport sector constitute a significant part of the total investment. This is especially true in the
case of developing nations, where transport is the catalyst for all round development and one of the basic
infrastructures. When the capital available is scarce and has competing demands, the investments in a transport project
have to be carefully planned, keeping in view not only the present demand but also the requirements for a reasonable
period in future. This underlines the need for estimating the future traffic accurately, whether the plan is for the
construction of a new facility or the improvement of existing facilities. The accurate estimate of future traffic will have a
significant influence on the engineering design of the facility and on the economic decision whether to take up the
project or not.
Traffic forecasting is at best approximate. Traffic is generated as a result of the interplay of a number of contributory
factors. Forecasts of traffic have therefore to be dependent on the forecasts of factors such as population, gross
domestic product, vehicle ownership, agricultural output, fuel consumption and the like. Future pattern of change in
these factors can be estimated with only a limited degree of accuracy, thereby the forecasting of future traffic is quite
a challenging job.
Accordingly, following three widely used techniques have been adopted in this study for estimating growth factors and
future traffic:
• Time series growth using previous traffic count,
• Historical growth in vehicle registration, and
• Elasticity of Transport demand.
For the purpose of the above analysis, the consultants need to have the latest traffic situation relating to the project
road and its influence area. The analysis of socio-economic performance indicators including the GDP at national as
well as Region levels has been discussed in detail in Sub-section 2.9.2 below.
2.7.4 Analysis of Past Traffic Data
ERA has been carrying out traffic surveys at the project area, and vehicle category-wise AADT based on these surveys
for the years 2011-2020 is shown in Table 2-12 below. The traffic data in Table 2-13 by vehicle type shows fluctuations
in traffic volumes from year to year.
The Historical ERA traffic is analyzed vis-à-vis to the consultant count for the year 2020 AADT of 196 and 1330 for
section one and section two respectively. ERA’s 10 years average (2011-2020) AADT of 643 is found to be higher
compared to the consultant count section one while it is less as compared to consultant count of section two.
When we analyzed ERA’s count, it is found that the year 2015 count and 2016 count shows decrement and fluctuation
while for the rest is growth. In terms of vehicle category small cars and buses show relatively steady growth while
Trucks show fluctuations.
The details are presented in Error! Reference source not found.2-13 which provides a perspective of the level and
pace of traffic development in the project road area.
The available ERA historic data is up to 2018, however the transport economist tried to get the trends up to 2020 and
accordingly a trend analysis has been worked for the years 2019-2020.The trend analysis has been done to get the
possible trend of ERA’s traffic for understanding future traffic trend of the area.
It is clear from the Table 2-13 that, buses and trucks are dominating traffic composition. Accordingly, buses also show
a steady growth except the year 2015 while trucks reached peak in 2017 and declined then after. Overall the traffic
trends showed growth over the years.
The annual growth rates based on the historical data (Table 2-13) on AADTs also shows mild fluctuating. On average
total vehicles growth rate is estimated to be 25% per annum for the years (2011 -2020). The traffic growth trend
indicates as fluctuating from year-to-year (both increasing and decreasing). However, in the long-term, the traffic growth
is expected as positive and fairly high.
Thus, as observed in Error! Reference source not found.Figure 2-1 below, due to high fluctuating of the ERA’s
historical traffic the consultant prefer to use its own count for this road project.
Table 2- 12: Historical ERA’s AADT (2011-2018) Volumes and Volumes and Trends in Begi - Bambasi Road
Years Cars Buses Trucks Truck Trailer Total
2011 15 43 62 2 122
2012 27 47 69 2 145
2013 34 64 99 15 212
2014 26 77 132 13 248
2015 32 58 112 4 206
2016 67 129 214 11 421
2017 69 183 287 49 588
2018 65 184 204 14 467
Trend Analysis 2019-2020
2019 78 197 276 30 581
2020 85 219 305 33 643
Source: ERA
Table 2- 13: Projected Traffic of the Road Section One
Tongo Assosa Station 1 & 2
Years 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 2040 2041 2042 2043 2044
Cars 0.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8
4wheel 0.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8
S/Bus 0.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8
L/Bus 0.0 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4
S/Truck 0.0 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
M/Truck 0.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4
L/Truck 0.0 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3
Articulated (T&T) 0.0 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3
Projection Tongo Assosa Station 1 & 2
Cars 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4wheel 70 77 84 93 102 156 171 186 203 222 242 263 285 310 336 365 394 426 460 496 536 573 612 654 698
S/Bus 104 115 126 139 153 234 256 279 304 332 362 394 427 464 503 547 590 638 689 744 803 858 917 979 1046
L/Buses 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
S/Truck 10 11 12 13 14 22 24 26 28 30 33 35 38 41 44 47 50 54 58 62 66 70 74 79 83
M/Truck 5 5 6 6 7 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 21 22 24 26 28 30 32 35 37 39 42 45
H/Truck 7 8 9 10 11 16 18 20 22 24 27 29 32 35 38 41 45 48 53 57 62 66 71 76 82
Articulated (T&T) 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5
Total 196 216 238 262 288 441 481 525 573 625 683 741 804 872 947 1027 1109 1197 1293 1396 1507 1609 1719 1836 1961
Table 2- 14: Projected Traffic of the Road Section Two
Years 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 2040 2041 2042 2043 2044
Cars 0.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8
4wheel 0.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8
S/Bus 0.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8
L/Bus 0.0 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4
S/Truck 0.0 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
M/Truck 0.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4
L/Truck 0.0 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3
Articulated (T&T) 0.0 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3
Projection Tongo Assosa Station 3
Cars 48 53 58 64 71 92 100 109 119 130 142 154 167 182 197 214 231 250 270 291 314 336 359 383 410
4wheel 431 475 522 575 633 823 898 979 1069 1166 1273 1381 1500 1628 1767 1919 2072 2238 2417 2610 2819 3012 3218 3438 3674
S/Bus 491 540 595 654 720 936 1022 1115 1217 1328 1449 1573 1707 1854 2012 2184 2359 2548 2752 2972 3210 3429 3664 3914 4182
L/Buses 37 40 44 48 53 68 74 80 87 94 102 111 120 129 140 151 162 174 187 201 216 230 245 261 278
S/Truck 100 109 120 131 143 185 201 218 237 257 279 300 323 347 373 401 429 459 491 526 562 596 632 670 710
M/Truck 145 159 175 193 212 276 301 328 358 391 427 461 498 538 581 628 675 726 780 839 902 959 1021 1087 1156
H/Truck 73 82 91 101 113 148 163 180 198 218 241 263 286 312 341 372 404 438 475 515 559 600 643 690 740
Articulated (T&T) 5 6 6 7 8 10 11 12 14 15 17 18 20 22 23 26 28 30 33 36 39 41 44 48 51
Total 1330 1464 1611 1773 1951 2538 2770 3023 3299 3600 3929 4261 4621 5012 5435 5895 6360 6863 7405 7990 8622 9204 9827 10491 11200
900
Cars Buses
800 Trucks Truck Trailer
Linear (Cars) Linear (Buses)
700 Linear (Buses) Linear (Trucks)
Linear (Truck Trailer)
600
500
400
y = 28.655x - 57577
300
y = 21.958x - 44135
200
100 y = 7.9152x - 15903

y = 3.5455x - 7128.6
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Figure 2- 1: Trends of Traffic in the project area (Begi – Bambasi), 2011 -2018 and Trends Estimate 2019 - 2020
A time series data of the national vehicle Kilometer of travel and vehicles number was collected from the Ethiopian
Roads Authority (ERA) from 2001 – 2015/2016. The total vehicles kilometer of travel by the end of 2016 was
24,017,568 which shows vehicles Kilometer of travel over the given period in terms of different categories of vehicle
type.
Table 2- 15:Vehicle Kilometer of Travel in Ethiopia (2001 – 2016)

Year Car Buses Trucks T&T Total Growth
2001 1,016,433 925,044 2,012,027 758,185 4,711,689 (%)
2002 1,060,742 1,048,375 2,104,443 793,891 5,007,451 6%
2003 1,148,282 1,156,776 2,388,307 911,033 5,604,398 12%
2004 1,206,267 1,357,122 2,566,368 947,327 6,077,084 8%
2005 1,299,660 1,518,197 2,842,405 1,109,162 6,769,424 11%
2006 1,433,782 1,829,093 3,239,164 1,213,358 7,715,397 14%
2007 1,740,032 2,221,318 3,849,856 1,499,864 9,311,070 21%
2008 1,813,768 2,494,117 3,870,347 1,461,213 9,639,445 4%
2009 2097199 2961330 4846763 1847160 11,752,452 22%
2010 2,163,794 3,266,111 4,977,211 1,720,419 12,127,535 3%
2011 2,492,302 3,889,205 5,777,146 2,044,393 14,203,046 17%
2012 2,519,603 4,045,298 5,996,057 2,122,960 14,683,918 3%
2013 2,733,651 4,483,670 6,747,059 2,309,239 16,273,619 11%
2014 2,873,811 4,895,736 7,141,878 2,379,943 17,291,368 6%
2015 3,142,060 5,315,501 7,731,747 2,727,897 18,917,205 9%
2016 4,380,626 6,639,352 9,656,741 3,340,849 24,017,568 27%
Average 17% 28% 41% 14% 100% 12%
(2001-
2016)
Pure Consulting Engineers PLC in Sub-Consultancy with Sound Engineering Solutions PLC 2-1
(Source: Road Transport Authority, 2017)
The total vehicle kilometer in the country in 2016 was estimated at 24,017,568. The vehicle kilometer of travel of
the country is composed of Cars and Utilities 17%, Buses 28%, Trucks 41%, Truck and Trailer 14%. The average
annual growth rate estimates for all vehicles during 2001-2016 period was 12 percent. The trends in vehicle
kilometer of travel growth in Ethiopia between 2001 and 2016 have been used to derive the annual growth rates as
shown in Table 2-16.
Table 2- 16: Growth rate of Vehicle Kilometers

Vehicles Growth Rate (pa)
Cars and Utilities 17%
Buses 28%
Trucks 41%
Average 14%
(Source: Road Transport Authority, 2017)
2.8 Elasticity of Transport Demand

This method of long-term traffic forecasting incorporates analyses of some of the key socio-economic
characteristics in the road influence area and their anticipated rates of change during the study period, these
characteristics being taken as indicators for the future growth of traffic.
The growth rates for normal traffic obtained from this approach take account of the following factors, which affect
future traffic levels:
• The prospective growth in the economy,
• The estimated elasticity of demand for transport, and
• Change in the structure of the vehicle fleet, if any.
•
It must be noted that the growth in agriculture and manufacturing sectors affect the growth of freight vehicles, while
growth in population and income level affects growth of passenger vehicles. This method thus incorporates the
perspective growth envisaged in the state of economy and the changes in transport demand elasticity over a period
of time as the basic data input.
2.9 The National Economic Context

2.9.1 General
With a land area of more than one million km2 Ethiopia is a fairly large country, with average population density of
69 persons/km2. The country has been handicapped by political upheavals and some isolation prior to the 1990s
and remains economically weak, with a per capita income of US$120 pa. Supported by international finance and
expertise, it said and reported in different reports in the recent times, Ethiopia has been making steady social and
economic progress including in the field of road development.
2.9.2 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Ethiopia
Agriculture in Ethiopia is prominently rain-fed and remains vulnerable to periodic droughts. However, according to
the most recent reports of the National Bank of Ethiopia (NBE), the Ethiopian economy had registered an almost
constant GDP over the years of (2006/07 – 2012/13), ranging between 12.7 and 10.1. All economic and social
sectors have contributed to the growth achieved in the overall GDP growth.
The growth rate of agriculture has declined to about -10.5 % in 2001/2002 compared to the previous year that was
caused by the draught prevailed, while increase again to 16.9% in 2004/05.
Industry and service sectors have also registered 15% and 12.5 per cent annual growth rate, respectively in 2012/13
Table 2- 17 below presents the percentage growth rate by sectors between 2001/02 and 2012/13.
Table 2- 17: Percentage Growth rate of Real GDP and GDP by Sectors
2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/ 2016 2016/17
Real GDP 8.7 9.9 10.3 10.4 8.0 10.9
Agriculture 4.9 7.1 5.4 6.4 2.3 6.7
Industry 19.6 24.1 17.0 19.8 20.6 18.7
Services 9.6 9.0 13 11.2 8.7 10.3
The Consultants have, thoroughly studied the development of highway sector in Ethiopia and other like developing
economies and also discussions as per the report of Macroeconomic development in Ethiopia, particularly in view
of achieving the targets of the GTP in the country. In the light of the above recent development in the economy
and the development of transport sector in the country, the Consultant assume the Average annual GDP growth in
Ethiopia as shown the table 18Error! Not a valid bookmark self-reference. for estimating the future traffic
demand. The growth rates are assumed as low, medium and high. The medium growth rate referred the in the
Error! Not a valid bookmark self-reference.2-18 below are the most likely growth rates in the country the years
to come.
Table 2- 18: Expected GDP Growth in Ethiopia (2010 – 2030)

Period GDP growth (%)
Low Medium High
2010 - 2020 5 8 11
2021 - 2030 4 7 10.5
Population Growth Rate
2010 - 2020 2.0 2.2 2.6
2021 - 2030 1.6 1.6 2.3
GDP Per Capita
2010 - 2020 3.4 5.4 8.6
2021 - 2030 2.4 4.6 7.8
Source: IMF, GTP II and Consultant Adjustment
2.9.3 Fuel Consumption

Available information on fuel consumption, relating to the entire country shows a significant fluctuation from year to
year of 13% and the average from 1999/2000-2016/17 was 8%. The data below shows the smallest growth rate of
-1.0% and highest growth rate of 14%.
Table 2- 19: Fuel Import of the Country

Year Fuel Import '000' Metric Ton Growth %
1999/00 1,023.606
2000/01 1,096.447 7%
2001/02 1,122.223 2%
2002/03 1,232.379 10%
2003/04 1,248.092 1%
2004/05 1,406.899 13%
2005/06 1,475.122 5%
2006/07 1,643.955 11%
2007/08 1,882.272 14%
2008/09 1,913.69 2%
2009/10 2034.193 6%
2010/11 2006.752 -1%
2011/12 2262.578 13%
2012/13 2289.613 1%
2013/14 2622.807 15%
2014/15 2822.091 8%
2015/16 3080.258 9%
2016/17 30501.759 14%
Average Growth (1999- 8%
2016/17)
(Source: EPSE 2018)
2.9.4 Transportation Demand Elasticity

Empirical evidence has long established that demand for transport tends to expand at faster rate than the economic
growth rate as measured by national and /or regional GDPs. This relationship is commonly referred to us income
elasticity of demand for transport, measuring the relative change in travel/transport demand due to change in
income, over time. Also, it has been well recognized elasticity tends to decrease overtime as the economy and/or
personal income grows.
Findings drawn from international studies generally suggest transport income elasticity as found between 1 and 2.
In Ethiopia detailed empirical evidences have not yet been established and/or made available providing reasonable
estimate.
A study carried out for ERA, estimate income elasticity of demand for transport. Some general forms of estimates,
which may be taken indicative, are suggested however; drawn from traffic flow and GDP growth rate. Network
Analysis Study provides estimate of elasticity for different vehicles categories, which in fact has been based on
works by NAS, but with minor adjustment. Estimates of elasticity considered to apply on forecast per capita income
growth with the view to provide traffic growth rates eventually, corresponding to assumed two traffic growth periods,
are given in the table below.
In specifying the forecast traffic growth rate for the projection of stream of traffic using the road in the future, a
simple model has been used that combines the effect on travel demand of population growth and changes in per
capita incomes. A model of the following form is, therefore, applied:
Gt = Gp+ e(Gc)
Where;
Gt is the change in passenger / freight transport
Gp is the change in population
Gc is the change in per capita income
e is the income elasticity for passenger travel
Other things being equal, travel demand can be expected to grow in line with growth in population. As per capita
income rise (i.e, when national economic growth exceeds population growth) travel demand will be further
stimulated. Income elasticity is a measure responsiveness of this demand: generally, a given rise in per capita
income can be expected to result in a more than proportionate increase in demand for travel, since demand is
usually found to be income elastic. Demand for freight transport is normally found to directly relate to growth in
national income.
The Country level data is moderated to reflect conditions in the road influence area by comparison with region-wise
factors, thereby accounting for the impact of the following:
• Macro-economic scenario growth rate (s) and composition of GDP
• Road influence area economy, sectoral production and potential
• Spatial distribution of economic activities along the corridor
• Road influence area population size
• Shift in personalized travel modes over time
• Changes in the inter-modal share of passenger and freight demand
In light of suggested model relationship and taking into account the above-mentioned factors at national as well as
project area levels, coupled with the experience in other developing countries, the Consultants propose the values
of elasticity of traffic growth with respect to Population, GDP and Income for the Project Road which is presented
in Table 2-20Error! Reference source not found. below, corresponding to the forecast traffic growth period.
Table 2- 20: Traffic Growth rate based on Population, Income and GDP (Medium Scenario)
Variables Income Elasticities Growth Rate
2017-2025 2025-2035 2021-2025 2026-2030 2031-2035 2036-2040 2041-2045
GDP Growth Rate 8.8 7 6.5 6 5

(%)
Population Growth 2.6 2.4 2.2 2 1.8

Rate (%)
Growth in Per Capita 6.2 4.6 4.3 4 3.2

Income (%)
Passenger Traffic Gt = Gp+ e(Gc)
Cars 1.5 1.3 12.0 9.3 7.8 7.2 6.0
4wheel 1.5 1.3 12.0 9.3 7.8 7.2 6.0
S/Bus 1.4 1.3 11.3 8.8 7.8 7.2 6.0
L/Bus 1.4 1.3 11.3 8.8 7.8 7.2 6.0
Freight Traffic
S/Truck 1.4 1.3 11.3 8.8 7.8 7.2 6.0
M/Truck 1.4 1.3 11.3 8.8 7.8 7.2 6.0
H/Truck 1.4 1.3 11.3 8.8 7.8 7.2 6.0
TT 1.4 1.3 11.3 8.8 7.8 7.2 6.0
It may be noted that growth rates given as medium in Table 2-20 above are in conformity with the threshold limit of
GDP growth at 11% pa, which is considered as an essential pre-condition for achieving the GTP II.
2.9.5 Projections
Traffic projection exercise for the project road for the years 2025 -2044, consists of projecting the current AADT
(2020) to future years by using year-to-year normal growth rates including generated and divertible traffic.
Though Normal Traffic in our case study is insignificant, growth factor in traffic will be applicable only when the road
is constructed. Growth rates related to three main vehicle groups (cars & utilities, buses and trucks) have been
derived in three different approaches, namely: Historical growth rates based on past traffic data for the Project
Road; Growth rates of vehicle population in Ethiopia, treated as a proxy for the project road traffic; and traffic growth
rate related to the likely future national GDP growth, with regional adjustments.
The three kinds of traffic growth rates mentioned above are compared in Table 2-21 below.
Table 2- 21: Comparison of Derived Traffic Growth Rates
Vehicle Group Based on past traffic Based on Vehicle Traffic growth trend related to
data for project area Population data for GDP growth (medium)
Ethiopia
Period Growth rate
Range
% pa % pa Years % pa
Cars & Utilities 12 17 2020-32 8.4 -12
2032-2042 7.2 – 7.8
Buses 8 28 2020-32 8.4 -12
2032-2042 7.2 – 7.8
Trucks 12 41 2020-32 8.4 -11.3
2032-2043 6.0
It can be observed from Table 2-21 that the traffic growth rates developed by the three different approaches on the
project road are giving different growth rates. The growth rate based on ERA historic traffic is high, but it can be
observed on some roads section on Ethiopia. In general, it is low, but still in order, which has been experienced on
some roads in Ethiopia whose improvements were carried out. High traffic growth rates could be expected in the
context of low base traffic, as also for the project road, and possibly as a manifestation of suppressed transportation
demand finding expression under favorable conditions, such as the removal of transportation constraints through
road improvements. Being improvement to standard Asphalt new road, traffic growth rate will be quite high for first
5 – 10 years and then traffic tends to reach near saturation level, thereby traffic in quantities terms increase but
growth rate will decrease. It is also mentioned here that the elasticity technique takes account of many of the socio-
economic factors, which influence traffic growth, which may serve to reduce the uncertainty of the results. Hence
the traffic volumes computed for the most probable scenario based on Elasticity Coefficient have therefore been
adopted for design and economic analysis.
Considering the AADT for the road, and the proposed growth rates, generated and diverted traffic, if any, the traffic
projections exercise has been carried for entire project appraisal period. The results of the traffic projections for all
the motorized modes on the project road, is presented in Sub-section 2.7.4 Table 2-13 and 2-14 for road section
one (station 1&2) and section two (station 3) respectively.
3. ROUTE SELECTION
3.1 Identification of alternative routes
The project road is entirely a new route. There is an existing route from Assosa town to fufur and from Tongo town
to mimi, which was constructed by the town administrations. The route is accessible from both sides (end and start,
Tongo or Assosa). However, there is no existing route that serves the transportation demand of the community by
providing a consistent access from Assosa to Tongo. The accessible existing route is a poor quality dry weather
road. Thus, it is anticipated that the construction of the proposed 130 km road will provide high standard, all weather
paved road that will spall problems associated with in the area.
During the joint meeting held with Tongo Woreda, Asosa woreda, Assosa Mayor Administration office and Assosa
town Regional Administration representatives at Asosa and Tongo has selected the alignment to follow the new
road along Benishangul Gumuz region, they selected this new road because of socioeconomic significance political
issues is very important. But later on, the Regional government bodies has requested based on their minutes of
meeting held at 09/03/2020, the project start begins from Asosa town for ease of construction accessibility to Tongo.
Thus, it had been apprehended that the cabinet members and the woreda administrative designated that the
proposed project shall follow a new route from Tongo to Asosa.
3.2 Public Consultations

Detailed discussions have been conducted with Asosa Town Administration together with Asosa Woreda, Tongo
Town Administration and Asosa Zone. The main issues highlighted in the discussion include alternative route
alignments, socioeconomic significance of the road project, and expected impacts during project implementation.
Moreover, Detail discussions has been made on alternative alignments as per master plan of the towns mainly in
the town Administration’s and Woreda administrations.
The beginning of the project, by the new master plan the town section starts from “China camp” at Asosa town with
40m road width up to Junction which transits to TVET college and town ends at mender (megele 33) with 30m road
width. The total town length from china camp to mender (megele 33) is 13.6km and, the cabinet members has
requested to follow the existing dry weather road alignment up to Fufur.
The road alignment on Tongo town in consideration of the new master plan of the town, the town section starts
from “Taja school” and ends up to “Sidetega” with 5.3km length and, the cabinet members has requested to follow
the existing dry weather road alignment up to MIMI kebele and passes through Baldegis, Tsotsor, Quagua and
Banga kebele to Fufur, and also at the end of the project by the new master plan.
During these meetings, valuable information and suggestions were obtained that are very relevant to the study.
The cabinet members of the local administration body had also explained about the importance of the proposed
road project from the beneficiaries’ point of view as it is mainly a cash crop and mineral reserve areas. Finally, the
purpose of the meeting is to create awareness about the project, gather the zone level opinions and suggestions
about the project and to jointly evaluate the Wereda level minutes of meetings and create consensuses.
3.3 Route assessment of the existing road
At the start of the project there is an existing dry weather gravel road which was constructed by Assosa city
administration office and accessible through Abrehamo along Fufur kebele The same, dry weather gravel road,
also exists at the end of the project constructed by Tongo administration office and accessible through Shshor
kebele to Mimi kebele. However, some sections of the road require realignments and alignment modification to
meet current higher road standards. The existing gravel roads have an average carriageway width of 6-7m with fair
to poor riding quality due to loss of gravel wearing course. The project road has an estimated length of 133.720km.
Based on our observations and consultations with the various weredas and zone, the selected road is well-located
connecting two villages, 11kebele seats and towns of which two are wereda seats and with independent
municipality and masterplan. The consultant has observed that the selected route is socially and technically feasible
due to the close proximity of the towns, kebeles and villages along the selected road.
The alignment for the 13.6km (town section) distance is bounded within the Assosa town administration and has
an independent Municipality and mayor; the terrain in this section is categorized as flat to rolling alignment and
Gentle Grades. This section of the alignment generally characterized by sharp horizontal curves and steep grades
in balance with the rolling topography.
Photo 3- 1: Steep gradient at Asosa Town

The road alignment from Km 0+000 to km 67+000 is administratively located in Tongo Wereda. Even though, the
existing (accessible) routes, in some sections there are sharp curves and steep gradients, which needs
improvement to meet the required standard.
The road alignment from km 13+500 to km 29+700 follows a foot of Flat and rolling terrain. Some section of the
project is characterized by sharp curves and steep grades in balance with the rolling and mountainous Topography.
In some section of the road, it is difficult to attain the minimum geometric parameters and relaxation as depicted on
the standard.
4. TOPOGRAPHY SURVEY
Topographic Survey is a survey that gathers data about the elevation of points on a piece of land and presents
them as contour lines on a plot. The purpose of a topographic survey is to collect survey data about the natural and
man-made features of the land, as well as its elevations. Topographic maps are used to show elevations and
grading features. It is one of the most important and crucial field tasks that form the base data for the project design.
The topographic survey is basic pre - requisite to capture all the physical futures along the project corridor to enable
the selection of feasible and most useful alignment and later to design and to facilitate the establishment of final
center line of the project road and land acquisition requirements. The topographic survey work methodology
consists of following main tasks.
• Establishment of geodetic control points using the most important technological advance in surveying that
is the Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Setting up of permanent beacons to serve as a reference system during road design and construction
• Development of control traverse-line and geometric level-line.
• Detailed field survey using electronic Theodolite with EDM (Total Stations) and digital Levels, which will
have a different precision according to the topographic operations.
• Data Processing and CAD;
• Development of Land acquisition plan; and
• Delivery of survey Report including Diagrams and Monographs
• Ground surface and Structural location survey
For carrying the survey work the consultant approached EMA (Ethiopian Mapping Authority) and collected EMA
control points within the Project Corridor and deployed high and precision instruments like GPS, Total station, and
Auto level in compliance to the TOR.
4.1 Sampling of stretches for surveying

The consultant carried out detail ground survey for 20% of the project length by giving priority in the order of
Escarpment, Mountainous, Rolling and flat terrains of the road.
4.2 Mobilization of Surveyors and Equipment’s

The survey instrument that shall be used and their accuracy are mentioned below.
Table 4- 1: List of Survey instruments
S/No Survey Instrument Model/ make No Degree of Accuracy
1 GPS instruments Trimble 5800 GPS system Static Mode with at least 8 satellites tracking per site (5
receiver sets mm + 0.5ppm)
2 Total Station Sokkia Set 310, Nikon, Topcon 2’’ and 3’’
3 Level Sokkia SE6055 With a maximum tolerance in mm for single section equal
to: 10K, where  is the distance in km.
4.3 Data Collection

Data collection is the first stage of topography surveying which has been conducted in two stages, Desk study and
Site reconnaissance. During desk study relevant information have been collected from topographical maps, satellite
imageries, Google earth maps and GPS Control points’ information have been collected from Ethiopian Mapping
Agency.
The list of data collected and used in each category includes:
a) 1:250,000 scale topographic mosaic map of Ethiopia
b) E37-N05 DT2 30Mx30m DEM Grid data- Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data
c) List of National GPS control points
No Point Name
1 RAKO
4.4 Scope of Topographic Survey

The scope and methodology of the topographic surveying works conducted in the specified sections mainly includes
✓ Collection of data for route selection, route location and detail topographic surveying on the field.
✓ Route location and marking of the preferred route on the field.
✓ Establishing GPS points at every 3km interval of the road and tying it to the National Grid System.
✓ Installation of permanent benchmarks at a maximum of 100m to 300m intervals.
✓ Levelling of the control points with automatic level instruments
✓ Carrying out detailed cross-section survey at every 20m interval or lesser and with a band width varying
between 50 to 100m and beyond, depending on the terrain conditions, to the left and right of the
approximate center line of road
✓ Carrying out detail surveying at the bridge locations
✓ Gathering all the information required for the land acquisition related to the project
✓ Generating a terrain model from the survey data and using the terrain model for the detailed engineering
design of the road
4.5 GPS Surveying Methodology

4.5.1 Establishment of Geodetic Control Points Using Global Positioning System (GPS)
Global positioning system (GPS) observations were determined within approximately about 3.0 KMs interval along
the road length. The geodetic GPS points were placed in highly accessible sites with appropriate bench marks
protected against impact to guaranty their stability and integrity.
The established GPS points are couple and inter visible to each other at a minimum distance of 100m and were
tied with national coordinates system found within the vicinity of the project road.
The GPS points are painted yellow and the description is marked in red.
4.5.2 Tying with National Coordinate System

The observations were carried out with four units of Trimble GPS system receivers using static mode with at least
8 satellites tracking per site in order to determine 3-D WGS84 co-ordinates. The baseline measurement accuracy
was 5mm+ 0.5ppm with at least fifty minutes of observation.
4.5.3 Coordinate System
The coordinate system used for the project is the Ethiopian National Grid System (Clarke 1880 modified spheroid,
U.T.M Grid Adindan Datum).
4.5.4 Verification of Positioning

The positions of the GPS points were checked with the National coordinates.
4.5.5 Data Processing and Mapping

We made widespread use of computerized system whilst carrying out investigation and survey activities. This
permits an easier, more efficient and rapid management and guarantees a continuous control of all activities and
aspects of the work.
Using highly post- processing GNSS Solutions software, the WGS84 co-ordinates will be transformed into the
national grid, U.T.M. co-ordinates based on Clark 1880 (Modified) spheroid –Datum: Adindan.
Transformation parameters
Coordinate system
Name: Ethiopia Zone 37
Type: Projected
Unit name: Meters
Vertical Datum: Ellipsoid
Vertical Unit: Meters
Datum
Name: Adindan 37
Ellipsoid Name: Clark 1880 mod
Semi-major Axis: 6378249.145 m
Inverse Flattening: 293.466307674
DX to WGS84: -165.0000 m
DY to WGS84: -11.0000 m
DY to WGS84: 206.0000 m
Projection
Projection Class: Transverse Mercator
Latitude_of_origin 0° 00' 00.00000"N
Central_meridian 39° 00' 00.00000"E
Scale_factor 0.999600000000
False_Easting 500000.000 m
False_Northing 0.000 m
4.6 Benchmark Setup

Benchmark (secondary control points) referenced in the field on reliable points on appropriate bench mark beacons
protected against impact to guaranty their stability and integrity. These benchmarks established at intervals of
approximately 100m to 300 m. The vertical controls of the bench marks were established using differential levelling
procedure. The differences in elevation between consecutive benchmarks / GPS points are determined which are
used to extend elevation from the first GPS point elevation to all other benchmarks and GPS points.
4.6.1 Control Traverse-Line

A traverse surveying is usually employed in all forms of legal and engineering works to compute Easting and
Northing positions for networks of benchmarks extended from GPS points. Essentially, traverses are a series of
established survey stations that are tied together by angles and distances measured and recorded using electronic
total stations between each vertex by beginning on twin GPS points and closing on the next twin GPS points.
The accuracy of traverse surveying is:
Allowable angular accuracy
= √ (N+1) * 30”
Allowable Linear accuracy
1:10,000
The angle and distance measurements are reduced into Easting and Northing coordinates using standard traverse
computations procedures.
4.6.2 Geometric Level-Line

The elevations of the consecutive Bench marks are transformed by direct differential levelling starting from the
elevation of the first GPS point elevation using levelling instrument. Levels for each consecutive bench marks are
determined by forward and a subsequent backward run forming a closed loop. Levels for each control points are
computed using standard differential levelling computation. For this reason, the elevations of GPS points listed on
the differential levelling overrides the list on the GPS Monograph.
The accuracy of level (Z) is:
Z = 10 mm x √K; Where (K being the survey distance in km between control points).
4.7 Collection of Cross-section Data

The topographical survey is the backbone of engineering design required for accurate cost estimating for use in
the feasibility study. Accuracy of the information collected during this survey has a direct impact on almost all the
design activities involved in the project.
This study involves location of control points, construction and fixing of co-ordinates and documentation of
monuments.
Topography surveys are performed in order to determine the position of all natural and manmade features within
the road corridor. The topography surveying has been carried out with a minimum of 100m band width (50m to the
left and 50m to the right from the center of the road) varying up to 300m band width and a maximum staking interval
of 20m. Where there is a high cross slope, the band width is increased in order to provide design flexibility and
accommodate the design cross section.
The survey included the determination of the coordinates of points located:
✓ On the existing road centerline

✓ At the road edges
✓ At the toe line of the fill and cut sections
✓ Break lines and points on Culverts and Bridges
✓ High water marks
✓ Break lines and points along longitudinal section of rivers 100 m either side in the case of minor bridges
and 500 m either in the case major bridges
✓ Cross section of rivers
✓ Features on intersections and side roads up to a length of 50m
✓ Features showing service lines
✓ Buildings
✓ Places of social or traditional importance
4.8 Data Processing and CADD

The consultant uses computerized system whilst carrying out investigation and survey activities. This permits an
easier, more efficient and rapid management and guarantees a continuous control of all activities and aspects of
the work.
Specific programs are used to transfer and process field data into computers. Computer programs such as
AutoCAD are used for preparation of drawings and graphics, using software modules that operate inside AutoCAD
that are specifically designed for maps and for road projects.
The electronic field books and other topographic data are placed in ASCII and / or DXF formats or MS Excel files.
5. CONCEPT HYDROLOGY/HYDRAULICS REPORT

The main purpose of the hydrological/Hydraulics analysis & study for this project is the computation and evaluation of the
peak design discharges of all the watercourses that cross the project road, the objective being the determination of the
opening sizes of the drainage structures.
The Peak Discharge of a waterway is a function of its catchment area, catchment slope, catchment soil type and vegetation
(land cover and land use), intensity of rainfall, duration of storm etc. Various methods of predicting the peak design
discharge of watercourses have been developed over the years by assuming the possible appropriate values for each of
the factors affecting discharge.
Some of these methods are more appropriate for larger catchments while others are more appropriate for smaller
catchments. Therefore in this study, the most appropriate method is applied for each case and the Hydrologic/Hydraulic
analysis of the Project alignment is executed to compute the maximum Peak Design & Review flood discharge of all the
minor and major drainage structures of the Project Road.
The Hydrologic/Hydraulic computations are done mainly based on the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) Drainage Design
Manuals (2002 & 2013) and other internationally accepted Standards. Accordingly, the Consultant has undertaken detailed
Hydrologic/Hydraulic analysis and design for all the drainage structures of the project whose details can be found attached
with this Draft Final Report in the annexes and appendices as Microsoft Excel spreadsheets.
Procedures adopted for the Hydrological/Hydraulic Design of the drainage structures include:
✓ Determining the general pattern and identification and description of the Drainage Structures catchments;
✓ Analysis of rainfall data to determine the design storms corresponding to the specified return periods;
✓ Catchment area delineations and computations of catchment parameters like Catchment Area, Stream lengths,
Soil Types, Land Use & CN Numbers etc….;
✓ Determining the design and review peak flood discharges of the drainage structures;
✓ Refining and revaluating the design and review peak flood discharges;
✓ Determinations of Waterway dimensions (Opening Sizes) of the Drainage Structures;
5.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

5.1.1 Location
The Project Road is located in the Assosa Zone, Bambasi and Assosa Weredas and Tongo Special Wereda of the
Benishangul Gumuz National Regional State. The pictures below show the location of the Project with respect to Zones
and Weredas around the Project alignment.
Figure 5- 1: Weredas around the project area
Figure 5- 2: Zones around the project area

5.1.2 Soil types
As can be seen from the Picture below, the Dominant Soil Types around the Route alignment are Dystric Nitosols/Orthic
Acrisols, Dystric Cambisols/ Dystric Nitosols, Eutric Fluvisols, Chromic Vertisols and Dystric Nitosols as per FAO
Classification. It should be noted that this is the general pattern and based on a small scale soil map. With a large scale
soil map, at finer map resolution, a more nuanced soil pattern can be obtained.
Figure 5- 3: Soil Types of the project area

5.1.3 Land use
The Land use types which the Route traverses is predominantly open woodland, Wooded Grassland and intensively
cultivated landscapes as can be seen from the Picture below (this is a small scale map for general information). With a
large scale soil map, at finer map resolution, a more nuanced land use pattern can be obtained.
Figure 5- 4: Land use of the project area
5.2 DATA COLLECTION & DESKTOP STUDIES

The Hydrologist/Consultant has collected all the relevant data required for the implementation of the Consultancy Service
around the project site from the respective offices. These data will include but not limited to Climatic Data, Topographic
Maps of 1:50,000 and 1:250,000 Scales, ERA & AASHTO Design Manuals, Hydrologic/Hydraulic Analysis and Design
Softwares etc… which are used in the Concept Hydrologic and Hydraulic Analysis and Design.
The Hydrologist/Consultant has undertaken also a reconnaissance site visit for the Concept Hydrologic/Hydraulic Analysis
and Design to get first hand impression of the Project area and for preliminary data collection. For the purpose of this
Report, the following data and information is presented.
5.2.1 Climatic data

This activity includes collecting and examining various climate data such as monthly minimum, maximum & average
temperatures, daily & monthly average rainfall intensity and depth, streamflow data together with their distribution and
length of records and other important climatic features of the project from the Meteorological stations around the project
area. The ERA Drainage Manual 2013/2002 contains several climatic data and these data will be utilized as appropriate.
Climatic conditions in Ethiopia are largely governed by altitudinal variations that control rainfall distributions to some degree
and temperature variations to a very large extent. Based on the mean seasonal precipitation and mean seasonal
temperature variations, four seasonal periods are commonly known in Ethiopia. These are named as “Bega”, “Belg”,
“Kiremt” and “Tsedey” which occur in the months of December – January – February, March – April – May, June – July –
August, September – October – November respectively.
5.2.1.1 RAINFALL data
According to the Hydrologic Rainfall Regions Map shown on ERA Drainage Design Manual 2002 & 2013, the Project Area
is entirely located in B1 Hydrologic Region of the ERA Drainage Design Manuals 2002 and 2013. The Project Area receives
a moderately high amount of annual rainfall and it lies in one of the wettest zones of Ethiopia and the mean annual rainfall
of the Project Area is between 1201-1600mm per year for some stretches and between 801-1200mm for other stretches
as can be seen from Fig.5-5 below.
Figure 5- 5: Mean annual rainfall of the project area

5.2.1.2 Temperature data
As it can be seen in Fig. 1.6 & Fig. 1.7 below, the daily mean average temperature of the Project area is about between
17.50C and 22.50C. The average maximum daily temperature of the Project area is in between 27.50C & 32.50C while the
average minimum daily temperature is in between 12.50C & 17.50C.
Figure 5- 6: Daily maximum & minimum temperature of the project area
Figure 5- 7: Mean annual rainfall & mean daily temperature
5.2.2 Stream Flow Data

The main bottleneck in the Hydrologic/Hydraulic Analysis of streams and rivers is the lack of data. Since many of the
streams in Ethiopia are not gauged, the peak flood discharges that will be used for the Drainage Structures Design cannot
be estimated from recorded streamflow data. Therefore, mostly the peak discharges will be estimated from Rainfall Data
using Rainfall – Runoff Models like Rational Formula and SCS Method.
There are a few major Rivers or streams in this Project but from the information and data we gathered so far, none of these
streams are gauged. All available relevant data are used in the Concept Hydraulic/Hydrologic Analysis and Design of the
Project.
5.2.3 Topographic Maps and GIS Data
The Hydrologist/Consultant has collected a lot of existing data that will be used for the Hydrologic/ Hydraulic Analysis of
the subject road. Here below is presented the descriptions of the data that the Hydrologist/Consultant has gathered for that
purpose.
5.2.3.1 Topographic Maps
This activity includes collection of Digitized topographic maps, primary GPS control Points, geological maps & any other
available maps of the project sites relevant for the provision of the required service from the Ethiopian Mapping Authority,
and the corresponding organizations.
Accordingly, the Hydrologist/Consultant has already purchased and collected the available Digital Topographic Maps of
scale 1:50,000, 1:250,000, GPS control points of the project area etc…
The topographic maps in the scale of 1: 50,000 listed in Table 5-1 were obtained from the Ethiopian Mapping Authority
(the geo-referenced maps in soft copies) and are utilized for the Hydrologic/Hydraulic analysis and study. However,
1:50,000 Topographic Maps for most of the Project Alignment isn’t available and this will cause serious problems with the
catchment delineation and Hydrologic Analysis because then the catchment delineations will have to be done using the
SRTM 30mx30m Resolution DEM which is significantly less accurate and error prone compared to the 1:50,000
Topographic Maps.
Table 5- 1: List of collected Topographic maps (1:50,000 scale)
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS COLLECTED (1:50,000 SCALE)
NO. MAP NAME NO. MAP NAME
1 0934-D1 5 0934-B3
2 0934-D2 6 0934-B4
3 0934-B1 7 1034-D3
4 0934-B2 8 1034-D4
The consultant also has soft copies of the Complete Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of Ethiopia together with GIS files (such
as GIS data of Land use, Soil Types etc..) and soft copies of the topographic map of the whole Ethiopia in 1:250,000 Scale.
And these are all utilized as appropriate.
Delineation of catchments areas is executed by the combination of the available Topographic maps of 1:50,000 scale
together with the Digital 30mX30m DEM. The catchments parameter such as average slope, length of the longest water
course, difference in elevation between the crossing point and water divide, the main channel length and its slope are all
determined from the above listed maps.
5.2.3.2 DIGITAL GIS DATA

The Hydraulic/Hydrologic Analysis & Design was done mostly in a GIS Environment by using GIS Softwares like ArcView,
ArcHydro, ArcGIS, HEC-GeoHMS & HEC-GeoRAS etc… The Hydrologist/Consultant owns soft copies of the Complete
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of Ethiopia (SRTM USGS 30mX30m DEM) together with GIS shape files (such as GIS data
of Land use, Soil Types etc…) and soft copies of the topographic map of the whole Ethiopia in 1:250,000 & 1:50,000
Scales. These data are utilized in the GIS Softwares to derive various parameters like catchment Areas, Basin Slopes and
Basin SCS CN Numbers etc… during the Concept Hydrologic/Hydraulic Analysis and Design of the Project.
5.2.4 Relevant Design Manuals & Documents
The following are other relevant data and documents that are collected from different sources:
✓ Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) Design Manuals 2013/2002

✓ AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines
✓ AASHTO Design Manuals & Specifications
✓ Federal Highway Authority of America (FHWA) Drainage Manuals
✓ Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) Technical Specifications 2013/2002
✓ Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) EIA Manual 2013/2002
✓ Geological Map of Ethiopia, scale 1:2,000,000
✓ Hydrological Map of Ethiopia, scale 1:2,000,000

✓ Land Use and Land Cover Map, scale 1:1,000,000
✓ EPA’s EIA Guideline Document (2000);
✓ EPA’s Procedural EIA Guideline (2003)
5.3 Hydrology/Hydraulics Analysis & Design

The Hydrologic/Hydraulic Analysis & Design is carried out using accepted hydrologic models and formula like the SCS
Model and the Rational Formula etc…For the hydrologic analysis, the above specified models are used in a GIS
environment utilizing GIS softwares like ArcView 3.3, Global Mapper, ArcHydro, DNR Hydro and ArcGIS softwares. These
GIS softwares made it possible to automate most of the Catchment delineations works.
The Consultant executed the hydrologic/hydraulic analysis and study of the existing and new Major and Minor Drainage
Structures in the Project road. The detail analysis and assessment of the existing and new drainage structures is
summarized here below in Table 5.4 & Table 5.5 (Bridges & Major Drainage Structures), Tables 5-6 & 5-7 Slab & Box
Culverts) and in detail in the Appendices attached with this report.
This being a Concept Design Project with detailed topographic surveying not required to be executed and with the Plan
Profile of the Road determined from secondary data in this case SRTM DEM with 30m Resolution, the Hydrology executed
here is not as rigorous and full-fledged as that of a Detail Engineering Design Project. However, the Hydrologist executed
the Hydrology of the Major Drainage Structures and the Slab/Box Culverts as accurately as possible using all the available
data at his disposal and virtually as good as in a Detail Engineering Design Project.
For the Pipe Culverts however, the Hydrologic Parameters are batch generated using ArcGIS and ArcHydro Softwares
and only moderate refinements are made to the catchment parameters beyond what is batch generated by
ArcGIS/ArcHydro. Hence the accuracy of the Hydrology of the Pipe Culverts is not as rigorous & accurate as in a Detail
Engineering Design Hydrology. However the batch generated parameters on the whole give a good approximation of the
drainage network crossing the route alignment and we have taken care not to underestimate the required amount of Pipe
Culverts.
The procedures that are followed in the hydrological/hydraulic design of the Drainage Structures include:
✓ Determining the general pattern and identification and description of catchments;

✓ Analysis of rainfall data to determine the design storm corresponding to the specified return periods
✓ Catchment Area delineations and computations of Catchment parameters like Catchment Area, Stream length,
Soil Type, Land Use & CN Numbers etc.
✓ Determining the design and review peak flood discharges,
✓ Refining and evaluating the design and review peak flood discharges
✓ Determinations of Waterway dimensions (Opening Sizes) for all the drainage structures.
✓ For existing structures, Hydraulic Adequacy of the opening sizes of the existing bridges.
5.3.1 Drainage Design Manuals Adopted

The Design Manuals that are used for the Hydrologic/Hydraulic Analysis of this Road project are:
✓ ERA (Ethiopian Roads Authority) Drainage Design Manual 2013

✓ ERA (Ethiopian Roads Authority) Drainage Design Manual 2002
✓ AASHTO (American Association of State Highway & Transportation Officials) Highway Drainage Guidelines
✓ Federal Highway Authority of America (FHWA) Drainage Manuals and others as necessary.
In the utilization of the manuals listed above, the ERA Drainage Design Manuals requirements trump over all the other
manuals and these manuals just play a complementary role to the ERA Manuals. The Methodologies recommended for
the Hydrologic/Hydraulic Analysis in these four manuals are very similar though the Drainage Design Manuals of the
Federal Highway Authority of America (FHWA) are more comprehensive than the three other Standards.
However, the hydrologic regime of every Road project is very distinct and different from other projects because it depends
on the geographical location of the Project. Hence, the parameters that are used in the Hydrologic Analysis (like rainfall
intensity, land use & soil types) will be unique to the Project in question. During the Concept Hydrologic/Hydraulic analysis
of this Project alignment, the four Drainage Design Manuals cited above are utilized as appropriate.
5.3.2 Hydrologic Regime of the Project Area

According to the Hydrologic Rainfall Regions map shown on ERA Drainage Design Manual 2002 & 2013, the Project Area
is entirely located in B1 Hydrologic Region of the ERA Drainage Design Manuals 2002 and 2013. The Project Area receives
a moderately high amount of annual rainfall and it lies in one of the wettest zones of Ethiopia and the mean annual rainfall
of the Project Area is between 1201-1600mm per year for some stretches and between 801-1200mm for other stretches
as can be seen from Fig. 5-5 above.
Figure 5- 8: Project area rainfall region (ERA Drainage Design Manual 2013/2002)
5.3.3 Return Periods & Rainfall Intensities
The ERA DDM Manual 2013 recommended IDF Curves and 24 Hours Maximum Daily Rainfalls have been found to harbor
serious problems (we have made the ERA Senior Management aware of these problems though no action is taken so far).
Hence, in order to ensure the safety and economy of the drainage structures, the Consultant collected the available
meteorological, climatic and hydrometric data of the Project Area for the Assosa & Begi towns in order to execute the
Frequency Analysis of the Rainfall Data. However it is only the Assosa Town data that has long enough rainfall records
useful for the rainfall analysis.
Using the Assosa Town Rainfall Data, the Hydrologist carried out Hydrologic Frequency Analysis and generated
customized IDF Curves and 24 Hours Design Rainfalls tailored to the Project Area that are subsequently used for the
Hydrologic Analysis of the Drainage Structures. In carrying out the Frequency Analysis, the Hydrologist investigated the
Normal, Lognormal, Gumbel’s EV-I and EV-II, Pearson and Log Pearson Frequency Distributions to determine which
Frequency Distribution best fits the Assosa Town Rainfall Data. Accordingly, the Log Pearson Frequency Distribution is
found to be the best one and the IDF Curves and 24 Hours Maximum Daily Rainfalls are generated from this Frequency
Distribution. The adopted IDF Curves 24 Hours Maximum Daily Rainfalls are shown in Fig. 5.9 and Table 5-2 below.
Table 5- 2: 24 Hours depth-frequency Table
24 HOUR DEPTH - FREQUENCY TABLE
Probability Log Pearson Predicted

Return Normal Variate Adopted 24 Hours
of W Type III Log Pearson Maximum Rainfall
Period (Tr) KT (mm)
Exceedance KT Type III
2 0.500 1.18 0.0000 0.0294 64.02 65.00
5 0.200 1.79 0.8415 0.8487 82.23 83.00
10 0.100 2.15 1.2817 1.2613 93.28 95.00
25 0.040 2.54 1.7511 1.6889 106.30 108.00
50 0.020 2.80 2.0542 1.9586 115.43 120.00
100 0.010 3.03 2.3268 2.1968 124.14 130.00
FIGURE 5- 9: IDF CURVE & 24 HOURS DEPTH-FREQUENCY TABLE OF THE PROJECT AREA
The maximum Peak Design and Check (Review) discharges for all the crossing sites in this Project are computed using
the Return Periods indicated below. The return periods are selected carefully considering the standard of the Road and
the design life span of the envisaged structures.
Accordingly, for this project, the return periods that are adopted for this Road Project are:
✓ 50 Year Design and 100 Year Check (Review) Return Periods for the Major Drainage Structures and Bridges
greater than 6m total Span.
✓ 25 Year Design and 50 Year Check (Review) Return Periods for the Minor Drainage Structures (Slab/Box and
Pipe Culverts) whose span is between 2 - 6 meters.
✓ 10 Year Design and 25 Year Check (Review) Return Periods for Culverts whose span is less than 2m.
Table 5- 3: Design Storm Frequency Criteria
DESIGN STORM FREQUENCY (YEARS) BY GEOMETRIC DESIGN CRITERIA
GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARD
STRUCTURE TYPE EW1/DC8/DC7 DC6/DC5 DC4/DC3 DC2/DC1/Track
Design Check Design Check Design Check Design Check
Gutters and Inlets* 5/5/5 10/10/10 5/5 10/10 5/2 10/5 --- ---
DESIGN STORM FREQUENCY (YEARS) BY GEOMETRIC DESIGN CRITERIA
GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARD
STRUCTURE TYPE EW1/DC8/DC7 DC6/DC5 DC4/DC3 DC2/DC1/Track
Design Check Design Check Design Check Design Check
Side Ditches 10/10/10 25/25/25 5/5 10/10 5/2 10/5

Ford/Low-Water
--- --- ---- ---- --- --- 5/5/5 10/10/10
Bridge
Culvert Pipe
25/25/25 50/50/50 10/10 25/25 10/5 25/10 5/5/5 10/10/10
(see Note) Span<2m
Culverts
50/50/50 100/100/100 25/25 50/50 25/10 50/25 10/10/10 25/25/25
2m<span <6m
Short Span Bridges
50/50/50 100/100/100 25/25 50/50 25/10 50/25 10/10/10 25/25/25
6m<span<15m
Medium Span Bridges
100/100/100 200/200/200 50/50 100/100 50/25 100/50 50/25/25 100/50/50
15m<span<50m
Long Span Bridges
100/100/100 200/200/200 50/50 100/100 50/25 100/50 50/25/25 100/50/50
Spans>50m
5.3.4 DEPARTURES FROM STANDARDS

The Project Alignment is located in a terrain that consists of many major and minor streams and contains at least 13 major
drainage structures. The ERA Drainage Design Manual 2013 recommends 25 Year Design and 50 Year Check (Review)
Return Periods for Bridges or Structures with spans 6m<Span<15m for the standard of the Project Road.
However, Concrete Structures have a life time of minimum 50 Years and can last up to 100 years with minimal
maintenance. With this in mind and also considering the fact that the additional cost of designing a structure for 50 Years
Return Period in lieu of 25 Years Return Period is very small compared to the benefits, we introduced this departure from
the Standard and designed all major drainage structures with spans greater than 6m for 50 Year Design and 100 Year
Check (Review) Return Periods in accordance with Sections 2.7.2, 2.7.3 & 2.7.4 of ERA Drainage Design Manual 2013.].
5.3.5 DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROJECT AREA

As can be seen from Figure 5-10 below, all the streams crossing the Project Alignment flow westwards to the Ethio –
Sudanese border and eventually join the Yabus River which crosses the border into the Sudan and join the Baro River and
ultimately the White Nile. All streams are contained in the Yabus River Catchment which is part of the Baro – Akobo River
Basin.
For the first several kilometers of the Project, the road follows a ridge line faithfully with practically no streams or drainage
structures. The existing road is in a cut section with the flow in the side ditches drained away from the road by turnout
ditches. After that a number of streams, small and big cross the Project Alignment. Some of the streams are provided with
Drainage Structures while most other streams need new drainage structures.
There are about 13 major streams (those with Catchment Areas greater than 10 km2) crossing the Project Alignment as
detailed in Table 5-4 below. Among these streams, four of them have catchment areas greater than 100 km2) and the
biggest stream crossing the alignment is the Yabus River at St. 103+841 with a catchment area of about 484 km2).
Figure 5- 10: Drainage Map of the Project (Map rotated left by 90o)
5.3.6 CATCHMENT DELINEATION
For this project, the Catchment delineations are performed using ArcGIS/ArcHydro, ArcView GIS V.3.3 with GIS Hydrology
Extensions using the USGS Digital Elevation Models generated by the Global Mapper V.15 GIS Software from the SRTM
30mx30m GRID digital elevation models which gives generally and usually accurate catchment delineations. The
catchment areas generated by the GIS software are checked and corroborated with the available Geo-referenced
Topographic Maps of 1:50,000 & 1:250,000 Scales and the GIS files of Ethiopian streams and catchments. For catchments
in which there is a discrepancy between the automatically GIS generated catchment areas and the available 1:50,000
Topographic maps, manual catchment delineation is executed. The delineated Catchment maps of each structure can be
found in the Excel Spreadsheets that are attached with this report.
5.3.7 COMPUTATION OF CATCHMENT PARAMETERS
After the Catchment areas are delineated, catchment properties like stream length are digitized & determined from the
stream network generated by ArcView while the particular Land Use Coverage, Soil Types and CN Numbers are computed
using ArcView Spatial Analyst v.2.0a from the Digital Land Use and Soil Type Digital GIS Maps of Ethiopia.
5.3.8 PEAK DISCHARGE COMPUTATION
For the Return periods specified, the Peak Design and Review Flood Discharges are computed by the Rational Method
for Pipe Culverts whose catchment area is less than 0.5 Km2 and by the SCS Model for catchment areas greater than 0.5
Km2 and less than 65 km2 and whose times of concentrations are less than 10 hours.
The SCS Curve Number (CN) and Rational Formula Runoff Coefficients (C) refer the runoff response characteristics of
the watershed area. For drainage basins where no runoff has been measured, the Curve Number and Runoff Coefficient
can be used to estimate the depth of direct runoff (effective rainfall) from the rainfall depth, given an index describing runoff
response characteristics. Hence, careful determination of the Curve Number (CN) and Rational Formula Runoff
Coefficients (C) is important for establishing the net rainfall and thus the direct runoff hydrograph. The Curve Number (CN)
and Rational Formula Runoff Coefficients (C) are related with land use, land treatment, hydrological condition, hydrological
soil group, and antecedent soil moisture condition in the drainage basin.
Based on the Catchment Areas intersected with Soil Type and Land Use data, appropriate Curve Number (CN) and
Rational Formula Runoff Coefficients (C) for each catchment are determined from the Hydrologic Soil Group vs Land Use
Type Matrix in Table 5.12 of the ERA Drainage Design Manual 2013/2012.
The ERA Drainage Design Manual 2013/2002 specifies that the Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC) shall be taken as
“Wet” for the Project Area. This made the Peak Design & Check (Review) Discharges substantially higher than the “Normal”
AMC Condition.
After selecting the SCS Curve Number (CN) and Rational Formula Runoff Coefficients (C) for each individual Catchment,
the Peak Design And Review (Check) Discharges are then computed by using the Design Intensities in the IDF curves
and the 24 Hour Rainfall Depths specially developed for the Project Area for the chosen Return Periods and the catchment
parameters computed as described above.
5.3.9 OPENING SIZE DETERMINATION
After the Peak Design and Review Discharges are computed, the required opening sizes of the Structures are computed
by carrying out the appropriate Hydraulic Computations. With regards to the Hydraulic Analysis of the Structures, all the
Slab/Box and Pipe Culverts are designed to fulfill the ERA Drainage Design Manuals 2013/2002 Culvert Hydraulic Design
Requirements and with HW/D≤1.5. Unlike the Hydrology, the Hydraulic Analysis carried out for the Slab, Box and Pipe
Culverts is identical to a Hydraulic Analysis of a Detail Engineering Design Project.
However, for the Hydraulic Analysis of the Bridges, it was impossible to carry out a full-fledged Hydraulic Analysis similar
to the Hydraulics of Bridges in a Detail Engineering Design Project because the river cross-sections were very unrealistic
having been determined from secondary data (SRTM DEM 30m Resolution) that is not much refined.
In this unfortunate situation what the Hydrologist did was select a reasonable span and computing the required opening
Sizes using Manning’s Formula for a judiciously assumed Manning’s roughness coefficient (mostly 0.04). The main
difference between this approach and a detail engineering design hydraulic analysis is that for a detail engineering design
Hydraulics, we use the natural river x-section to compute our high water marks whereas here we assumed a rectangular
x-section. Usually, the approach adopted here is more conservative. So, it can be inferred that we haven’t underestimated
the major drainage structures quantities and volume of work.
5.4 STRUCTURES IN THE ROAD PROJECT

At this Final Concept Design Stage, in total, there are about 215 Structures. Among these structures, 13 structures are
Bridges/Major Drainage Structures whereas with regards to Minor Drainage Structures, there are 43 Slab/Box Culverts
and 159 Pipe Culverts [including Relief Pipe Culverts].
5.4.1 BRIDGES & MAJOR DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
The number of Major Drainage Structures in this Road Project are 13 in number and all of them are new Bridges. The
Summary of the Hydrologic/Hydraulic Analysis and Design, the Peak Design and Review (Check) discharges and the
opening sizes of the Bridges are summarized in Tables 1.4 and 1.5 here below and in detail in the Appendices attached
with this Report. The opening sizes of the Structures are designed so that they safely pass the Peak Design & Review
(Check) discharges.
Table 5- 4: Summary of Hydrologic Analysis - Bridges & Major Drainage Structures

HYDROLOGIC ANALYSIS - BRIDGES & MAJOR DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
No. Station Catchment Drainage Length of ELEVATIONS [m] River Terrain Design SCS Q SCS Q SCS Q
ID# Area [Km2] Main Channel Classification SCS CN [25 Year [50 Year [100 Year
High Point Crossing
Channel Slope (%) Number Return Return Return
Elevation Elevation
[m] Period] Period] Period]
(m) (m)
1 32+591 W5720 20.335 10703.742 1185.000 749.228 5.381% Hilly 77 141.20 170.37 195.48
2 40+851 W5760 15.355 7884.443 1096.000 662.623 7.356% Rolling 77 128.79 155.37 178.25
3 55+156 W6360 69.227 20212.190 1342.000 666.296 4.420% Rolling 77 347.69 418.59 479.56
4 64+707 W6610 110.798 25829.318 1480.000 762.869 3.567% Rolling 79 498.78 596.14 679.53
5 68+272 W6700 117.212 24505.420 1501.000 738.137 4.043% Hilly 77 510.31 615.39 705.84
6 73+310 W6910 55.791 17824.251 1490.000 781.329 5.109% Hilly 77 305.54 368.29 422.30
7 88+285 W7340 313.185 39573.279 1494.000 1064.531 1.378% Rolling 87 1137.31 1319.01 1472.27
8 94+174 W7490 14.823 9323.742 1253.000 1128.143 1.773% Soft to 87 131.75 152.67 170.30
Moderate
9 94+883 W7510 17.811 11658.961 1287.000 1125.217 1.830% Soft to 90 156.34 179.66 199.25
Moderate
10 101+838 W7690 47.034 14917.966 1411.000 1150.730 2.270% Soft to 90 385.30 442.71 490.92
Moderate
11 103+841 W7760 483.620 52734.997 1693.000 1119.667 1.307% Rolling 84 1296.08 1516.44 1703.11
12 110+016 W7910 31.109 12927.306 1631.000 1194.830 4.342% Rolling 86 275.58 321.13 359.63
13 116+331 W8030 11.588 6178.341 1640.000 1327.740 6.409% Rolling 77 103.81 125.21 143.64
Table 5- 5: Summary of Hydraulic Analysis - Bridges & Major Drainage Structures
HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS - BRIDGES & MAJOR DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
Catchment Parameters Opening Size Determination Design Opening Size
Design Design Discharge for 50 Years Return Period

Drainag Design Manning Design
Structure Stream Span No. of Design No. of
No. Station e Area Q n for the Flow Wetted Hydra. Design Clear
Type Channel Length Spans Area Span Spans
[km2] (m3/s) Bridge Depth Perim. P Radius Q Depth
Slope (%) A [m2]
hw (m) (m) R (m) (m3/s)
1 32+591 Bridge 20.335 1.300% 170.37 0.0400 12.00 1 3.09 18.19 37.14 2.04 170.37 12.00 1 4.00
2 40+851 Bridge 15.355 2.000% 155.37 0.0400 10.00 1 2.92 15.84 29.22 1.84 155.37 10.00 1 3.90
3 55+156 Bridge 69.227 1.300% 418.59 0.0400 20.00 2 2.38 24.75 47.53 1.92 418.59 20.00 2 3.60
4 64+707 Bridge 110.798 1.300% 596.14 0.0400 24.00 2 2.62 29.23 62.81 2.15 596.14 24.00 2 3.90
5 68+272 Bridge 117.212 2.000% 615.39 0.0400 20.00 2 2.66 25.31 53.10 2.10 615.39 20.00 2 3.90
6 73+310 Bridge 55.791 2.000% 368.29 0.0400 24.00 1 2.61 29.22 62.65 2.14 368.29 24.00 1 3.90
88+285 Bridge 313.185 1.300% 1319.0 24.00 3 3.37 30.74 80.91 2.63 1319.0 24.00 3 4.60
7 0.0400
1 1
8 94+174 Bridge 14.823 1.300% 152.67 0.0400 12.00 1 2.87 17.74 34.42 1.94 152.67 12.00 1 3.80
9 94+883 Bridge 17.811 1.300% 179.66 0.0400 12.00 1 3.21 18.42 38.54 2.09 179.66 12.00 1 4.20
HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS - BRIDGES & MAJOR DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
Catchment Parameters Opening Size Determination Design Opening Size
Design Design Discharge for 50 Years Return Period

Drainag Design Manning Design
Structure Stream Span No. of Design No. of
No. Station e Area Q n for the Flow Wetted Hydra. Design Clear
Type Channel Length Spans Area Span Spans
[km2] (m3/s) Bridge Depth Perim. P Radius Q Depth
Slope (%) A [m2]
hw (m) (m) R (m) (m3/s)
10 101+838 Bridge 47.034 1.300% 442.71 0.0400 24.00 1 3.39 30.77 81.28 2.64 442.71 24.00 1 4.60
103+841 Bridge 483.620 1.307% 1516.4 30.00 3 3.13 36.25 93.82 2.59 1516.4 30.00 3 4.40
11 0.0400
4 4
12 110+016 Bridge 31.109 2.000% 321.13 0.0400 20.00 1 2.73 25.46 54.61 2.14 321.13 20.00 1 4.00
13 116+331 Bridge 11.588 1.300% 125.21 0.0400 12.00 1 2.50 17.01 30.06 1.77 125.21 12.00 1 3.50
5.4.2 MINOR DRAINAGE STRUCTURES

The number of Minor Drainage Structures in this Road Project are 202 with 43 Slab/Box Culverts and 159 Pipe
Culverts. There are a few existing Minor Drainage Structures but all of them are marked for replacement. Some of
the existing Culverts (with 30”, 36” and 42” Inches Pipe Diameters) don’t fulfill the minimum culvert opening size
requirement of 48” Inches Pipe Diameter specified in ERA Drainage Design Manual 2013 and they are all marked
for demolishing.
5.4.2.1 SLAB/BOX CULVERTS IN THE PROJECT ROAD

In this Final Concept Design Stage, the structures that are determined to be Slab/Box Culverts are 43 in number.
The Summary of the Hydrologic/Hydraulic Analysis and Design, the Peak Design and Review (Check) discharges
and the opening sizes of these 43 Slab/Box Culverts are summarized in Tables 5-6 and 5-7 here below and in
detail in the Appendices attached with this Report. The opening sizes of the Structures are designed so that they
safely pass the Peak Design & Review (Check) Discharges.
Table 5- 6: Summary of Hydrologic Analysis - Slab & Box Culverts
HYDROLOGIC ANALYSIS - SLAB & BOX CULVERTS

ELEVATIONS [m] SCS Q SCS Q SCS Q
Catchment
Basin Area Length of Main River Channel Design SCS [25 Year [50 Year [100 Year
No. Station Terrain
[km2] Channel [m] High Point Crossing Elev. Slope (%) CN No. Return Return Return
Classification
Elev. (m) (m) Period] Period] Period]
1 35+443 0.979 2359.447 1018.000 735.915 16.105% Hilly 77 14.32 17.23 19.74
2 37+535 1.477 2551.87 731.00 681.693 2.247% Rolling 77 15.71 18.95 21.73
3 41+371 1.114 2512.645 795.000 662.182 7.058% Soft to 77 14.33 17.26 19.78
Moderate
4 41+756 0.656 2364.78 839.00 664.683 10.093% Rolling 77 9.03 10.87 12.45
5 42+581 3.053 4156.61 1095.00 659.767 13.890% Hilly 77 37.35 45.01 51.59
6 43+393 1.022 2524.005 752.000 657.783 5.283% Rolling 77 12.57 15.15 17.36
7 45+238 6.740 7161.06 1096.00 643.893 8.267% Rolling 77 62.36 75.21 86.27
8 46+700 3.638 3345.549 907.000 650.779 9.764% Hilly 77 45.08 54.31 62.25
9 47+712 0.704 1912.46 734.00 660.454 4.392% Rolling 77 9.15 11.02 12.62
10 50+529 6.566 5435.620 717.000 665.496 0.908% Hilly 77 42.55 51.33 58.90
11 51+129 2.678 3543.12 838.00 669.818 6.059% Rolling 77 30.71 36.95 42.32
12 52+725 0.721 2175.366 714.000 680.618 2.881% Soft to 78 8.81 10.58 12.09
Moderate

Catchment
No. Station Terrain
Classification
13 53+524 2.546 4823.01 693.00 677.373 0.802% Rolling 78 17.38 20.92 23.97
14 54+507 2.888 4238.452 700.000 666.194 0.786% Soft to 78 21.18 25.46 29.13
Moderate
15 57+073 1.186 1745.95 900.00 661.513 9.470% Soft to 78 18.28 21.91 25.02
Moderate
16 58+969 0.751 1810.036 836.000 674.837 5.672% Soft to 78 10.74 12.87 14.71
Moderate
17 59+652 6.824 4346.03 796.00 676.367 1.871% Rolling 78 59.90 71.95 82.31
18 64+121 6.693 5996.91 1008.00 770.829 5.936% Hilly 78 63.75 76.71 87.85
19 65+534 0.771 1685.955 876.000 761.400 10.835% Rolling 77 11.66 14.03 16.06
20 67+356 2.019 1913.528 1162.000 736.295 8.780% Rolling 77 28.83 34.70 39.76
21 69+470 4.817 6645.03 1173.00 732.606 0.903% Rolling 77 28.33 34.17 39.21
22 69+671 1.373 3640.402 1181.000 735.242 2.088% Rolling 77 12.64 15.24 17.49
23 70+166 5.860 5601.06 1138.00 744.046 1.047% Rolling 77 38.72 46.72 53.60
24 74+499 8.123 6991.539 1131.000 798.502 1.259% Rolling 83 65.53 77.18 87.08

Catchment
No. Station Terrain
Classification
25 77+628 2.653 2925.366 1153.000 1031.214 3.646% Rolling 91 51.42 58.84 65.06
26 81+856 1.654 2150.51 1164.00 1125.073 3.782% Soft to 91 35.53 40.65 44.95
Moderate
27 82+618 0.906 1709.741 1214.000 1127.476 5.225% Soft to 91 21.71 24.83 27.45
Moderate
28 86+853 1.451 2540.70 1217.00 1094.256 2.781% Soft to 91 28.17 32.24 35.64
Moderate
29 90+245 0.804 1552.46 1256.00 1088.589 4.724% Soft to 91 19.47 22.27 24.62
Moderate
30 90+880 3.953 3489.335 1280.000 1075.343 2.598% Soft to 91 67.88 77.68 85.90
Moderate
31 91+784 4.316 4692.534 1229.000 1092.550 1.137% Soft to 91 55.58 63.61 70.35
Moderate
32 99+485 2.040 1946.726 1240.000 1148.201 3.082% Soft to 91 43.79 50.10 55.39
Moderate
33 101+128 0.978 2056.432 1286.000 1160.392 5.576% Soft to 91 22.50 25.74 28.45
Moderate
34 105+901 1.564 2612.056 1241.000 1204.173 2.348% Soft to 91 29.24 33.46 37.00
Moderate
35 106+972 2.310 4152.534 1336.000 1209.170 4.399% Soft to 91 40.93 46.84 51.80
Moderate
36 108+524 0.985 1648.675 1350.000 1194.739 10.594% Soft to 91 25.88 29.60 32.72
Moderate

Catchment
No. Station Terrain
Classification
37 109+081 2.351 2886.137 1424.000 1197.226 3.465% Soft to 91 45.39 51.93 57.42
Moderate
38 109+417 0.687 1783.234 1654.000 1197.262 14.356% Soft to 91 18.34 20.98 23.18
Moderate
39 110+847 3.234 4817.864 1399.000 1200.541 5.784% Soft to 91 57.12 65.36 72.28
Moderate
40 111+961 0.995 3292.828 1389.000 1218.893 7.127% Soft to 91 20.66 23.64 26.14
Moderate
41 114+396 1.466 2185.660 1441.000 1276.821 10.310% Rolling 85 28.95 33.79 37.88
42 115+747 0.652 1641.396 1442.000 1344.615 8.286% Soft to 77 9.60 11.55 13.23
Moderate
43 117+908 9.807 6039.701 1868.000 1373.188 10.994% Rolling 81 120.92 143.51 162.78
Table 5- 7: Summary of Hydraulic Analysis- Slab & Box Culverts

HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS - SLAB & BOX CULVERTS
CATCHMENT PARAMETERS Design Discharge for 25
Design Opening Size
SCS Q Years Return Period
[25 Year
Basin Stream Return Design Flow Wetted Hydr.
Structure Manning n Design No. of Area Check Q
No. Area Channel Period] Clear Depth hw Perim. P Radius
Type for the Bridge Span Barrels A [m2] (m3/s)
[km2] Slope (%) Depth (m) (m) R (m)
1 35+443.19 Slab/Box 0.979 2.120% 14.32 3.00 2 1.50 0.86 4.72 2.58 0.55 14.32
0.0350
Culvert
2 37+534.50 Slab/Box 1.477 1.300% 15.71 3.50 2 1.60 0.95 5.40 3.33 0.62 15.71
0.0350
Culvert
3 41+370.94 Slab/Box 1.114 1.758% 14.33 3.00 2 1.60 0.92 4.84 2.75 0.57 14.33
0.0350
Culvert
4 41+755.95 Slab/Box 0.656 1.958% 9.03 2.50 2 1.40 0.75 4.00 1.87 0.47 9.03
0.0350
Culvert
5 42+580.62 Slab/Box 3.053 1.000% 37.35 4.00 3 2.20 1.28 6.57 5.13 0.78 37.35
0.0350
Culvert
6 43+393.02 Slab/Box 1.022 1.000% 12.57 3.00 2 1.70 1.02 5.04 3.07 0.61 12.57
0.0350
Culvert
7 45+238.04 Slab/Box 6.740 1.238% 62.36 4.50 3 2.50 1.54 7.58 6.94 0.91 62.36
0.0350
Culvert
8 46+700.45 Slab/Box 3.638 1.000% 45.08 4.00 3 2.40 1.47 6.94 5.88 0.85 45.08
0.0350
Culvert
9 47+711.60 Slab/Box 0.704 1.695% 9.15 2.50 2 1.40 0.80 4.09 1.99 0.49 9.15
0.0350
Culvert
10 50+528.71 Slab/Box 6.566 1.000% 42.55 4.00 3 2.40 1.41 6.82 5.64 0.83 42.55
0.0350
Culvert
11 51+129.22 Slab/Box 2.678 1.000% 30.71 3.50 3 2.20 1.26 6.02 4.41 0.73 30.71
0.0350
Culvert

Design Opening Size
[25 Year
12 52+724.94 Slab/Box 0.721 1.550% 8.81 4.00 2 1.20 0.54 5.09 2.18 0.43 8.81
0.0350
Culvert
13 53+523.86 Slab/Box 2.546 1.000% 17.38 3.00 2 1.90 1.29 5.59 3.88 0.69 17.38
0.0350
Culvert
14 54+507.07 Slab/Box 2.888 1.000% 21.18 3.50 2 1.90 1.29 6.08 4.52 0.74 21.18
0.0350
Culvert
15 57+073.09 Slab/Box 1.186 2.482% 18.28 3.00 2 1.60 0.97 4.93 2.90 0.59 18.28
0.0350
Culvert
16 58+969.28 Slab/Box 0.751 1.238% 10.74 3.00 2 1.50 0.85 4.69 2.54 0.54 10.74
0.0350
Culvert
17 59+651.75 Slab/Box 6.824 1.000% 59.90 4.50 3 2.60 1.62 7.73 7.28 0.94 59.90
0.0350
Culvert
18 64+120.70 Slab/Box 6.693 4.000% 63.75 4.00 3 2.10 1.15 6.30 4.59 0.73 63.75
0.0350
Culvert
19 65+534.04 Slab/Box 0.771 3.760% 11.66 3.50 1 1.50 0.87 5.23 3.03 0.58 11.66
0.0350
Culvert
20 67+356.39 Slab/Box 2.019 1.000% 28.83 4.00 3 2.00 1.07 6.14 4.28 0.70 28.83
0.0350
Culvert
21 69+469.86 Slab/Box 4.817 1.000% 28.33 4.00 2 2.40 1.41 6.82 5.63 0.83 28.33
0.0350
Culvert
22 69+670.59 Slab/Box 1.373 2.088% 12.64 3.50 1 1.80 1.13 5.75 3.94 0.69 12.64
0.0350
Culvert
23 70+165.94 Slab/Box 5.860 1.047% 38.72 4.50 2 2.50 1.56 7.61 7.00 0.92 38.72
0.0350
Culvert

Design Opening Size
[25 Year
24 74+499.00 Slab/Box 8.123 1.259% 65.53 4.00 3 2.70 1.77 7.55 7.10 0.94 65.53
0.0350
Culvert
25 77+628.06 Slab/Box 2.653 3.646% 51.42 3.50 2 2.50 1.54 6.58 5.38 0.82 51.42
0.0350
Culvert
26 81+856.21 Slab/Box 1.654 2.432% 35.53 3.50 2 2.30 1.36 6.22 4.76 0.77 35.53
0.0350
Culvert
27 82+618.34 Slab/Box 0.906 3.347% 21.71 0.0350 2.50 2 1.80 1.16 4.83 2.91 0.60 21.71
Culvert
28 86+853.50 Slab/Box 1.451 1.000% 28.17 0.0350 3.50 2 2.50 1.59 6.68 5.57 0.83 28.17
Culvert
29 90+244.61 Slab/Box 0.804 1.877% 19.47 0.0350 2.50 2 2.00 1.33 5.17 3.33 0.64 19.47
Culvert
30 90+880.27 Slab/Box 3.953 1.000% 67.88 0.0350 4.00 3 2.90 1.98 7.97 7.94 1.00 67.88
Culvert
31 91+784.00 Slab/Box 4.316 1.137% 55.58 0.0350 4.00 3 2.60 1.63 7.27 6.53 0.90 55.58
Culvert
32 99+485.21 Slab/Box 2.040 2.495% 43.79 0.0350 4.00 2 2.30 1.39 6.77 5.54 0.82 43.79
Culvert
33 101+127.80 Slab/Box 0.978 1.763% 22.50 0.0350 3.00 2 1.90 1.27 5.54 3.81 0.69 22.50
Culvert
34 105+901.13 Slab/Box 1.564 2.295% 29.24 0.0350 3.00 2 2.30 1.40 5.79 4.19 0.72 29.24
Culvert
35 106+972.10 Slab/Box 2.310 1.000% 40.93 0.0350 4.00 3 2.30 1.37 6.74 5.48 0.81 40.93
Culvert

Design Opening Size
[25 Year
36 108+523.56 Slab/Box 0.985 3.357% 25.88 0.0350 3.00 2 1.80 1.11 5.22 3.33 0.64 25.88
Culvert
37 109+081.29 Slab/Box 2.351 3.465% 45.39 0.0350 4.00 2 2.20 1.26 6.53 5.06 0.77 45.39
Culvert
38 109+416.72 Slab/Box 0.687 1.000% 18.34 0.0350 3.50 2 1.80 1.16 5.83 4.07 0.70 18.34
Culvert
39 110+846.82 Slab/Box 3.234 4.000% 57.12 0.0350 4.00 2 2.40 1.42 6.83 5.66 0.83 57.12
Culvert
40 111+961.26 Slab/Box 0.995 3.108% 20.66 0.0350 3.00 2 1.60 0.97 4.94 2.92 0.59 20.66
Culvert
41 114+395.83 Slab/Box 1.466 1.000% 28.95 0.0350 4.00 2 2.40 1.43 6.86 5.72 0.83 28.95
Culvert
42 115+747.09 Slab/Box 0.652 4.000% 9.60 0.0350 3.00 1 1.50 0.84 4.69 2.53 0.54 9.60
Culvert
43 117+907.78 Slab/Box 9.807 4.000% 120.92 4.50 3 2.60 1.63 7.76 7.33 0.94 120.92
0.0350
Culvert
Tender Document Preparation for Tongo Assosa DB Road Project. June,2020
______________________________________________________________________________________________
5.4.2.2 PIPE CULVERTS IN THE PROJECT ROAD
In this Final Concept Design Stage, the number of structures determined to be Pipe Culverts are 159 (101 Designed
Pipe Culverts with Catchment Areas and 58 Relief Pipe Culverts). There are a few existing Pipe Culverts but all of
them are marked for replacement because almost all of them don’t the requirements of the Design Standards.
The Summary and Detailed the Hydrologic/Hydraulic Analysis and Design, the Peak Design and Review (Check)
discharges and the Opening Sizes of these 159 Pipe Culverts are detailed in the Appendices attached with this Report.
The opening sizes of the Structures are designed so that they safely pass the Peak Design & Review (Check)
Discharges.
5.4.3 ROAD SIDE DITCHES DESIGN

In this Project especially in big box cut sections, considerable amount of lateral side flow drains towards the Project
Road. These lateral side flows are overwhelmingly overland surface flows and not defined in channels. Substantially
bigger than normal Paved Side Ditches that intercept these flows and discharge those to outfall points or culverts are
required to handle these lateral flows. The Project Cross Drainage Structures are the outfall points for most of the
lateral side flow conveyed by the Side Ditches and they are sized in such a way that they handle the ditch flow
adequately. Other ditch flows can be drained by turnout ditches.
The Discharges of these lateral flows is high because of their big contributing lateral area. This lateral side flow shall
be collected by hydraulically adequate and hydraulically designed side ditches and drained through the cross drainage
structures.
From our experience in similar terrain and similar projects, it is observed that side ditches provided even on rolling and
flat sections frequently fail hydraulically with a devastating effect on the roadway proper. The flow that should have
been accommodated and drained by the side ditches overtops and overwhelms the side ditches and inflict significant
damage on both the roadway embankment and the side ditches themselves. Most Projects just use the side ditch sizes
specified in the standard Typical Sections but the Typical Sections assume a flow contributing tributary lateral widths
of 50m or so and hence the side ditches specified in the Typical Sections are designed only for that much lateral
tributary width of flow. This might be adequate for alignments with small tributary lateral widths and small side flows
but very inadequate otherwise.
From our Concept Hydrologic Analysis, we found out that the flow contributing tributary width of the side ditches in lots
of locations is more than 100 meters and it even reaches 500m at some locations. Consequently, side ditches designed
for 50m or so lateral tributary widths become hydraulically very inadequate and with disastrous consequences for the
roadway embankment and the side ditches themselves.
In order to prevent this catastrophic possibility, detail Hydrologic investigation must be carried out and the lateral flow
tributary lengths for the whole road alignment determined section by section for the stretches between adjacent
culverts. Using this lateral flow contributing area data, the design side ditches discharge and velocity shall be
determined. After the computation of the side ditches design discharge and velocity, the appropriate side ditches sizes
must be hydraulically designed which will be most likely bigger paved ditches than the ones specified in the Typical
Sections.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Proposed Ditch Types under different conditions are indicated on the Road Typical Drawings and refer to the minimum
sizes of the ditches. The hydraulically required sizes shall be designed in detail with respect to geometric and
Hydrologic conditions upon the Design & Build Stage.
5.5 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR Cross Drainage Structures

5.5.1 CULVERT DESIGN CRITERIA
✓ All Culverts except the Relief Pipe Culverts shall be designed hydraulically;
✓ The minimum size of culverts should be 1.2m;
✓ For a primary valley in a rolling terrain, a group of culverts may be required and analyzed with the help of
storage. HEC-HMS hydrological assessment software should be used to analyze this type of culvert
arrangement;
✓ For optimum sizing of culverts the latest software like Hydraflow Extension, which is freely available with
AutoCAD Civil 3D software, should be utilized;
✓ The overtopping flood selected shall be consistent with the design class of highway and commensurate with
the risk at the site;
✓ Survey information shall include topographic features, channel characteristics, aquatic life, high water
information, existing structures, and other related site specific information;
✓ Culvert location in both plan and profile shall be investigated to avoid sediment build-up in culvert barrels;
✓ Culverts shall be designed to accommodate debris or proper provisions shall be made for debris maintenance;
✓ Material selection shall include consideration of service life which includes abrasion and corrosion factors;
✓ Culverts shall be located and designed to present a minimum hazard to traffic and people;
✓ The cost savings of multiple uses of the culvert(s) (utilities, stock and wildlife passage, land access, and fish
passage) shall be weighed against the advantages of separate facilities;
✓ The detail of documentation for each culvert site shall be commensurate with the risk and importance of the
structure. Design data and calculations shall be assembled in an orderly fashion and retained for future
reference as provided for in the data requirement Chapter 4 of ERA Drainage Design Manual 2013.
✓ Culverts shall be regularly inspected and maintained.
✓ The following design limitations are required for all culverts.
Allowable Headwater is the depth of water that can be ponded at the upstream end of the culvert that will be limited by
one or more of the following:
✓ Non-damaging to upstream property;
✓ No higher than the shoulder or 0.3 m below the edge of shoulder;
✓ Equal to an HW/D not greater than 1.5;
✓ Not higher than the low point in the road grade; and/or
✓ Equal to the elevation where flow diverts around the culvert.
The Headwater is the flood depth that:
✓ Does not exceed 0.5m increase over the existing 100-year in the vicinity of buildings or dwellings, and
✓ Has a level of inundation that is tolerable to upstream property and roadway for the review discharge.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
5.5.2 BRIDGE DESIGN CRITERIA
The following are general criteria relating to the hydraulic analyses for the location and design of bridges. These
principles identify specific areas for which quantifiable criteria can be developed:
✓ The final design selection shall consider the maximum backwater allowed by ERA (0.5m) unless the exceeded
limit can be justified by special hydraulic conditions. Furthermore, backwater shall not significantly increase
flood damage to property upstream of the crossing;
✓ Velocities through the structure(s) shall neither damage the highway facility nor increase damages to adjacent
property;
✓ The final design shall not significantly alter the flow distribution in the flood plain. The existing flow distributions
shall be maintained to the extent practicable;
✓ The crest-vertical curve profile shall be considered as the preferred highway crossing profile when allowing for
embankment overtopping;
✓ A freeboard shall be established to allow for passage of debris;
✓ Degradation, aggradation, contraction and local scour of a river shall be estimated. Appropriate positioning of
the bridge foundation, below the total scour depth if practical, shall be included as part of the final design;
✓ Pier spacing, orientation, and abutment shall be designed to minimize flow disruption and potential scour;
✓ Design foundation and/or scour countermeasures shall be chosen to avoid failure by scour;
✓ Acceptable risks of damage or viable measures to counter the vagaries of alluvial streams shall be specified.
✓ The following other general criteria relate to the location and design of bridges:
✓ Minimal disruption shall occur to ecosystems unique to the floodplain and stream;
✓ A traffic level of service compatible with that commonly expected for the design class of highway and
compatible with projected traffic volumes shall prevail;
✓ Design choices shall support costs for construction, maintenance and operation, including probable repair &
reconstruction and potential liability.
✓ Design Floods: For such purposes as the evaluation of backwater, clearance and overtopping shall be
established.
✓ Backwater: Backwater and/or increases over existing condition up to 0.5 m during the passage of the 100-year
flood, if practicable.
✓ Clearance: A minimum clearance conforming to the requirements of the Bridge Design Manual shall be
checked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
6. FIELD INVESTIGATIONS OF SUBGRADE AND CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS
6.1 GENERAL
Detailed site survey and investigation works have been conducted from March 30, 2020 to April 11, 2020 to assess
the overall condition of the project road corridor and to collect the relevant information required for the concept design
purpose. Accordingly, a comprehensive team composed of all relevant professionals was mobilized to the project area
to carry out detailed site investigation.
The field works carried out as part of the detailed field investigation are comprised of the following activities:
✓ Existing embankment investigation
✓ Sub-grade soil investigation
✓ Construction materials investigation
✓ Identification and mitigation measures for potential problematic sections of the project route, this includes
geological structures, objectionable sub-grade soils like potentially expansive soils and organic soils, etc.
6.1.1 SUBGRADE SOIL INVESTIGATIONS

The subgrade soil investigation was aimed at assessing the actual condition of the alignment soil which includes soil
extension survey, sampling, logging and testing.
The purposes of the sub grade soil investigation along the road corridor are:
▪ To assess the nature of the material along the road alignment,
▪ To characterize physical and mechanical properties of material along the route alignment.
▪ To identify problematic soils and to suggest possible remedial measures that would suit the pavement design.
The detailed sub grade field investigation along the road corridor is presented in the next chapter of this report.
6.1.2 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL INVESTIGATION
Detailed investigation of material sources plays an important role in assisting the design of cost effective pavements
by enhancing efficient use of the locally available construction materials. The construction materials investigation
undertaken for the design of the road involved searching for and identification of suitable borrow pits and quarries
which can provide an adequate quality and quantity of road construction materials within the vicinity of the road project.
After identifying the potential material sources test holes were excavated and representative samples were taken for
laboratory testing to establish the quality and suitability of the locally available road construction materials.
6.1.3 LABORATORY INVESTIGATION
Samples of the materials were submitted to Beza Consulting Engineers plc material testing laboratory for the relevant
quality tests. In performing the laboratory tests, AASHTO and BS testing methods have been used.
The detail of the laboratory results and their interpretations are presented in section 5.2 of this report.
6.1.4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1.4.1 SUBGRADE MATERIALS
From visual observation and laboratory test results of the sub grade soil the following are noted:
______________________________________________________________________________________________
The sub-grade material is dominantly comprised of reddish clay soil to reddish brown silty clay soil. As per the AASHTO
M 145 Soil Classification system, the subgrade soil comprises A-1-a, A-1-b, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7-5 AND A-7-6 type of
soils. The soil classification is mainly A-6 (23.9%) followed by A-7-5, A-4 and A-7-6 (21.7%, 15.2% and 10.9%,
respectively) which are rated as fair to poor subgrade. Considering that, 31% of the CBR values is less than 5% and
23% of the swell values is greater than 2%. These sections need replacement with suitable subgrade improving
materials.
Table 6- 1: Subgrade soils distribution along the project road
Soil Type A-1-a A-1-b A-2-6 A-2-7 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-5 A-7-6
Frequency (No) 1 2 5 3 7 2 11 10 6
Distribution (%) 2.1 4.3 10.6 6.4 14.9 4.3 23.4 21.3 12.8
Based on the analysis and interpretation of subgrade test results, subgrade classes have been designated to five
relatively homogeneous sections of the project route (for pavement design purpose) as follows.
✓ Km 1+650 (new) – Km 19+270 - where the CBR values generally show an increasing trend ranging from 10%-
12% This road section is designated to have a subgrade class of S4 (CBR=8 - 14)
✓ Km 19+270 – Km 52+970 where 80% of the CBR values of samples taken from this section are above 5%
while only 20% are less than 3%. This road section is designated to have a subgrade class of S1 (CBR=2).
✓ Km 52+970 - Km 76+950 where 71% of the CBR values of samples taken from this section are above 5%
while 29% is less than 5%. This road section is designated to have a subgrade class of S2 (CBR=3, 4).
✓ Km 76+950 – 115+160 where inaccessible, thus, the section has not been sampled and tested.
✓ Km 115+160 - Km 130+020.3 where 75% of the CBR values of samples taken from this section are less than
5%. This road section is designated to have a subgrade class of S1 (CBR=2).
6.1.4.2 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Four (4) natural gravel sources for sub base material, three (3) borrow pits for Capping and two (2) borrow pits for
embankment fill sources, 3 rock quarries, 2 river sand and 5 water sources have been identified during the study of the
project road. Sampling and testing have also been conducted on all of them. The field observation and laboratory test
results indicate that:
• Four (4) natural gravel sub base sources are found that satisfy all strength requirements of sub-base materials.
• Three (3) sources have been identified for capping layer construction, and two (2) sources have also been found
for embankment fill. All test results satisfy the requirements of capping and fill materials. Materials identified for
sub base can also be used for capping and fill layers since they are available abundantly.
• All three (3) quarry sources identified in the project road are slightly weathered to fresh basaltic rock, which are
suitable for surfacing aggregates, base course, masonry stone and concrete aggregate. In addition, abundant
masonry stone sources of granitic nature sources are available along the route.
• Two river sand sources are identified at Km 56+590 and Km 67+810 along the project road. All quality tests for
the sand source comply with requirements except the organic matter and clay lump test values for sand, which
indicates that the quality of the sand is fairly good.
• All identified water sources qualify the requirements of the specification. Apart from the sampled and tested water
sources, plenty of rivers are available crossing the project route.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
• It is recommended that sources which have failed to comply with the requirements shall be checked as construction
progresses and regular quality test shall be conducted on those which have already qualified.
6.2 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF LABORATORY TEST RESULTS
6.2.1 FIELD INVESTIGATION WORKS
6.2.1.1 GENERAL
Four (4) natural gravel sources for sub base material, three (3) borrow pits for Capping and two (2) borrow pits for
embankment fill sources, 3 rock quarries, 2 river sand and 5 water sources have been identified during the study of the
project road. Sampling and testing have also been conducted on all of them. The field observation and laboratory test
results indicate that:
• Four (4) natural gravel sub base sources are found that satisfy all strength requirements of sub-base materials.
• Three (3) sources have been identified for capping layer construction, and two (2) sources have also been found
for embankment fill. All test results satisfy the requirements of capping and fill materials. Materials identified for
sub base can also be used for capping and fill layers since they are available abundantly.
• All three (3) quarry sources identified in the project road are slightly weathered to fresh basaltic rock, which are
suitable for surfacing aggregates, base course, masonry stone and concrete aggregate. In addition, abundant
masonry stone sources of granitic nature sources are available along the route.
• Two river sand sources are identified at Km 56+590 and Km 67+810 along the project road. All quality tests for
the sand source comply with requirements except the organic matter and clay lump test values for sand, which
indicates that the quality of the sand is fairly good.
• All identified water sources qualify the requirements of the specification. Apart from the sampled and tested water
sources, plenty of rivers are available crossing the project route.
• It is recommended that sources which have failed to comply with the requirements shall be checked as construction
progresses and regular quality test shall be conducted on those which have already qualified.
6.2.2 EXISTING PAVEMENT CONDITION SURVEY
Pavement condition survey is made along the entire existing road section of Assosa Town (0+000) and Tongo Town
(129+760.33) sections. The Assosa Town section is DBST road which is in fair to poor condition. From Assosa to
Abrhamo (@16+900) fair to poor gravel wearing road. The route sections from Abrhamo kebele to Fufur kebele
(@68+000) and from Tongo Town to BangaTerko kebele (@89+300) is very poor accessible road. From fufur to
BangaTerko Kebele is inaccessible areas (21.3km long. The condition of the existing road sections is assessed to
check its effect on the pavement design of the project and to determine the treatment measures required to
maintain/upgrade the road.
Road condition survey has been carried out by visual observations undertaken by means of slow drive-over survey
and supplemented with simple measurements. Visual assessment was carried with speed not exceeding 15 km/hr.
and stopping at various locations, depending on variations in road conditions. The different distresses developed due
to factors related to sub grade soil; traffic, the type of material used for construction, the climate of the area and the
type of terrain have been identified. The extent and severity of each of the distresses was assesses and recorded.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
In addition, measurement of width of the carriageway and estimate of the embankment height were carried out.
Moreover, other parameters including over size materials, segregation of the finer fraction, and raveling sections have
been identified.
Every kilometre of the existing road section is rated using combination of the above distresses. They are rated as very
poor, poor and fair depending on the level of damage.
Figure 6- 1:- Assosa to fufur Kebele Accessible Road
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 6- 2: Tongo to BangaTerko kebele Accessible Road
Figure 6- 3: Assosa Town DBST Road (Existing)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
6.2.3 SUB GRADE SOIL INVESTIGATION
6.2.3.1 General
The subgrade soil investigation was aimed at assessing the actual condition of the alignment soil which includes soil
extension survey, sampling, logging and testing.
The purposes of the sub grade soil investigation along the road corridor are:
▪ To assess the nature of the material along the road alignment,

▪ To characterize physical and mechanical properties of material along the route alignment.
▪ To identify problematic soils and to suggest possible remedial measures that would suit the pavement design.
The detailed sub grade field investigation along the road corridor is presented in the following sub section.
6.2.3.2 Soil Extension Survey

Following preliminary site investigation which identified the major soil types in the Project area, detailed visual survey
is conducted in parallel with test pit sampling. Soil extension survey was conducted to identify homogenous stretches.
The homogeneity of the materials was assessed based on their physical properties (colour, texture, size, and shape),
state of occurrence (soil, hard rock, weathered rock) and observable indicators of engineering properties (like shrinkage
cracks, fracturing, joints, etc.).
In addition to this, areas of weak subgrade materials and unsuitable soil, such as expansive black clays which require
replacement have been identified. Based on the soil extension survey and sub-grade sampling the different soil and
rock formations are properly described and their thicknesses are delineated.
Based on the field investigations, the materials observed along the project road are categorized into the following three
major groups:
• Reddish or light brown to light greyish silty clay soil with weathered gravels or underlain by highly weathered
bed rock,
• Dark brown or black clay soil (expansive) to greyish clay soil and
• Light brown silty clay to greyish sandy silt soil with weathered gravels
The Red clay, Reddish brown clay, reddish brown gravel clay, reddish brown fine to medium gravel silty clay soils
31.8% of the project alignment, the greyish brown weathered rock and reddish brown silty clay gravel 37% of the project
alignment. The Light grey fine to medium gravel silty clay sand, light brown silty clay sand 31.2% of the road alignment.
Based on observations made during the field investigation and the laboratory test results, the materials are summarized
as follows.
• The Reddish or light brown to light greyish silty clay soil with weathered rocks/gravels or underlain by highly
weathered bed rock that covers 37% of the project road could be considered as fair to good roadbed materials.
• The dark brown or black clay soil (expansive) to greyish clay soil that covers 31.8% of the project road could
be considered as poor roadbed materials.
• The light brown silty clay to greyish sandy silt soil with weathered gravels that covers 31.2% of the project
alignment are fair to good roadbed materials.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Short stretches of swampy sections are also observed during the investigation. The Summary of the soil extension is
presented in the Table 6-2 below.
Table 6- 2: Summary of the roadbed materials for Assosa -Tongo Road Project
Soil Extension Description Length % Composition Remark
(Km)
Red clay, Reddish brown clay, reddish brown gravel 40.87 31.8 Poor to fair
clay, reddish brown fine to medium gravel silty clay soils roadbed material.
Greyish brown weathered rock, reddish brown silty clay 47.5 37 Fair to good
gravel roadbed material.
Light grey fine to medium gravel silty clay sand, light 40 31.2 Fair to good
brown silty clay sand roadbed material.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Assosa-Tongo 130.Km -project soil extension
Red clay, Reddish brown clay, reddish brown gravel clay, reddish brown fine to medium
gravel silty clay soils
Greyish brown weathered rock, reddish brown silty clay gravel
Light grey fine to medium gravel silty clay sand, light brown silty clay sand
Figure 6- 4: Composition of soil extension along the project road
6.2.3.3 Sampling and Logging

To determine the engineering properties and to assess the suitability of the soils along the road alignment,
representative disturbed samples were collected by digging test pits along the road alignment. Test pits of approx. 1.0
m x 1.0 m size at staggered position are excavated up to 1.5m depth below the original surface of the road at variable
intervals of 1.0km, 2.0km, 3.0km & 4.0km and the lithological soil formations were properly logged. Besides, each of
the subgrade samples was photographed from different angles using digital cameras. After collecting the samples, the
sample tags are labelled and inserted into sample bags with the following information:
➢ The project name;

➢ GPS/Station of sampling;
➢ Depth of sampling;
➢ Type of material sampled and;
➢ The type of test required
A total of 47 samples of sub-grade materials were collected from the road alignment at every 2.0km interval to assess
the properties of the road bed materials. The entire 47 samples were subject to soil classification tests while 26 samples
were for Moisture-Density relationship, CBR and swell tests.
After completing the logging and sampling, the test pits were backfilled, compacted and levelled off to their original
level. The test pit logs are summarized and presented in Appendix –6-2 of this report.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
6.3 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL INVESTIGATION
6.3.1.1 GENERAL
Availability of suitable construction materials within the project vicinity plays a vital role on the investment cost of the
project. Therefore, investigation and location of potential sources of construction materials viz. borrow sources for
gravel sub base, embankment works and replacement of unsuitable soils, hard rock sources for aggregate production
and for masonry, natural sand and water sources was given due attention.
For each of the identified sources, source location, material description, material quantity, overburden material,
availability of access road and other relevant information were recorded on a format prepared to serve this purpose.
The location of each of the sources were marked using hand held GPS. Besides, each of the material sources was
photographed from different angles using digital cameras.
The materials investigation and observations for each type of construction materials are discussed below.
6.3.1.2 NATURAL GRAVEL FOR SUB-BASE, CAPPING LAYER AND EMBANKMENT

The project road requires adequate quantity of strong lower pavement layers at reasonable intervals. Special attention
is therefore given to locate natural gravel sources that can be used for sub base layers and for replacement of
unsuitable soil at a stretch where a relatively continuous weak subgrade is observed.
Moderately weathered to highly weathered basaltic gravel mixed with silty soil sources could be identified along the
project road. Natural granular materials sources that comply with all the specification requirements for their use as sub
base layers without further processing have been rare, mainly due to their grading and plasticity properties.
However, bulk production which results in crushing of weathered gravels and/or screening of oversize materials could
be used to produce high quality sub base material from the identified sources.
Sources of natural gravel materials of better quality have been located and sampled from nine (9) borrow sites along
and within the vicinity of the project road.
Summary of the natural gravel sources is given in the Table 6-3 below. The laboratory test results of natural gravels
are presented in Appendix 6-1 of this report.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 6- 3: Locations of Natural Gravel Materials Identified along the road project
Particle size Distribution Atterberg Limits (%) % CBR
Average
OLD-Station New -Station Depth AASHTO MDD OMC Dry Swell CBR at
Visual Discription No. of Swell 95% MDD
(Km) (Km) (cm) 37.5 25 19.0 12.5 9.5 4.75 2.36 0.425 0.075 LL PL PI Classificaton (g/cm 3) (%) Density 2.54 mm 5.08 mm (%) 95% MDD
Blow s
(g/cc)
(%)
10 1.36 1.9 1.9 1.76

Reddish brown silt clay
0+000 130+020.33 120 100 100 100 100 100 96 86 84 83 43 29 14 A-7-6 1.75 17.6 30 1.62 2.9 2.4 1.67 1.62 1.66 3.0
soil with few fine gravel
65 1.84 3.2 5.0 1.42
10
2+000 128+020 120 Reddish brown clay soil 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 99 98 56 33 23 A-7-5 30
65
10 1.37 1.0 1.3 1.80
4+000 126+020 150 Red clay soil 100 100 100 100 100 100 97 95 94 35 21 14 A-6 1.69 15.6 30 1.60 3.5 2.9 1.61 1.62 4.0
65 1.66 3.9 3.7 1.46
10
6+000 123+280 150 Brown clay soil 100 100 100 100 99 98 93 90 88 35 21 14 A-6 30
65
10 1.54 2.3 2.4 2.06
7+000 122+907 110 Brown clay silt soil 100 100 100 100 100 100 98 97 96 42 29 13 A-7-6 1.72 13.0 30 1.65 4.8 5.1 1.88 1.80 5.0
65 1.72 7.4 7.4 1.45
10 1.38 1.4 1.5 1.67
8+000 121+860 150 Red clay soil 100 100 98 97 97 97 96 94 93 28 14 14 A-6 1.72 16.6 30 1.65 3.3 3.0 1.58 1.53 3.0
65 1.81 3.9 3.7 1.33
10
Reddish brown clay soil
10+000 120+060 150 100 100 100 100 100 98 96 92 92 60 33 27 A-7-5 30
with gravel
65
10 1.32 0.70 0.90 5.52
12+300 115+160 150 Brown clay soil 100 100 100 100 100 99 97 95 94 80 42 38 A-7-5 1.67 19.0 30 1.50 1.60 1.40 5.02 5.03 2.0
65 1.58 2.00 1.90 4.56
10
14+000 116+460 120 Red clay soil 100 100 100 100 100 98 94 92 91 41 32 9 A-5 30
65
Light grey fine to 10
56+000 79+110 110 medium gravel sandy 100 100 100 100 100 87 48 29 23 43 29 14 A-2-7 30
silty clay soil 65
Whitish grey 10 1.63 7.2 7.0 2.26
58+000 76+950 120 decomposed rock with 100 100 91 81 77 68 51 35 17 NP NP NP A-1-b 1.89 15.5 30 1.71 14.0 13.9 2.10 2.08 24.0
silty clay soil 65 1.81 21.7 28.3 1.88
Light yellowish fine to 10
60+000 74+950 150 medium sand with little 100 100 100 100 100 100 87 57 29 36 25 11 A-2-6 30
gravel silty clay soil 65
10 1.51 1.2 1.1 2.71
62+000 72+908 150 Light grey silt clay soil 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 96 30 NP NP NP A-2-7 1.86 10.5 30 1.65 4.0 3.1 2.35 2.09 4.0
65 1.86 7.5 5.9 1.19
Figure 6- 5: Potential Natural gravel sub base source @ Km 19+000

______________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 6- 6: Potential Natural gravel sub base source @ Km 128+020
______________________________________________________________________________________________
6.3.1.3 ROCK SOURCES FOR SURFACING, BASE, CONCRETE AND MASONARY WORKS
During the field investigation, the quality and quantity of rocks, accessibility of the quarry locations, the overburden
material depth and the suitability of the material for construction purposes are well assessed. Besides, the
environmental and social impacts which may arise following the utilization of the rock quarry like displacement of local
residents, claim for farm lands are assessed.
Possible rock sources for aggregate chipping, base course, concrete and masonry works are available. The strength
of the available rock materials at the potential quarry sites was roughly evaluated in terms of the number of blows and
blow intensity to break a rock sample with a geological hammer. In addition, joint spacing of the rock mass was also
noted as an indication of workability and potential weathering. The quantity of available material has also been
estimated. Ease of mining and development of quarry faces and suitability to erect a crusher plant have been
considered as additional factors.
Three (3) quarry sites are identified which are considered suitable by visual inspection that can be potential sources of
aggregates for surfacing, base course, and concrete aggregates and samples from three sources are collected to be
tested at central laboratory to confirm their suitability for the intended purposes.
The formation and characteristics of the rock sources along the road corridor is fresh to slightly weathered basaltic
stone. Representative sample has been taken from the identified sources for further laboratory testing. Aggregate
Crushing Value, Los Angeles Abrasion Value, 10% Fines value, Sodium Sulphate Soundness, compressive strength
and Water Absorption were conducted on the representative samples to assess their suitability. The details of each of
the sites proposed as potential sources are shown in the table below. The laboratory test results of the sampled quarry
sources are presented in Appendix-5-1of this report.
Table 6- 4: Locations of Rock Sources & Quality Test Results Identified along the road project
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 6- 7: Potential Hard rock source at km 119+560 offset 2.3km
Figure 6- 8: Potential Hard rock source at km 0+390 offset 11km
______________________________________________________________________________________________
6.3.1.4 NATURAL SAND SOURCES
Two potential rive sand sources are identified which are used to satisfy sand demand for the road project. The sand
sources are located at Km 56+590 and Km 67+810 without offsets. Two samples were collected from the identified
sources for laboratory tests. The physical descriptions of the sources are summarized in the Table 6-5 below.
Table 6- 5: Location of Sand sources and the quality test results
Figure 6- 9: Potential Natural sand source at km 57+470
6.3.1.5 WATER SOURCES FOR CONSTRUCTION

Since water is necessary for compaction, mortar and concrete works, perennial and intermittent rivers along the project
route that can be used as a source of water for construction have been located. Accordingly, five (5) perennial sources
are identified along the project.
Samples were collected from the five (5) perennial sources to check the quality of the water for the intended purposes.
It is tested for PH, Total Dissolved Solids, Chloride and Sulphate contents. The laboratory test results are attached in
Appendix 5-1. There are at least five more water sources most of which cross the project road.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 6- 6: Location of Water sources along the route and Quality Test Results
Figure 6- 10: Potential water source at Yakobo River
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 6- 11: potential water source at Komosha River

6.4 LABORATORY INVESTIGATION
6.4.1 LABORATORY TESTS
Samples taken from the subgrade soil and from all potential material sources were submitted to Central Laboratory for
the relevant quality tests. In performing the laboratory tests, AASHTO and BS testing procedures have been followed
as indicated in the Table 6-7 below.
Table 6- 7: Testes conducted on sub grade and Construction Materials.
TEST DESCRIPTION STANDARD

SUB GRADE MATERIALS
ATTERBERG LIMIT AASHTO T-89 &T-90
SIEVE ANALYSIS AASHTO T-88
LINEAR SHRINKAGE LIMITS BS 1377: PART 2:1990
MOISTURE DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS AASHTO T-180
CBR ( MODIFIED, 4 DAYS SOAKING WITH 4.5KG HAMMER) AASHTO T-193
BORROW MATERIALS
GRADATION TEST AASHTO T-88 & T-27
ATTERBERG LIMIT AASHTO T-89 &T-90
MOISTURE DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS AASHTO T-180
CBR ( MODIFIED, 4 DAYS SOAKING WITH 4.5KG HAMMER) AASHTO T-193
LOS ANGELES ABRASION AASHTO T-96

______________________________________________________________________________________________
ROCK SOURCES
Specific gravity and Water absorption AASHTO T-84/T85
Los Angles abrasion test AASHTO T-96
Aggregate Crushing Value BS 812 Part 110
Ten Percent Fine Value BS 812 Part 111
Coating & Stripping value AASHTO T-182
Soundness test AASHTO T-104
Compressive Strength (cylindrical) AASHTO T-22
SAND SOURCES
MORTAR STRENGTH AASHTO T-71
SOUNDNESS TEST AASHTO T-104
CLAY LUMPS AND F RIABLE PARTICLES AASHTO T-112
SAND EQUIVALENT TEST AASHTO T-176
ORGANIC I MPURITIES AASHTO T-21
Specific gravity and Water absorption AASHTO T-85
WATER SOURCES
PH VALUE BS 1377: PART 3 SUB
CLAUSE 9.3
CHLORIDE CONTENT BS 1377: PART 3 SUB
CLAUSE 7.2
SULPHATE CONTENT BS 1377: PART 3 SUB
CLAUSE 5.5
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS BS 1377: PART 3 SUB
CLAUSE 8.3
6.4.2 LABORATORY TEST DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

6.4.2.1 GENERAL
The results of laboratory tests conducted on the material samples are presented, analyzed and interpreted in this part
of the report. The data analyses and interpretations are based on the field investigation works and laboratory tests
results aiming at assessing and determining the engineering property of the sub grade and the potential construction
material sources.
6.4.2.2 SUBGRADE SOIL TEST ANALYSIS

The sub grade soil was investigated by visual observation, pit excavation and sampling of representative soil layers
from the test pits.
As mentioned above, samples of sub-grade materials were collected from the road alignment at average 2.0km
intervals to assess the properties of the road bed materials. Sieve analysis, Atterberg limits, linear shrinkage and natural
moisture content were conducted on all samples and the subgrade soil was classified accordingly. Modified proctor,
three point CBR and swell tests were conducted on samples collected at interval of 1.0km, 2.0km 3.0km & 4.0km for
the road project in staggered manner. The test results are summarized and presented in Appendix 5-1.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
6.4.2.1.1 PLASTICITY ANALYSIS
An indication as to the nature of the soil along the route may be given by the variation in Plasticity Index (PI). The PI is
influenced by the type and proportion of clay minerals present within the material and high PI values are often an
indication of expansiveness of the soil.
The variation of PI and liquid limit along the project road is presented in figure below. It can be seen from the chart that
the values of PI range from Non-plastic (NP) to 38%, while that of liquid limit range from NP to 80%.
2.2% of the materials tested for PI have a PI value more than 30%, and 6.5% of the materials tested for LL have a LL
value more than 60%. All of these higher values of PI and LL are recorded on samples taken from Km 1+650 (New
start) up to Km 130+020.33 (New end).
Plasticity distribution of subgrade samples
40
35
30
PI (%)
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Station (km)
PI PI = 30
Figure 6- 12: Variation of Plasticity Index (PI) For The Road Project
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Plasticity distribution of Subgrade samples

90
80
70
60
50
LL (%)
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Station (km)
LL LL = 60
Figure 6- 13: Variation of Liquid Limit (LL) For The Road Project
The plasticity of a soil can also be expressed in terms of the plasticity chart shown below. The plasticity chart helps to
classify the type of soils based on their plasticity characteristics (i.e. Atterberg Limits and Indices of soils). Generally,
materials falling above the A-Line are classified as clays (CH) and below the A-Line are as silts (MH or OH) (to the
right of the high plasticity line at LL = 50%).
Table 6- 8: showing degree of plasticity of the subgrade soils
Plasticity Low Intermediate High

Liquid Limit LL<35 35<LL<50 LL>50
Soil type CL & ML CI, MI or OI CH, MH or OH
As can be noted from the graphs below, majority of soils along the road alignment fall under the group MH and can be
described as high plasticity silty soil. The plasticity chart of sub grade soil is presented in the Figure 6-14 below.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Plasticity Chart of Sub grade samples

50
45
40
35
Plasticity Index
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
LL = 50 A-Line LL Vs PI U-Line
Liquid Limit
LL = 35 Log. (A-Line) Log. (U-Line)
Figure 6- 14:Plasticity Chart of Sub grade samples
6.4.2.1.2 SUBGRADE SOIL CLASSIFICATION

AASHTO soil classification (M 145) reveals that the sub grade materials along the road alignment is mainly classified
as A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-6, A-2-7, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7-5 and A-7-6 soil groups. Out of the nine groups A-6 comprise 23.4%
of the sub grade material (the largest proportion) which is followed by A-7-5, A-4, A-7-6 and A-2-6 materials which
constituent 21.3%, 14.9%, 12.8% and 10.6% of the sub grade soil respectively. The remaining soil materials comprise
17% of the sub grade. Composition of the sub grade soil materials for the road alignment is summarized in the table
and Figure 6-15 below.
Table 6- 9: Subgrade Soil Composition along the project Road
Soil Type A-1-a A-1-b A-2-6 A-2-7 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-5 A-7-6
Frequency 1 2 5 3 7 2 11 10 6
Composition (%) 2.1 4.3 10.6 6.4 14.9 4.3 23.4 21.3 12.8
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Percentage composition of sub grade soil
A-5 A-6
4.3% 12.8%
A-4
14.9% A-7-5
21.3%
A-2-7 A-1-a
6.4% 2.1%
A-2-6 A-1-b
10.6% 4.3%
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-6 A-2-7 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-5
Figure 6- 15: Percentage Compositions of Subgrade Soil for the Road Project
6.4.2.1.3 SUB GRADE STRENGHT ANALYSIS
A. Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
Soil samples obtained from test pits have been compacted in the laboratory at various moisture contents to derive a
dry density versus moisture content relationship. Compaction tests were carried out at 3km intervals. Compaction was
carried out in accordance with AASHTO T180 (4.5 kg hammer or heavy hammer). The Maximum Dry Density (MDD)
obtained from these tests is summarized in the figure below for the road project.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Maximum dry density of subgrade soil samples

2.50
2.00
MDD ((g/cc)
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0.000 20.000 40.000 60.000 80.000 100.000 120.000 140.000
Station (km)
MDD MDD =1.50
Figure 6- 16: Variation of MDD Along the Project Road

The MDD value along the alignment ranges between 1.591 g/cm3 and 2.028 g/cm3 and the optimum Moisture Content
(OMC) along the road alignment varies from 9.0% to 19.0%. The values of Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) obtained
from the compaction tests are presented in the Figure 6-17 below.
Optimum Moisture Content of Subgrade Soil Samples

20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
OMC (%)
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.000 20.000 40.000 60.000 80.000 100.000 120.000 140.000
STATION (km)
OMC
Figure 6- 17: Variation of OMC for the Project Road
______________________________________________________________________________________________
A. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and Swell Values
Soaked CBR tests were carried out on disturbed soil samples recovered from test pits along the road alignment to
determine the shear strength of the subgrade material. Three-point CBRs were undertaken in accordance to AASHTO
T-193 to determine the variation of sub grade strength with increasing compaction effort. The CBR value at 95% of
MDD is plotted in the Figure 6-18 below.
Variation of CBR @95% of MDD along the Project Road

60.0
50.0
40.0
CBR (%)
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
-10.000 10.000 30.000 50.000 70.000 90.000 110.000 130.000
Station(km)
CBR CBR = 3 CBR = 5%
Figure 6- 18: Variation of CBR Value for the Project Road
As can be seen from the above Figure 6-18, the CBR values @ 95% of MDD along the road alignment vary between
1.5% and 56%. 12% of the CBR value is less than 3% and the remaining 88% of the CBR values is greater than 3%.
In a similar comparison, about 28% of the CBR values are less than 5%.
The CBR values generally show an increasing trend from Km 1+650 – Km 14+670 ranging from 10%-31%. Then a
section of predominantly good subgrade (with 8% of the CBR values are less than 3%) and a staggering good subgrade
follows from Km 45+274 – Km 76+950. The subgrade samples were not taken from Km 76+950 –Km 115+160 due to
inaccessibility and unsecured area. 75% of the CBR values of samples taken from the remained section (km 115+160
– km 130+020.33) are less than 5% and 25% of the CBR values are greater than 5%.
The swell value of the samples is also determined along with the CBR test to evaluate the potential heaving of the sub
grade soils. Accordingly, 8% of the swell value of the road alignment soils is greater than 3%. A maximum value of 5%
is recorded at Km 115+160 where a continuous section of black clay soil and red clay soils (Km 76+950 - Km 121+000)
starts. The variation of swell value for the road project is presented in the Figure 6-19 below.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Variation of CBR Swell along the road Project

6.0
5.0
4.0
SWELL (%)
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.000 20.000 40.000 60.000 80.000 100.000 120.000 140.000
STATION (km)
SWELL Swell = 2% Swell = 3%
6.4.3 SUBGRADE SOIL TEST DATA INTERPRETATION

As mentioned above, 47 samples of sub-grade materials were collected from the road alignment at average 2.0km
interval to assess the properties of the road bed materials. Classification tests (sieve analysis, Atterberg limits and
natural moisture content were conducted on samples collected at average 2.0km, whereas modified proctor, three
point CBR and swell tests were conducted on samples collected at interval of 3.0km. The test results are summarized
and presented in Appendix 5-1.
The classification test reveals that the sub grade materials along the road alignment is mainly classified as A-1-a, A-1-
b, A-2-6, A-2-7, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7-5 and A-7-6 soil groups. Out of the nine groups A-6 comprise 23.4% of the sub
grade material (the largest proportion) which is followed by A-7-5, A-4, A-7-6 and A-2-6 materials which constituent
21.3%, 14.9%, 12.8 and 10.6% of the sub grade soil respectively. The remaining soil materials comprise 17% of the
sub grade.
The CBR values (at 95% of the MDD) of the A-7-5 materials tested for CBR are between 2% and 11% inclusive, among
which 9% of the CBR result is less than 3%. The Group Index of the material varies between 0 and 35.7. Under average
conditions of good drainage and thorough compaction, a group index of zero indicates a “good” subgrade material and
a group index of 20 or greater indicates a “very poor” subgrade material, as per AASHTO classification. Accordingly,
materials found within this group are deemed to exhibit poor sub grade strength.
The physical description of A-6, A-7-5, A-7-6 and A-4 soil classes that comprise 72.4% of the samples taken along the
project length is dominantly reddish or brown silty clay soil to black clay. AASHTO classification, M145-91, classifies
this type of material as silty soils (A-4) and Clayey Soils (A-6 and A-7) and anticipates its quality as subgrade will range
(widely) from fair to poor sub grade. And the remain soil types of the project road (A-1 and A-2) are rated as excellent
to good subgrade.
However, as discussed on the analyses of subgrade test results (Plasticity, CBR and Swell), four fairly homogeneous
sections of different subgrade classes can be identified along the project road as follows.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
6.4.3.1 UNSUITABLE SOIL SECTIONS
In order to identify unsuitable soils in an area with predominantly cohesive soil, attention has to be given to those
sections where surface desiccation cracks or fissures on a clay deposit (mostly black clay& red clay) are identified and
high plasticity, low CBR and high swell are recorded, as per ERA Site Investigation Manual, 2013.
Accordingly, sections where PI >30%, LL>60%, CBR<3% and CBR Swell >3.0% that are classified as unsuitable clay
material as per ERA Flexible Pavement Design Manual - 2013 and short black clay stretches are identified, as given
in the Table 6-10 below.
Table 6- 10: Unsuitable soil stretches along the Road Project
Depth below the

LL (%) PI (%) CBR (%) Swell(%)
No. Stretch natural ground Remark
range range range range
Level (m)
Expansive Soil /
1 33+340-45+274 39 17 1.5 3.1 0.0-1.5
Weak sub grade
Expansive Soil /
2 60+910-79+110 43 11 3.5 2.6 0.0-1.4
Weak sub grade
3 116+460-123+280 80 38 2.0 5 0.0-1.5 Weak sub grade
Hence, from the above it can be seen that about 17Km (13.24%) of the project road has weak sub grade soil within the
depth of seasonal moisture change (the active zone). Moreover, subgrade test results indicate that the widely available
reddish brown stiff clay subgrade mostly exhibit high swell (> 3%) and very low CBR (< 3%), though their plasticity
values are moderate (LL<55 and PI < 25). Therefore, attention shall be given to those weak sub grade soil sections to
improve their susceptibility to moisture change and bearing capacities to avoid the detrimental effect to the pavement
layers. However, it should be noted that the beginning and end stations are approximate, and the actual extent shall
be identified as the excavation progresses.
6.4.3.2.SEASONALLY WATERLOGGING and ERODIBLE STRETCHES

Short stretches of swampy water logging sections have been observed along the road alignment. Absence of adequate
drainage structure has contributed to the formation of water logged areas. The other major geotechnical aspect is the
presence of erodible soils. It has been observed that erosion gully formations are found at different locations of the
road alignment.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
The Locations of water logged and erodible sections along the project route are indicated in the Table 10-11 below.
Table 6- 11: Waterlogged stretches along The Project Road
Length
No. Stretch Description Proposed Remedial Measure
[Km]
High earth fill with rock fill
1 40+330-41+500 1.17 Deposited alluvial soil
Seasonally water High fill with rock fill and relief

2 60+000-60+950 0.95
logging stretch. structure
3 115+100-115+160 0.60 Erodible section Variable solutions
Total Length (Km) 2.72
6.4.4 ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERAILS

6.4.4.1 ROCK FOR CRUSHED AGGREGATE AND MASONARY WORKS
Potential sources of quarry stone have been identified within the road corridor all of which are mainly basaltic stones.
Samples were collected and tested to assess suitability for intended purpose i.e. for surfacing, base course, concrete
and masonry works.
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV), Los Angeles Abrasion [LAA], Soundness [using sodium Sulphate], Ten percent fines
value (TFV), compressive strength and water absorption tests were conducted on the samples to assess their
suitability.
The test results indicate that the quarry sources satisfy the requirements of aggregate, for surfacing, crushed base
course and aggregates for concrete.
The summary of the laboratory test results conducted on the rock quarry samples from potential sources is presented
in the table below. Note that test for flakiness index is not included here; it shall be conducted during construction after
erection of a crusher plant.
Table 6- 12: Summary of Test results of the Quarry Sources
______________________________________________________________________________________________
6.4.4.2 NATURAL SELECTED GRAVEL SOURCES
6.4.4.2.1 GENERAL
Nine (9) borrow sources for earth work, capping layer and sub base materials were identified along the route corridor
and representative samples were collected from all the sources. In order to assess the suitability of the materials for
earth work, capping layer and sub-base, the test result was compared with the requirements of ERA technical
specifications.
6.4.4.2.2 ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS OF NATURAL GRAVEL (Sub base Material)
Sieve analysis, Atterberg Limits, Los Angeles Abrasion (LAA), modified proctor, CBR and Swell tests had been
conducted on each of the samples taken from nine (9) potential natural gravel sources.
Among these samples, four sources satisfy the CBR requirement for sub base having CBR value greater than or equal
to 30 %( ranging from 30%- 56%). They also comply with LL (24% – 45%), PI (3% - 17%, at a point is 17%) and CBR
swell (0.9% - 1.33%) requirements. All nine sources satisfy the sieve analysis requirements of sub-base material. Since
the PI values of the other five sources range from 6 - 14% and most of their grading are on the coarser side of the
required envelop, it is believed that both the plasticity index and grading can be improved by breaking down of
weathered stones during bulk production and compaction.
It shall be noted that these sources can also be used for capping and fill layers, since there is adequate quantity of
materials.
Table 6- 13: Summary of Natural gravel Sub base Test Results
Passing CBR @
AASHTO %age LL PI Swell MDD
SOURCES 0.425 mm 95% OMC (%)
Class fines (%) (%) (%) (%)
(%) MDD
19+000 offset 50m A-7-6 49 53 45 17 30 1.33 1.846 14.8
50+116 offset 70m A-1-a 15 21 24 5 31 1.33 1.935 12
58+950 Offset 50m A-2-6 16 23 36 11 56 0.9 1.966 11.3
128+020 Offset 2.3Km to
A-1-b 24 27 40 3 43 1.07 1.856 15.8
Fufur side
Specification Requirements:
For Sub-base - - - <35 <6 >30 <2 - -
6.4.4.2.3 ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS OF FILL and CAPPING LAYER MATERIALS

In addition to natural gravel sub base sources, Atterberg Limits, sieve analysis, modified Proctor, CBR and swell tests
were conducted on samples from five potential sources for fill and capping layer.
As per the test result, three of the materials satisfy all the requirements of the specification for capping as well as two
of the materials satisfy for fill works. Table 6-14 below gives the test results of the borrow materials.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 6- 14: Laboratory Test Results of Materials for capping layer and borrow fill.
Passing CBR @
AASHTO %age LL PI Swell OMC
SOURCES 0.425 mm 95% MDD (%)
Class fines (%) (%) (%) (%)
(%) MDD
390+000 offset 11km A-2-5 19 23 42 10 23 1.23 1.852 13.2
14+670 offset 200m A-4 38 42 31 8 28 1.45 1.7 17.7
24+750 offset 150m A-4 47 55 28 6 15 1.99 1.93 14.3
118+740 Offset 30m A-2-7 22 25 43 14 13 1.25 1.598 17.6
119+300 A-7-5 50 55 51 14 12.5 1.83 1.95 11.4
Specification Requirements:
For Capping Layer - - - <50 <15 >15 <2 - -
For Fill works - - - <60 <30 >5 <2 - -
6.4.4.2.3 NATURAL SAND SOURCES FOR CEMENT AND MORTAR WORKS

Two natural river sand samples have been collected from sources at Km 56+590 and Km 67+810 and tested in the
laboratory to assess their suitability for use as fine aggregate for concrete and mortar works. The sources were tested
gradation, organic impurities, clay lamps, soundness loss by Sodium sulphate and Sand Equivalent.
As per the test result presented in the table below, all the test result satisfies the requirements for sand except for
organic matter and clay lump. But, it is believed that the clay lump value will be improved by washing the sand during
its use.
Table 6- 15: Summary of Laboratory Test Results of Natural Sand sources
______________________________________________________________________________________________
6.4.4.3 WATER SOURCES FOR CONSTRUCTION
Water is required for compaction, concrete and mortar works. Therefore, effort was made to locate perennial water
sources along the project road as well as intermittent streams/rivers that drain in the project area. Five (5) perennial
sources are identified along the project.
Hence, there is sufficient amount of water sources in the project area within a reasonable hauling distance for the
purpose of earthwork and concrete works.
Samples of the water were collected from five identified perennial water sources and PH, Chloride, Sulphate content,
carbonate, bicarbonate and total dissolved solids tests were conducted to check the water quality.
The PH values for all tested samples showed that they are within ERA’s specification limits for concrete works. The
results of chemical analysis also revealed that the amount of the total dissolved solids (TDS), Sulphate content and
the Chloride content are much lower than the maximum limit in ERA’s specification requirements.
The test result on water samples, along with the corresponding specification requirements is given in Table 6-16 below.
Table 6- 16: Summary of Laboratory Test Results of water sources
6.5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.5.1 SUBGRADE MATERIALS
From visual observation and laboratory test results of the sub grade soil the following are noted:
1. The sub-grade material is dominantly comprised of reddish clay soil to reddish brown silty clay soil. As per the AASHTO
M 145 Soil Classification system, the subgrade soil comprises A-1-a, A-1-b, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7-5 AND A-7-6 type of
soils. The soil classification is mainly A-6 (23.4%) followed by A-7-5, A-4 and A-7-6 (21.3%, 14.9% and 12.8%,
respectively) which are rated as fair to poor subgrade. Considering that, 31% of the CBR values is less than 5% and
23% of the swell values is greater than 2%. These sections need replacement with suitable subgrade improving
materials.
2. Based on the analysis and interpretation of subgrade test results, subgrade classes have been designated to five
relatively homogeneous sections of the project route (for pavement design purpose) as follows.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
6.5.2 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Four (4) natural gravel sources for sub base material, two (2) borrow pits for fill and three (3) capping material source,
three (3) rock quarries, two (2) sand and five (5) water sources have been identified during the study of the project
road. Sampling and testing have also been conducted. The field observation and laboratory test results indicate that:
✓ Four (4) natural gravel sub base sources are found that satisfy all requirements of the sub-base materials.
✓ Five sources have been identified for fill and capping layer construction, and two of the sources satisfy the
requirements of the specification for fill and three for capping. Materials identified for sub base can also be
used for capping and fill layers since they are available abundantly.
✓ All quarry sources identified in the project road are slightly weathered to fresh basaltic rock, which are suitable
for surfacing aggregates, base course, masonry stone and concrete aggregate. In addition, abundant masonry
stone sources of granitic nature sources are available along the route.
✓ Two sand sources are identified at km 56+590 and km 67+810 in the vicinity of the project. All quality tests
for the sand source comply with requirements except the organic matter and clay lump test value for sand,
which indicates that the quality of the sand is fairly good.
✓ All identified water sources qualify the requirements of the specifications. Apart from the sampled and tested
water sources, plenty of rivers are available crossing the project route.
✓ It is recommended that sources which have failed to comply with the requirements shall be checked as
construction progresses and regular quality test shall be conducted on those which have already qualified.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
7. PAVEMENT DESIGN
7.1 Introduction
The main function of a pavement is to carry traffic on a given road over the prevailing sub grade soil in a given climate
condition for a specified time interval (design period). The pavement structure should therefore be structurally sound
in order to serve the intended purpose for the given period without premature failure. Construction of the pavement
structure should also be economically viable so that the construction of the road becomes feasible. This can be
achieved by the use of best combination of locally available materials. In light of this, analysis of the traffic
characteristics of the project area was carried out to determine the design traffic; and relevant data regarding the soil
foundation and construction material were assessed to determine the bearing strength of the sub grade materials. The
best economical combination of pavement layers (in relation to both thickness and type of materials) that suit the
underlying sub grade materials and the cumulative traffic to be carried during the design life of the road is then
determined. The appropriate pavement structures are selected from the structural catalogue of ERA Pavement Design
Manual. Problematic soil stretches are also treated with appropriate treatment measures. This report is therefore
presents the activities carried out in relation to the design of the Pavement structures of the project in detail.
7.2 Design Standards and Departure
7.2.1 Design Standards
The Terms of Reference for the project requires that the pavement design shall be carried out in accordance with ERA
pavement Design Manual. Accordingly, the pavement design is carried out by using ERA Pavement Design Manual,
2013 and ERA Low Volume Roads Manual (LVRM), 2011. Where deemed necessary, other internationally accepted
pavement design manuals shall be used, and the reason shall be explained for the use of these standards.
7.2.2 Design Period
The structural design period, or design life, is the period during which the road is expected to carry traffic at a
satisfactory level of service without requiring major rehabilitation or repair work. It is implicit; however, that certain
maintenance work will be carried out throughout this period in order to achieve the expected design life. The design
period of roads depends on a functional classification of the road. According to the geometric design manual, Assosa-
Tongo Road is classified as Link road, and the design period for main access road should have been 20 years.
However, due to uncertainty related to estimate of traffic volume and loading, a shorter period of 15 years is considered
for design of pavement layers, as recommended in ERA Pavement Design Manual, 2013. Hence, the pavement
structure for Assosa-Tongo Road shall be designed for 20 years’ design period.
7.3 Traffic Loading

7.3.1 Mean Equivalency Factor (EF)
The Consultant has not carried out axle load survey specific to this project. Axle load survey is not part of this service
thus, it has rather adopted from ERA 2013 PDM. Literatures recommend that equivalency factor is better defined if
the equivalency factor is collected from surveys conducted countrywide, preferably from similar projects.
Table 7- 1: Equivalency Factors: ERA 2013 PDM, Section 2.4.4, Table 2.6.
Vehicle Class CAR 4WD SB LB ST MT HT TT
Equivalency F. 0 0 0.3 2.0 1.5 5 10 12
______________________________________________________________________________________________
7.3.2 Design Traffic in terms of cumulative number of ESA (CESA)
Based on the cumulative traffic volume for each class of vehicles in both directions over the design period and the
corresponding equivalency factors, the cumulative number of equivalent standard axles over the design period is
determined using the formula given below. The design period for the analysis is 20 years from the year 2024.
C ESA = AADT1 * 365 * ((1 + i) − 1) / i

n
Where
cESA = the cumulative traffic
AADT1 = The AADT of traffic class 1 in the first year
n = the design period in years
i = the annual growth rate of traffic in decimal
The analysis for the determination of the cumulative number of ESAs is presented in the Table 7-2& 7-3 below.
Table 7- 2: Adopted growth rates of Traffic for Assosa-Tongo Road Project
Table 7- 3: Tongo Town & Rural Sections Cumulative number of vehicles in both directions
______________________________________________________________________________________________
CUMULATIVE TRAFFIC OF TONGO TOWN and RURAL SECTION

7,000,000
6,000,000
CUMULATIVE TRAFFIC (No)
5,000,000
4,000,000
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
-
2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
DESIGN PERIOD (YEAR)
Figure 7- 1: Tongo Town & Rural Sections Cumulative number of vehicles in two directions
Table 7- 4: Assosa Town Section Cumulative number of vehicles in both directions
______________________________________________________________________________________________
CUMULATIVE TRAFFIC OF ASSOSA TOWN SECTION
30,000,000
25,000,000
CUMULATIVE TRAFFIC (No)
20,000,000
15,000,000
10,000,000
5,000,000
-
2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
DESIGN PERIOD (YEAR)
Figure 7- 2: Assosa Town Section Cumulative number of vehicles in two directions
7.3.3 DESIGN TRAFFIC CLASSES
The following tables present the traffic classes as obtained from the axle load survey analysis presented above.
Table 7- 5: Tongo Town and Rural Sections Design Traffic Class
A B C D
Design Total No. of ERA 2013 PDM

Cumulative Directional Lane E = A*B*D
Period Lanes in Traffic Class
ESAL (Two Distribution Distribution
each
way) Factor Factor*
direction
10 Years 2,196,431 0.5 3 1 1,098,216 T3
15 Years 3,896,970 0.5 3 1 1,948,485 T4
20 Years 6,188,452 0.5 3 1 3,094,226 T5
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 7- 6: Assosa Town Section Design Traffic Class
Design A B C D E = A*B*D ERA 2013 PDM

Period Cumulative Directional Total No. of Lane Traffic Class
ESAL (Two Distribution Lanes in Distribution
way) Factor each Factor*
direction
10 Years 9,579,858 0.5 3 0.9 4,310,936 T5

15 Years 15,404,318 0.5 3 0.9 6,931,943 T6
20 Years 20,777,664 0.5 3 0.9 9,349,949 T6
Table 7- 7: Summary of Design Traffic Classes
S.No Road Section Cumulative number Traffic class Remark

of ESAs (106)
1 Tongo Town and Rural Sections 3.09 T5 As per ERA PDM,

2013
2 Assosa Town Section 9.35 T6
7.4 ANALYSIS OF SUBGRADE SOILS

The sub-grade soil of the road project area is discussed in detail in the Soil and Materials Report, the summary of
which is briefly presented here under.
Accordingly, the major groups of sub grade soil materials along the Assosa Tongo road project, with their respective
composition (coverage) and rating as subgrade, based on observations made during the field investigation and the
laboratory test results are categorized as follows.
• The road section from 79+110- 116+460 was not sample due to inaccessibility and unsecured area. Its
coverage is 29.1% of the project road.
• The dark brown or black clay soil (expansive) to greyish clay soil that covers 28.8% of the project road could
be considered as poor roadbed materials.
• The light brown silty clay to greyish sandy silt soil with weathered gravels that covers 42.1% of the project
alignment are fair to good roadbed materials.
Short stretches of swampy sections are also observed during the investigation. The Summary of the soil extension is
presented in the Table 7-8 below.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 7- 8: Summary of the roadbed materials for Assosa - Tongo Road Project
Length
Sub grade material type Composition (%) Remarks
(km)
Dark brown or black clay soil (expansive) to Poor roadbed
36.954 28.8
greyish clay soil material.
Inaccessible road section which was not sampled

37.35 29.1 unknown
& tested due to unsecured area
Light brown silty clay to greyish sandy silt soil with Fair to good roadbed
54.066 42.1
weathered gravels material.
PROJECT SOIL EXTENSION
Dark brown or black

clay soil (expansive)
to greyish clay soil,
Light brown silty clay 28.8
to greyish sandy silt
soil with weathered
gravels, 42.1
Inaccessible road
section which was not
sampled & tested due
to unsecured area,
29.1
Figure 7- 3: Composition of soil extension along the project road.

From the above data, it can be concluded that the sub-grade materials for most of the project length are characterized
by fair to good roadbed materials.
7.4.1 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF THE SUBGRADE SOILS
AASHTO soil classification (M 145) reveals that the sub grade materials along the road alignment is mainly classified
as A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-6, A-2-7, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7-5 and A-7-6 soil groups. Out of the nine groups A-6 comprise 23.4%
of the sub grade material (the largest proportion) which is followed by A-7-5, A-4, A-7-6 and A-2-6 materials which
constituent 21.3%, 14.9%, 12.8% and 10.6% of the sub grade soil respectively. The remaining soil materials comprise
17% of the sub grade.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Plasticity analysis shows that only 2.2% of the materials tested for PI have a PI value more than 30%, and only 4.3%
of the materials tested for LL have a LL value more than 60%. All of the above higher values of PI and LL are recorded
on samples taken from Km 1+650 up to Km 79+110 and 116+460 up to 130+020.33 (these values are found at two
test pits at 1+650 and 115+160)
The other useful correlation for assessing the subgrade strength is a ‘correlation between the nature of soils (as given
in the Unified Soil Classification System, USCS, described in ASTM D2487)) and typical design CBR values’ as
mentioned in ERA Pavement Design Manual, volume 1 Flexible Pavement-2013, Section 3.3.5.
The CBR values @ 95% of MDD along the road alignment vary between 1.5% and 56%. 88% of the CBR value is
greater than or equal to 3% and the remaining 12% of the CBR values is less than 3%. In a similar comparison, about
27% of the CBR values are less than 5%.
The CBR values generally show an increasing trend from Km 1+650 – Km 14+670 ranging from 10%-31%. Then a
section of predominantly good subgrade (with 8% of the CBR values are less than 3%) and a staggering good subgrade
follows from Km 45+274 – Km 76+950. The subgrade samples were not taken from Km 76+950 –Km 115+160 due to
inaccessibility and unsecured area. 75% of the CBR values of samples taken from the remained section (km 115+160
– km 130+020.33) are less than 5% and 25% of the CBR values are greater than 5%.
The swell value of the samples is also determined along with the CBR test to evaluate the potential heaving of the sub
grade soils. Accordingly, 8% of the swell value of the road alignment soils is greater than 3%. A maximum value of 5%
is recorded at Km 115+160 where a continuous section of black clay soil and red clay soils (Km 76+950 - Km 121+000)
starts. The variation of swell value for the road project is presented in the figure below.
In general, out of the 26 samples tested for CBR test for this road project, 7 samples (28%) have a CBR Value less
than 5%. The percent swell also shows 8% of the sampled road alignment has medium to high expansive nature (swell
> 3%), though plasticity index and the liquid limit values indicate low to moderate plasticity.
This implies that careful delineation of the subgrade areas is required considering the respective benefits and costs of
short sections and of a conservative approach based on the worst conditions over longer sections, as stated in ERA
Pavement Design Manual, volume 1 Flexible Pavement-2013, Section 3.3.5.
7.4.2 DETERMINATION OF HOMOGENOUS SECTIONS AND DESIGN CBR
The soil investigation should delineate sub grade design units on the basis of geology, pedology, drainage condition,
topography and consider soil boundary which have fairly consistent geotechnical characteristics (grading, plasticity,
CBR). These units are called homogeneous sections.
Homogenous sections are determined for the road project using AASHTO V1 -1993, appendix J, pavement design
manual, “analysis of unit delineation by cumulative difference method”. The cumulative variables were determined on
the CBR values and plotted against length in km. The fairly homogeneous sections of the road project are obtained by
locating the main slope variances in the graph as shown in Figure 7-4 below.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
CUMULATIVE SUM METHOD DELINEATION

80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
CUSUM
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
-5.000
-10.0 15.000 35.000 55.000 75.000 95.000 115.000 135.000
-20.0
-30.0
STATION (km)
CUSUM CBR UNIT-1 UNIT-2 UNIT-3 UNIT-4 UNIT-5
Figure 7- 4: Analysis of unit delineation by cumulative sum from Km 1+650 to Km 130+020.33
CUMULATIVE DIFFERENCE (Zc) vs. STATION

0.00
0.000 20.000 40.000 60.000 80.000 100.000 120.000 140.000
-500.00
CUMULATIVE DIFFERENCE
-1000.00
-1500.00
-2000.00
-2500.00
-3000.00
-3500.00
STATION (km)
Zc vs. STATION UNIT-1 UNIT-2 UNIT-3 UNIT-4 UNIT-5
Figure 7- 5: Analysis of unit delineation by cumulative difference along the project Road
According to the Unit delineation analysis the sections of the road are classified into five homogeneous sections for
the road project. The 90 percentile and the design CBR value is determined as presented in Table 7-6 below.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 7- 9: Homogenous section, native design CBR and subgrade strength Class
HOMOGENOUS STATION CBR VALUES Design CBR by 90 Subgrade Strength

SECTION Percentile Class
UNIT-1 1+650 – 19+270 10, 11.5, 11, 31, 12 10.4 S4
UNIT-2 19+270 – 46+270 12, 10, 6, 7, 6, 1.5, 2, 15, 2.0 S1

18
UNIT-3 46+270 - 76+950 18, 56, 8, 8, 8.4, 3.5, 5, 4, 3.8 S2

24
UNIT-4 76+950 - 115+160 Not Sampled Not Sampled Not Sampled
UNIT-5 115+160 - 130+020.33 2, 3, 5, 4 2.4 S1
Homogenous Section UNIT-1: This section covers part of the alignment from Km 1+650 to Km 19+270. The CBR
values ranging from 10%-31%. The 90 percentile CBR value is computed as 10.4% as indicated in the above table
which is S4 sub grade class according to ERA sub grade soil classification. As can be seen, 100% of the CBR value
is greater than 5%. Hence, no need of removal and replacement in this section.
Table 7- 10: Homogenous section unit-1
Station (km) Test CBR value CBR in Ascending order n-Sample
1.650 10.0 10.0 1
4.640 11.5 11.0 2
9.660 11.0 11.5 3
14.670 31.0 12.0 4
19.270 12.0 31.0 5
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Design CBR by 90-ile
35.0
30.0
25.0
CBR (%)
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Number of Tests
Table 7- 11 : Design CBR for the section from Km 1+650 to Km 19+70
Homogenous Section UNIT-2: This section of the road covers part of the alignment from Km 19+270 to Km 46+270.
The CBR values of this section vary widely from 1.5% to 18%. It is characterized by a section of predominantly good
subgrade (with 22.2% of the CBR values are less than 3% and the same 22.2% are less than 5%). There are long
stretch suitable subgrade sections in before and after unsuitable sections, with the exception of a continuous unsuitable
subgrade stretch from Km 37+330 -41+310. The 90 percentile CBR value is computed as 1.9%, as indicated in the
figure below.
Hence, it is still viable to remove and replace the unsuitable subgrade in cut sections (full width) and in fill sections (full
width or under shoulder based on the fill height) with a suitable material having a minimum CBR value of 5%, so that
the design CBR value for the whole stretch of this section becomes 5% and hence the sub grade class becomes S3.
19.270 12.0 1.5 1
21.758 10.0 2.0 2
24.740 6.0 6.0 3
31.510 7.0 6.0 4
33.340 6.0 7.0 5
37.330 1.5 10.0 6
41.310 2.0 12.0 7
45.274 15.0 15.0 8
46.270 18.0 18.0 9
______________________________________________________________________________________________
20.0
18.0 n=9
16.0 d=0.1*(n-1)=0.1*(9-1)=0.8
Design CBR at d = 0.8 is 1.9%
14.0
12.0
CBR (%)
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Tests
Figure 7- 6: Design CBR for the section from Km 19+270 to Km 46+270
Homogenous Section UNIT-3: This section of the road covers part of the alignment from Km 46+270 to km 76+950.
The CBR values of samples taken from this section are all above 3% while 22.2% are less than 5%. The CBR values
in this section vary from 3.5% to 56%. The 90 percentile CBR value is computed as 3.9%. However, 77.8% of the CBR
value is greater than or equal to 5%. Hence, it is necessary to remove and replace the weak sub grade materials in
this section, whose CBR values are 3.5% and 4%, with a suitable fill material having a minimum CBR value of 5%, so
that the design CBR value for the whole stretch of this section becomes 5% and hence the sub grade class becomes
S3.
46.270 18.0 3.5 1
49.135 56.0 4.0 2
52.970 8.0 5.0 3
56.970 8.0 8.0 4
60.910 8.4 8.0 5
64.900 3.5 8.4 6
68.375 5.0 18.0 7
72.908 4.0 24.0 8
76.950 24.0 56.0 9
______________________________________________________________________________________________
60.0
n=9
50.0 d=0.1*(n-1)=0.1*(9-1)=0.8
Design CBR at d = 0.8 is 3.9%
40.0
CBR (%)
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Tests
Figure 7- 7: Design CBR for the section from km 46+270 to km 76+950
Homogenous Section UNIT-4: This section of the road covers part of the alignment from Km 76+950 to km 115+160.
This section has not been sampled and tested due to its inaccessibility and unsecured areas.
Homogenous Section UNIT-5: This section of the road covers part of the alignment from Km 115+160 to km
130+020.33 (end of the project road). The CBR values of samples taken from this section 25% are less than 3% while
75% are less than 5%. The CBR values in this section vary from 2% to 5%. The 90 percentile CBR value is computed
as 2.3%. Hence, it is necessary to remove and replace the weak sub grade materials in this section, whose CBR values
are less than 5%, with a suitable fill material having a minimum CBR value of 5%, so that the design CBR value for the
whole stretch of this section becomes 5% and hence the sub grade class becomes S3.
115.160 2.0 2.0 1
121.860 3.0 3.0 2
122.907 5.0 4.0 3
130.0233 4.0 5.0 4
Table 7- 15: Summery of 90 percentile for the whole road section

90 percentile
90 percentile CBR
CBR Value Sub grade Class Sub grade Class
Homogeneous Sections Value after
before before Treatment after Treatment
Treatment
Treatment
Km 1+650 - Km 19+270 10.4% S4 10.4% S4
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Km 19+270 – Km 46+270 1.9% S1 5% S3
Km 46+270 – Km 76+950 3.9% S2 5% S3

Km 76+950 – Km 115+160 - - 5% S3
Km 115+160–Km 130+020.33 2.3% S2 5% S3
7.4.3 SUBGRADE AND TRAFFIC CLASSES BASED ON ERA’S PAVEMENT DESIGN MANUAL
According to ERA’s Pavement design manual 2013, sub-grade soils and traffic classes are classified into 6 and 10
classes, respectively, as shown below:
Table 7- 16: Traffic Classes and Subgrade Strength Classes According to ERA 2013 PDM
Accordingly, the homogenous section represented by its respective design CBR value falls into two (S3 & S4) of the
subgrade classes as presented in Table 7-16 above.
7.5 PAVEMENT DESIGN
In the design of the pavement, the subgrade design CBR values and Traffic classes obtained as discussed above will
be used. The design is carried out by using ERA’s Flexible Pavement Design Manual 2013.
7.5.1 PAVEMENT DESIGN USING ERA’s PAVEMENT DESIGN MANUAL 2013
In section two of this report, the subgrade of the road project is subdivided into five subgrade areas where the subgrade
CBR can be reasonably expected to be homogeneous. The five sections are from km 1+650 – km 19+270, km 19+270
– km 46+270, km 46+270 –Km 76+950, km 76+950 – km 115+160 and km 115+160 – km 130+020.33 which are
classified as S4, S1, S2, unknown and S2 sub grade classes, respectively, as per ERA pavement design manual 2013.
However, it is discussed that removal and replacement of S1 and S2 subgrades in each of the sections, aiming at
improving the subgrade to S3 class for the entire project length, is viable as compared to adopting the originally
delineated subgrade classes without treatment for pavement design.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Hence, the road pavement needs to be designed with a subgrade class of S4 and S3 for the entire section of the
project. It is therefore necessary to investigate further and bring the sub grade class of unsuitable soil areas to a sub
grade class of S3 by improving the subgrade layer with a material having a minimum CBR value of 5% and above.
The design CBR and the sub grade class after the treatment of the in-situ sub grade are given in Table 7-17 below.
Table 7- 17: Design CBR and Subgrade Class after Treatment
90 percentile CBR
Homogeneous section Sub grade Class
Value
Km 0+000 to 7+000 (Assosa Town Section) 10.4% S4
Km 7+000 to km 19+270 (Rural section of Assosa side) 10.4% S4

Km 7+000 to km 130+020.33 (Tongo Town and Rural part
5% S3
of Assosa-Tongo road section)
As discussed in section three of this report, the traffic class of the first segment of the road (Assosa Town Section) is
found to be T6, while that of Tongo Town and Rural part of the Assosa – Tongo road section is T5. Whereas the sub
grade class of the entire section of the road is shown in the above Table 7-17. The table here under presents the sub
grade and traffic classes as determined above.
Table 7- 18: Summery of sub grade and traffic class for the section of the road.
Road section Sub grade Class after Treatment Traffic class
Km 0+000 to 7+000 (Assosa Town Section) S4 T6

Km 7+000 to km 19+270 (Rural section of Assosa side) S4 T5
Km 7+000 to km 130+020.33 (Tongo Town and Rural part
S3 T5
of Assosa-Tongo road section)
Hence, the pavement structures that correspond to the above subgrade and traffic classes with surface treatment and
flexible asphalt concrete options of surfacing with unbound granular road base are taken from ERA Flexible Pavement
Design Manual, 2013, Chart B1 and presented in Table 7-19 below.
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Table 7- 19: Roadway Pavement Thicknesses & Compositions as per ERA 2013, PDM -Chart B1
Traffic
SUBGRADE Pavement Layer Thickness (mm)
Loading
Base Sub Capping /
Design
Road Chainage Sub Surfacing AC course base, Improved Remark
Subgrade Traffic
grade Thickness CBR CBR > sub grade
CBR at 95 class
class (mm) >100% 30% CBR > 15%,
% MDD
(mm) (mm) (mm)
Assosa Town
0+000 - 7+000 10.4% S4* T6 50 200 275 -
(A.T.)
Outskirts of
7+000 - 19+270 10.4% S4* T5 50 175 250 -
A.T.
Tongo Town &
19+270 - 130+020.33 5% S3 T5 50 175 225 130**
Rural part
* During the preparation of the Employer’s Requirements report for this project road, subgrade class was fixed to be
S3 for the project. However, after subgrade soil investigations, the subgrade classes become S3 and S4. Hence, the
Employer’s Requirements shall be amended accordingly.
Table 7- 20: Walkway and Shoulder Pavement thicknesses and Compositions
Walkway Pavement Layer Thickness and Composition

Concrete Tile Cement Stabilized Granular Sub-
Width (m) Remark
Surfacing (mm) Sand (mm) base (GS) (mm)
2.50 50 50 150 Assosa and Tongo Town Sections
Shoulder Along the Rural Part of the Assosa Tongo Road Project
Subgrade Crushed Base Granular Subbase Capping Layer
Traffic Class Surfacing
Class course (GB1) (GS) (GC)
S3 T5 DBST 175 225 130**
**According to the ERA 2013 pavement design manual, up to 100mm of sub base may be substituted with selected fill
provided the sub base is not reduced to less than the road base thickness or 200mm whichever is greater. The
substitution ratio of sub base to selected fill is 1 to 1.3. Hence, with improved sub grade (capping) material, the layer
thickness can be as given in the Tables 7-19 and 7-20 above.
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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7- 8: Pavement Thicknesses and Compositions of Table 7-20: (a) for Assosa Town Section; (b) for outskirt of
Assosa Town, and (c) for Tongo Town Section and Rural part of Assosa – Tongo Road Project
Figure 7- 9: Shoulder & Walkway Pavement Thicknesses and Compositions of Table 7-20: Shoulder is to be applied
on both sides of rural part of the Assosa – Tongo road project and walkway pavement thicknesses are to be applied
on Assosa and Tongo Town Sections
Note:
AC –asphalt concrete surfacing
GB1 – granular road base
GS – granular sub-base
GC – granular capping layer
DBST – double bituminous surface treatment
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8. GEOTECHNICAL CONCEPT DESIGN
8.1. General
The geotechnical study of the project road was conducted by collect and reviewing of existing geological and
engineering geological studies conducted at the project area if any, as part of the desk study. These documents assist
for acquiring preliminary knowledge of formation of the area, selection of sites and to interpretation of subsurface
exploration data, and used as basis during the reconnaissance study. The main documents reviewed before
commencement of the reconnaissance study were;
• Explanation of the Geological Map of Ethiopia SCALE 1:2000,000, 2nd edition, Compiled by Mengesha Tefera,
Tadiwos Chernet, and Workineh Haro, 1996
• Geology of the Gimbi Area, compiled by Tadesse Alemu and Tsegaye Abebe, 2000
• Geology of the Tosho area, compiled by Melaku Tesfaye, Gebremedhin Tadesse and Workineh Haro, 2000
• Satellite imagery from Google Earth Online.
• Digital Terrain Model (DEM) from 2D Satellite imagery of 30m resolution of the project area.
Based on the reviewed documents, and overview of the project area was gained, and different zones/units of features
were identified, and targeted for close observation during the field exploration program.
During the field reconnaissance trip, with the scope of the study, most section of the road segment were covered, and
different geologic formations, visually inspections of natural and cut slopes, and landslide prone areas and problematic
soil conditions, which requires special attention during the commencement of the constructions were noted and
summarized in this report.
8.1.1 Regional Geology & Structures
Regional geologic and site reconnaissance investigations are made to develop the project regional geology and to
scope early site investigations. These geologic data gathered from the regional geology study was analyzed to
determine if additional data will require to this specific project site, and based on this fact the regional geology of the
project road was assessed by conducting desk study. The desk study includes collecting different documents from
Library of Geological Survey of Ethiopia.
The regional geological map of the project area was used to get information on the major regional contacts and
structural features. The regional geology of Tongo area was taken from Geology of the Tosho Area which was prepared
at scale of 1:250,000.00, compiled by Melaku Tesfay, GebreMedhin Tadesse and Workineh Garo; 2000.
The basement rocks in western Ethiopian including the Tosho Map sheet consists of Archean to Early Proterozoic
high-grade ortho-and-para gneisses (Kazmi, 1972, Tefera et al., 1996). Extensive low-grade, Middle to Late Proterozoic
Volcano Sedimentary sequences also occur in the region (Tefera, 1991; Ayalew, 1990). Wide spread of batholiths and
igneous complexes disrupt these sequences. These Late Proterozoic Volcano-Sedimentary sequences belong to the
Pan African-Nubian Shield (Vali1985; Stern 1990; Stern 1994).
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Figure 8- 1: Regional Geology of Assosa Area
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8.1.2 Local Geology & Structures
The geologic field reconnaissance was conducted to examine important geologic features and potential problem areas
identified during the collection of the background geologic data. This field observation was aimed to supplement the
regional geologic data and identify the need to collect additional data by conducting surface exploration which is helpful
for further subsurface investigation works to be planned.
The project site crosses varying formations from quaternary deposit, around Assoa and low land of the project site, to
Meta sediments and Meta granodiorite formations. Large stretch of the road corridor crosses the Granodioritic
body/Meta granodiorite formation which occurs as hill forming, that is massive, very strong at places, particularly the
one exposed around Assosa (Megel-32), to friable, weathered/sheared granodiorites. The Meta sediment is noted at
the mountainous stretch from Assosa to Kushemegen, and Fufur to Bankatorka villages.
Figure 8- 2: Geology along the project road alignment

Some of the massive, un weathered granite rock exposed at places may create difficulty for excavation which may
need high explosives during the commencement of the project road. This granitic body was noted exposed in most of
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the stretch of the road corridor, especially from Serkole to Fufur village; and was also noted in Megele-32 village-
around Asossa Town, and Tsotsora village.
Photo 8- 1: Massive, slightly weathered/sheared granite, exposed around Megel-32 Village
Photo 8- 2: Slope of the cut section at mountain side from Assosa to Kushmegene; Sherkole Engi
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Photo 8- 3: Massive, slightly weathered/sheared granite, exposed around Megel-32 Village
Photo 8- 4: Massive, slightly weathered granite, exposed at Beldegis village
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8.1.3 Geomorphological settings of the area
The project road shows different geomorphic features which is developed due to the geological setting up of the area,
lithologic and structural make ups. The route corridor showed marked differences in terrain characteristics. It appears
that the geomorphology and topographic diversity are closely related to the geological (both lithology and structure)
settings. The study area is generally characterized by chains of granitic ridges around Asossa town and south of the
study site, and from Asossa to Serkole-Engi, it ranges from gently rolling to mountainous features where the
mountainous area is covered by meta sediments to granodioritic formations. The low lying and rugged topography from
Sirkole-Engi to Fufur is covered by granodiortic formation which is dissected by many streams/small rivers to major
rivers.
The road corridor from Fufur to Bangatorka ranges from low lying rugged depositional landform to hill forming features
where most stretch is covered by granodioritic formation; and the hill forming to mountain chain and escarpments of
meta sediments formation continuous to the tabular forming of basaltic to meta sediment formation around Bangatorka
village.
Generally the relief of the project road corridor is made up of three landforms which are: gently rolling to small hill
forming landform with small stream cuttings from Asossa town to Refugee Camp Station- GPS point (655823,
1105815); Refugee Camp to Sirkole Engi, mountainous terrain; and from Sirkole Engi to Fufur, low lying rugged
features which developed by many small stream with major rivers; from Fufur to Bangatorka village mountainous
terrain; and Tongo town to Bangatorka village small hill forming to mountainous form landforms were noted.
8.1.4 Tectonics and structures

One of the main governing factor in the civil engineering works is the tectonic and structures setting up the project
areas. At this study phase of the project road, few information of the tectonic and structure nature of the site can be
identified. But from the regional geology/topographic pattern, and geomorphic features; and from satellite imageries of
the project site, it is tectonically affected. The developed major rivers and stream, and cliff forming areas could be an
indicative of some lineaments and discontinuities/faults.
Generally, as can be seen from the regional geology and google map extracted satellite imagery of the project area, it
is structurally affected where the structures are orienting approximately N-S. And hence designing of the river crossing
structures, and slope works at mountain/cliff area needs to take due consideration of these important geotechnical
parameters during the commencement of the project.
8.2. Site Reconnaissance for Slope Stability
Construction on or at the base of steep slopes has to be done with a lieu consideration since the driving ground failure
forces increase with increasing slope angle. The inherent stability of a slope will depend on three factors: the soil
composition, the slope angle, and the slope height.
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The project road alignment crosses different terrains, from rolling to mountainous. The road stretch which crosses the
mountainous terrain needs due attention where the discontinuity nature favors for sliding, particularly noted at the cut
exposure around Sherkole Engi, (X=658923, Y=1105815). Though it was inaccessible to get close view at the
mountainous stretch from Fufur to Bangatorka village, special attention shall be given during the detail investigation
works.
During the site survey, some sites prone to slope problem were noted, particularly at the mountainous terrains; and
during the detail investigation work problematic extent in the terrains shall be identified. The mountainous terrain which
was inaccessible to take close examination shall need due attention for the slope works during the construction of the
project road.
Slope stability of a civil engineering works generally depends on properties of the component materials, degree of
weathering slope working rock materials, degree of compaction and moisture content of slope forming soil materials,
and existence of water seepage and seismic nature of the project area.
And hence based on the properties of the slope forming materials, and nature of seismic severity of the project road
area, different slope ratios for embankments and cuttings are recommended in Table 8-1 below:
Table 8- 1:Recommended cut and fill slopes – Vertical to Horizontal

Side slope (V:H)
Slope Height (m) Material description Back slope (V:H)
Cut Fill
0 -2 4:5 2:1
2-10 Slightly weathered to 1:1 4:1
Sound Rock Benched with 4:1 slope every 10m
>10 1:1 with 3m wide benches
0-2 2:3 2:1
2-10 Moderately Weathered 1:1 2:1
>10 Rock Benched with 2:1 slope every 10m
1:2 1:1 with 3m wide benches
0-1 1:3 1:3
1-2. Highly Weathred to 1:2 1:2
2-10 Decomposed Rock and 2:3 1:1.5
Earth or Soil Benched with 1:1 slope every 10m
>10 2:3 with 3m wide benches
0-2 1:6
Expansive soil
>2 1:4
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Photo 8- 5: Slope of the cut section at mountain side from Assosa to Kushmegene; Sherkole Engi
Photo 8- 6: Detail view of the slope cut section where discontinuity features are dipping out from the slope; favorable
for sliding
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Photo 8- 7: Inaccessible mountainous side from Fufur to Bangatorka village viewed LHS from Asossa; where due care
will need during the construction of the project road
8.3. Preliminary Foundation Investigation

During the site survey many small streams were crossed where rock exposure were noted in most of the stream cut,
which is mostly the grandioritic formation. Meanwhile at the main rivers crossed around Fufur village, no rock exposure
was noted. The river banks are filled with silty sand deposit while pebble/cobble to boulder size deposit of different
source material was noted at the river channel. It needs great attention during the river crossing bridges work where
detail subsurface investigation shall be conducted by drilling method.
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Photo 8- 8: Fufur River; at the enterance to Fufur village from Asosa side, where thick river deposit noted
Photo 8- 9: Kulu River; from Fufur to Bangatorka village where thick, about 2m, sandy silt deposit noted
8.4. Other Geotechnical Issues

8.4.1 Seismic Hazard
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A revised seismic hazard map for Ethiopia is prepared by Asrat Worku, Department of Civil Engineering Addis Ababa
Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa University, based on Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program (GSHAP),
Journal of EEA, Vol. 28, 2011, Fig 3. It is prepared based on a return period of 475 years following the GSHAP standard
as oppose to 100 years in the EBCS 8, 1995. Accordingly, five distinct seismic regions are identified with different
ranges of PGA values as shown in the legend of the figure below. Note that the ratio of the PGA to the gravitational
acceleration, g, corresponds to α0 - the bedrock acceleration ratio. When this is taken into account the project site falls
under PGA of 0 to 0.025g.
Figure 8- 3: Ethiopia’s seismic hazard map in terms of ground acceleration ES EN 1998:2015
8.5 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

8.5.1 Introduction
The overall process of the road alignment (horizontal and vertical) design in different terrain condition to meet the need
of the road users is generally known as geometric design. The main geometric features are:
➢ The horizontal alignment;

➢ Vertical alignment; and
➢ Cross Section
Besides these main features, geometric design involves design of road furniture and safety enhancing structures and
elements.
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The process of geometric design usually encompasses multi-disciplinary dimensions that need thorough assessment,
investigation, analysis and optimizations. Considering these, each project needs unique studies following Context
Sensitive Design Approach.
Context Sensitive Design is a collaborative, interdisciplinary approach that involves all constituents to develop a
transportation facility that fits its physical setting and preserves scenic, aesthetic, historic and environmental resources,
while maintaining safety and mobility to all road users, and enhancing the economic, social and other needs of the
society.
In terms of this concept, it is assumed that every project is unique which requires designers to address the needed
roadway improvements while safely integrating the design into the unique surrounding natural and built environment.
Thus, geometric design must aim at combining various geometric design elements to produce a sound and harmonious
design which:
➢ Provide the simplest geometry attainable, consistent with the physical constraints;
➢ Provide a design that has a reasonable and consistent margin of safety at the expected design speeds;
➢ Provide a facility that is adequate and convenient to all the road users at the expected traffic conditions;
➢ Provide a facility that is Stable and Sustainable;
➢ Provide a facility that is in harmony with the community and preserves environmental, scenic, aesthetic;
historic, and built and natural resources of the area.
➢ Provide a facility that has acceptable economic returns
The hallmark of professionalism in highway design is the ability to foresee and optimize the conflicting objectives that
are inherent in any project. Many of the design controls and criteria of highway design are often conflicting in nature.
Good highway design is the art of combining and balancing the various controls in a perceptive fashion and is not
merely an exercise in three-dimensional geometrics. These different objectives of road engineering should be
prioritized initially according to their importance to the specific project. For instance, a section of high standard road
that has to pass through a deep reserved forest may have to be designed to the lowest design standard possible to
minimize negative impacts to the forest.
Geometric design standards often define parameters and limiting values considering the following three main
objectives: -
➢ it shall ensure safety and comfort of drivers;
➢ it shall ensure that the road is designed economically; and
➢ It must ensure uniformity of the alignment.
Geometric design standards often try to define acceptable level of service, and margin of safety with limited emphasis
on roadway aesthetics. However, they barely define acceptable level of stability, acceptable level of social and
environmental impacts. So, often locally compromising geometric design standards to fulfil these other important
objectives of highway design in an optimal manner becomes imperative especially in difficult topography.
These geometric elements have important bearing on how the road will function, its capacity, driver behavior and
safety. The traditional approach in geometric design considers the three views of layout plan, longitudinal section and
cross-section. The road user sees the road as a constantly changing continuum as he drives along, and the appearance
of the road influences the driver's behavior. It is therefore important to provide the motorist with reasonable clues as
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which provide guide and inform him as to what to expect as he drives along the road; such clues should be clear
messages, which are unlikely to mislead him.
Applying standard and practice without considering the prevailing circumstances is no substitute for judgment, and
brings no assurance of acceptable end product. Equally, design prepared without referring to general accepted
standard and practice are not likely to serve the travelling public as intended. Design based on a combination of sound
professional judgment, applicable standards and current practices will generate the most effective road.
It is also good to note that standards usually give guidance whenever the terrain, geology, environmental, ROW and
other associated factors are in favor of the selected geometric design standard. Nowadays the name “manual” is being
replaced with “Guideline”. This manifest that “manuals” are sensed as more restricting to the designer to use his
judgment and experience. The purpose of this replacement is thus to give the designer more space and flexibility to
arrive at balanced design in reconciliation of the different contrasting objectives of road facilities at selected localized
sections. Therefore, the geometric design standards summarized in ERA manual are intended to provide guidance for
designers rather than to be considered as rigid minima.
Departures from standard used to optimize the design considering the contrasting multi-objectives of highway facilities
including safety, stability, serviceability, economy, environmental and social compatibility, and practicality of the design
for construction and maintenance are therefore often required especially in roadways that traverse through difficult
terrain conditions, difficult geological and geotechnical conditions, and sensitive social and environmental areas.
With these considerations in mind, the consultant team of experts has carried out detailed assessment of the project
road corridor which is mostly the existing alignment and geometric design standards have been established.
The designer has attempted to provide appropriate design standards that confirms to the existing road terrain condition
and combinations of these elements are defined in relation to the following controls factors:
➢ Anticipated road users, their volumes and characteristics

➢ Towns and villages and their master plans
➢ Functional classification of the project road
➢ Topography
➢ ROW obstructions
➢ Geotechnical considerations
➢ Flood plains and swampy areas
➢ Traditional irrigation between km 65 and 80
➢ Design speed and other speed controls
➢ Road safety considerations
➢ Environmental considerations
➢ Economic and financial considerations
Thus, the Consultant has emphasized and attempted to arrive at a final design, which:
➢ Fits into the existing natural condition, terrain by making a balance with the physical and social environment,
➢ Fulfils the projected traffic requirements, and
➢ Encourages consistency and uniformity of operation.
➢ Is economical for implementation
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➢ Has a reasonable and consistent margin of safety at the expected design speeds,
➢ Is adequate and convenient to all the road users at the expected traffic conditions,
➢ Is in harmony with the community and preserves environmental, scenic, aesthetic, historic, and built and
natural resources of the area.
8.6 Design Control and Criteria
8.6.1 Functional Classification
The hierarchy of administrative classification broadly reflects the traffic levels observed but anomalies are common
where, for example, traffic can be lower on a road higher in the hierarchy. It is recommended that the standards
selected should be appropriate to the task or traffic level of the road in question, but a minimum standard for each
administrative class can also be defined if it is policy to do so.
The classification in Ethiopia comprises five functional classes.
➢ Trunk Roads (Class I): These roads usually have a design AADT≥ 10,000, although they can be as low as
AADT of 150.
➢ Link Roads (Class II): A typical link road has an AADT greater than 300 although values can range between
75 and 10,000 AADT.
➢ Main Access Roads (Class III): The AADTs are typically between 150 and 300 but can range from 25 -1000.
➢ Collector Road (Class IV): AADTs are between 25and 300.
➢ Feeder Roads (Class V): AADTs are less than 150.
From Appendix A, of ERA 2013 Geometric Design Manual we can note that the project in its broader sense will provide
the shortest connection between Tongo - Asosa. A road connecting Class of Traffic Generating Areas (TGAs) of class
II with each other and with TGA of class III, the minimum functional class is Link road. Accordingly, we have classified
the project road as Link Road.
8.6.2 Design Standards

The geometric design standard for the project road has been determined in accordance with ERA Geometric design
manual, 2013 as outlined below.
8.6.2.1 Traffic Volume
Traffic counts and analysis was carried out for the project road with the aim to assess the benefits from road investment
program. It is well established practice that detailed profile on volume and composition (AADT by vehicle types) are
important for the purpose of geometric design and pavement design and also to establish the design standard of the
road. In this case, the number of vehicles in terms of AADT at the mid-year of the design period is considered to
determine the design standard of the road. In accordance with Table 8-1 of the ERAs Flexible Pavement Design 2013,
the design period for Link road is 20 years. For the design period of 20 years, Tables below summarizes forecast levels
of traffic in the various sections of the project road.
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Table 8- 2: Traffic forecast for section one (station one and two)
Fluctuated
Years cars 4wheel S/Bus L/Bus S/Truck M/Truck H/Truck Total
(T&T)
2020 0 70 104 0 10 5 7 0 196

2021 0 77 115 0 11 5 8 0 216
2022 0 84 126 0 12 6 9 1 238
2023 0 93 139 0 13 6 10 1 262
2024 0 102 153 0 14 7 11 1 288
2025 0 156 234 0 22 11 16 1 440
2026 0 171 256 0 24 12 18 1 482
2027 0 186 279 0 26 13 20 1 525
2028 0 203 304 0 28 14 22 1 572
2029 0 222 332 0 30 15 24 1 624
2030 0 242 362 0 33 16 27 2 682
2031 0 263 394 0 35 18 29 2 741
2032 0 285 427 0 38 19 32 2 803
2033 0 310 464 0 41 21 35 2 873
2034 0 336 503 0 44 22 38 2 945
2035 0 365 547 0 47 24 41 2 1026
2036 0 394 590 0 50 26 45 3 1108
2037 1 426 638 0 54 28 48 3 1198
2038 1 460 689 0 58 30 53 3 1294
2039 1 496 744 1 62 32 57 3 1396
2040 1 536 803 1 66 35 62 4 1508
2041 1 573 858 1 70 37 66 4 1610
2042 1 612 917 1 74 39 71 4 1719
2043 1 654 979 1 79 42 76 5 1837
2044 1 698 1046 1 83 45 82 5 1961
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Table 8- 3: Traffic forecast for section two (station three- Assosa town)
Fluctuated
Years Cars 4wheel S/Bus L/Bus S/Truck M/Truck H/Truck Total
(T&T)
2020 48 431 491 37 100 145 73 5 1330
2021 53 475 540 40 109 159 82 6 1464
2022 58 522 595 44 120 175 91 6 1611
2023 64 575 654 48 131 193 101 7 1773
2024 71 633 720 53 143 212 113 8 1953
2025 92 823 936 68 185 276 148 10 2538
2026 100 898 1022 74 201 301 163 11 2770
2027 109 979 1115 80 218 328 180 12 3021
2028 119 1069 1217 87 237 358 198 14 3299
2029 130 1166 1328 94 257 391 218 15 3599
2030 142 1273 1449 102 279 427 241 17 3930
2031 154 1381 1573 111 300 461 263 18 4261
2032 167 1500 1707 120 323 498 286 20 4621
2033 182 1628 1854 129 347 538 312 22 5012
2034 197 1767 2012 140 373 581 341 23 5434
2035 214 1919 2184 151 401 628 372 26 5895
2036 231 2072 2359 162 429 675 404 28 6360
2037 250 2238 2548 174 459 726 438 30 6863
2038 270 2417 2752 187 491 780 475 33 7405
2039 291 2610 2972 201 526 839 515 36 7990
2040 314 2819 3210 216 562 902 559 39 8621
2041 336 3012 3429 230 596 959 600 41 9203
2042 359 3218 3664 245 632 1021 643 44 9826
2043 383 3438 3914 261 670 1087 690 48 10491
2044 410 3674 4182 278 710 1156 740 51 11201
8.6.2.2 Terrain Classification

Topography and physical features play an important role in the location and design of a road. To design a road
economically and adequately and to entertain the different factors, the design elements must be related to topographic
features. The classification of terrain is normally done based on subjective description of the general cross slope of the
area through which the road traverses vis-à-vis the slope approximately perpendicular to the center-line of the road.
ERA Geometric Design Manual, 2013 has recommended the following terrain classification.
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Table 8- 4: ERA GDM, 2013 Terrain classification
Flat 0 to 10 five-meter contours per km. The natural ground slopes perpendicular to
the ground contours are generally below 3%.
Rolling 11 to 25 five-meter contours per km. The natural ground slopes perpendicular to
the ground contours are generally between 3 and 25%.
Mountainous 26 to 50 five-meter contours per km. The natural ground slopes perpendicular to
the ground contours are generally above 25%.
Escarpment Escarpments require special geometric standards because of the engineering
risks involved. Typical gradients are greater than those for mountainous terrain
Based on the criteria set by ERA’s design manual different sections of the project road are distinguished among the
terrain types. The following Table 8-5 indicates the available terrain types along the road alignment.
Table 8- 5: Terrain Classification
Station Length Terrain
From To (Km) Type
17+160 27+360 10.2 Rolling

32+460 37+260 4.8 Flat
40+260 44+460 4.2 Flat
45+460 48+760 3.3 Flat
57+660 62+460 4.8 rolling
62+460 64+560 2.1 mountain
64+560 64+960 0.4 rolling
71+760 73+160 1.4 Mountain
73+160 74+060 0.9 Rolling
74+060 79+260 12.9 Mountain
79+260 88+760 9.5 Rolling
92+160 97+060 7.6 Flat
103+160 116+760 13.6 Rolling
117+660 122+360 4.7 Mountain
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Table 8- 6: Percentage distribution of terrain
Terrain Total Length (km) Proportion (%) Categorized Proportion (%)
Flat 20.5 18.906

75.837
Rolling 61.73 56.93
Mountainous 26.2 24.16

24.16
Escarpment 0 0
As can observed in the table above, the project road is dominated by easy topography (flat and rolling) which make up
about 75.837% of the project length. Relatively difficult mountainous terrain comprises 24.16% while the most difficult
escarpment terrain is non-existent.
8.6.3 Type of area Classification

Sections of roads are also classified on the basis of the type of area (surrounding built and natural environment)
generally as “Rural”,” Rural foot path”, “Developing towns”, “villages” and “developed towns” based on the consultations
with the local government administrations at kebele, woreda and zone levels. The types and characteristics of roads
differ in relation to the type of area as the characteristics of road users differ depending on the type of area. The
identified towns are all Towns with municipalities, developing towns are kebele seats, kebele seats, village/ kebele seat
and most of the villages are kebele seats. The station wise classification of the types of areas indicated in the Table 8-
7 below.
Table 8- 7: Area classification along the route
Station Length
Terrain Type
From To (Km)
0+000 7+030 7.03 Urban (Assosa town)
14+660 17+160 2.5 Kebele
37+260 38+860 1.6 Kebele
39+460 40+260 0.8 Kebele
44+460 45+460 1 Kebele
56+760 57+660 0.9 kebele
64+960 68+260 3.3 kebele
88+760 89+560 0.8 Banga kebele
100+260 103+160 2.9 Bldegis kebele seat
116+760 117+660 0.9 Mimi kebele
122+360 126+460 4.1 Shoshor kebele
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126+460 130+020.33 3.56 Urban(Tongo town)
It is recommended that the traffic count during Design stage shall include Pedestrian, Bicycle, Motor Cycle, Bicycle
with trailer, Motor cycle taxi (Baja), Motor cycle with trailer, small animal drawn cart and Bullock cart. The count shall
be used for PCU adjustment as presented in ERAGDM,2013 Table 2-4 &2-5, in case it deviates from 250, which the
AADT during the Concept Design stage.
8.6.4 Road users and their characteristics

Road users
➢ Vehicles (having two and more axle)
➢ Motor cycles and three wheel “Bajajs”
➢ Non-motorized traffic such as pedestrians, cyclists and carts
To fulfil the fundamental objective of safety and efficiency of the road, the types, composition, characteristics and
interaction of all expected road users are studied.
The space, safety, access and mobility requirements of all types of road users are typically considered in the design
by
➢ Classifying the project into different areas (Town, Village and rural areas), developing different types of typical
sections for each area and assigning appropriate design speed
➢ Classifying the project road into different terrain classes and assigning different design speeds
➢ Designing the geometry considering the road users characteristics and expectations (especially driver
expectations) throughout the project road
8.6.4.1 Vehicular Traffic
The vehicular traffic volumes and composition at the mid-life are as indicated in Table 8-1 & 8-2 above. The traffic
count at station three has the highest traffic volume while the first and second sections have relatively lower volume.
The weighted average traffic volume for the whole project is derived and included in the Table 8-8 below.
Table 8- 8: Weighted average traffic at mid-life of 2035 and percentage proportions
Fluctuated
Cars 4wheel S/Bus L/Bus S/Truck M/Truck H/Truck Total
(T&T)
107 1142 1366 76 224 326 207 14 3462
3.09% 32.99% 39.46% 2.20% 6.47% 9.42% 5.98% 0.40% 100%
Table 8-8 above indicates that the traffic in the project road is primarily dominated by 4wheel and s/Bus, followed by
medium truck and S/truck, Heavy truck and cars. L/bus and T&T are medium in the traffic composition while heavy
______________________________________________________________________________________________
trucks, medium & small truck constitutes 21.87% of the traffic composition and small bus and 4wheel constitute 72.44%
Generally, the traffic is not dominated by heavy trucks.
The selected design vehicle for DC5 and DC7 standards in accordance with ERAGDM, 2013, Table 5-2 and 5-3, which
is DV4 vehicle represents the most restrictive truck type identified by the traffic study, which is truck trailer, which
represents 0.40% of the project traffic composition.
8.6.4.2 Design Vehicle

The size of the largest vehicle that is expected to use the road dictates many aspects of the geometric design. The
selection of the appropriate design vehicle is a key element related to lane width, vertical clearance, and minimum
radius and turning paths at switch back curves and intersections. It also affects design elements such as curve
widening, maximum gradient, critical length of maximum gradient, and provision of climbing lanes.
For the project road, the selected design vehicle is DV4 (Semi trailer combination) with the following physical
characteristics.
Table 8- 9: Design vehicle characteristic (ERAGDM,2013, Table 5-2)
Dimensions (m) Overhang(m) Wheel Min. Turning

Design Vehicle Designation
Height Width Length Front Rear base (m) Radius(m)
Semi-Trailer
DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 13.2 13.7
Combination
As it is presented in Table 8-8 above, the minimum turning radius of DV4 vehicle is 13.7m, which is the absolute
minimum internal radius used in the design of hair-pin bends. The minimum offset of the rear wheel path is 0.5m as
shown in ERA Geometric standard. The design vehicle template is shown on Figure 8-4 below.
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Figure 8- 4: Design Vehicle template, (ERADGM,2013 Figure 5-3)
8.6.4.3 Non-Vehicular Traffic

The non-vehicular traffic observed in the project area include motor cycles, pedestrians, pack animals, hand carts,
animal drawn carts and bicycles. The Non-motorized average daily traffic volume is indicated in the Table 8-10 below.
Table 8- 10: Non- Motorized Average Daily Traffic Volume

Location Bicycle Pedestrians Pack Animal Carts Total
Station one and two 103 4790 186 221 5300
Station three 153 2971 2 272 3398
Weighted Average (ADT) 128 3881 94 247 4349
Proportion (%) 2.9% 89.2% 2.2% 5.7% 100.0%
As observed in the above Table 8-10, cycling is insignificant in the project area while carts and animal packs are
dominant components of the NMT representing almost 7.9%. Pedestrians dominate the NMT traffic composition
representing almost 89.2% of the total NMT.
The non-vehicular traffic volume and activities are observed to be high in the identified towns, developing towns and
village sections as well as identified rural footpath areas. In the rural areas, non-vehicular traffic volumes and activities
______________________________________________________________________________________________
are generally low. Accordingly, non-vehicular traffic as one of the major road users are considered in towns, developing
towns, villages and rural footpath areas. Cycles are observed to be insignificant in the project area.
The non-vehicular traffic has slower speed and lesser mass as compared to vehicular traffic. Passengers and drivers
of the non-vehicular traffic including pedestrians themselves don’t have protections against injury as compared to the
body of the vehicle for motorized traffic and often don’t wear protective helmets and are thus the most vulnerable road
users.
The space and safety requirements of these non-vehicular traffic are thus tried to be well considered in the design of
the project road.
8.6.5 ROW obstructions

There are two towns Assosa and Tongo, Seven kebeles crossed by the proposed road alignment. Even though Asosa
- town has an existing asphalt road, due to the poor quality relegated standard of the road a new construction to an
entire width is required.
The available ROW widths of the kebeles and villages in which the road traverse through are not adequate to fulfill the
master plan of Asosa town and a widening of the road section to attain the required standard width is inevitable, and
ROW compensation costs are expected to be grander on those sections.
On the LHS of Assosa town, there is a mosque and graving yard, which is presumed to be a historic heritage by the
community and for this reason the community quested to maintain its existence. Hence, the design builder should have
to give a lieu consideration for such areas.
On all rural sections, are characterized with scattered cultivations, bushes, scattered mango trees, patches of grazing
lands along the alignment. Thus, ROW compensation costs are expected to be moderate on those sections.
The ROW obstructions are serious along road sections from project start to about km 4.5. Therefore, ROW
management at these sections will be critical and construction methods should be conscious about at all cases and at
those critical sections in particular. In the rural sections, the ROW widths are covered with extensive long plantations
including mango plantations. In this section, the ROW obstructions are dominated by well-developed long-standing
plantations including mango plantation with a variety of species, including eucalyptus trees. These plantations will result
in high costs of ROW compensation costs.
8.6.6 Geotechnical considerations

The major geotechnical consideration used in the geometric design of the project road are the locations of unsuitable
(expansive) soil sections. The identified expansive soil locations included in the soils and materials section of this report
are re-indicated in the Table 8-11 below.
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Table 8- 11: Expansive Soil Stretches
X/Y Coordinate Description
Note
From To
Assosa
664359/1102220 672209/1116428 Reddish to brown silt CLAY with gravel
( 0+000)
Mimi kebele 653538/1039042 651729/1042824 Reddish to brown silty clay, brown to dark CLAY soil
Mimi-Baldegis 651729/1042824 655241/1056050 Inaccessible-Not visited
655241/1056050 659365/1059372 Reddish to clayey SILT soil

Baldegis
Reddish to brown clayey SILT; greyish clayey SILT
659365/1059372 653569/1067796
with gravel
BangaTerko-
653569/1067796 659982/1086571 Inaccessible/ visited on foot
Fufur
Fufur Kebele 659982/1086571 650271/1100311 Greyish silty CLAY with sand and gravel
Tongo (End) 659396/1036012 653538/1039042 Reddish brown clayey SILT with gravel
As can be observed from the above Table 8-10 , during detailed site investigation carried out by the consultant some
of the areas which the road traverses through comprises of problematic soils. The problematic areas indicated in the
above table are triggered only to designate the design builder to give special attention for such areas and carry out
further detailed investigation and mitigate the problems associated with in such areas accordingly. The expansive soils
shall be treated as per the typical drawings attached as Annex 8-1 at the end of this report.
8.6.7 Seasonally wet ground

The detail site investigation for the concept design was carried out during dry season and hence it was difficult to
identify such locations entirely. However, the swampy area along Assosa side was identified. Thus the contractor is
expected to carry out a detailed site investigation and identify the entire swampy a mining induce swampy area. The
wet ground is characterized by light brown to dark brown silty clay soil covered with green grass throughout the year.
These seasonally wet grounds are mostly left preserved as farmlands.
Absence of adequate drainage structure has contributed to the formation of water logged areas at some locations.
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Table 8- 12: Seasonally Water logged stretches along proposed route
Greyish silty Clay with sand

650271/1100311 658565/1107141
and gravel
Tigndu swampy Reddish brown silty sand
658565/1107141 659287/1105085
gravel
659287/1105085 664359/1102220 Greyish silty Clay soil
In these seasonally wet ground/water logging areas, the vertical alignment is mostly in fill sections in excess of 2.0m
to enable for the provision of the high rock fill and relief structures.
8.7 Selection of Design Standard Parameters and their Limiting Values

On the basis of the design controls and criteria and the objective of the project discussed in the above sections, a
design standard consisting of limiting design values for the design of the different features of the road is selected.
The design standard provided in the next sections is mostly derived from ERA Geometric design standard, 2013 with
a few contextual modifications of some design element parameters to suit project conditions and objectives.
8.7.1 Geometric Design Elements

Table 8-13 & 8-14 below summarizes all the pertaining geometric design elements, parameters and limiting design
values (minimum or maximum) for design controls, horizontal alignment and vertical alignment.
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8.7.1.1 Geometric Parameters for Design Class DC7
(AADT 3000-10000 as per ERA’s 2013 Geometric Design Standard)
Table 8- 13: Design Standards
Geometric Design Parameters of DC-7
Design controls and elements of

Item Limiting values for design
design
Road Functional Classification Main Access Road
Geometric Design standard DC7
Design vehicle DV4

Rural
Terrain and land use Village Town
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment
Design speed (km/hr) 120 100 85 70(3) 50 50

G=0% 285 210 155 110 65 65
Stopping sight distance
G=5% 330 240 175 120 70 70
(m)
G=10% 400 285 205 140 75 75
Minimum Passing sight distance (m) 805 675 330 270 180 180
Percent passing opportunity (%) 50 50 25 0 20 20
Minimum Horizontal SE=4% 780 515 350 215 95 95

curve radius (m) SE=6% 685 455 310 195 85 85
SE=8% 610 410 280 175 80 80
Transition (spiral) curve requirement Yes Yes Yes No No No
Maximum super elevation (%) 8 8 8 8 4 4

Design Controls
Design super elevation (%) Table 8.6 (ERA

Table 8.5 (ERA Geometric Design Manual 2013) Geometric Design
Design runoff length (m) Manual 2013)
Alignment
Maximum Gradient (desirable %) 3 5 7 7 6 6

Vertical
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design
Maximum Gradient (absolute %) 5 7 9 9 8 8
Minimum Gradient (%) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Minimum K-factor for crest vertical

185 100 55 30 10 10
curves(stopping sight distance)
Minimum K-factor for sag vertical

36 25 18 12 7 7
Normal Cross fall (%) 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Shoulder Cross fall 4 4 4 4 4 4

Cross section
Right of way(m) 50 50 50 50 50 50
Note- Other considerations in designing of the project road include the following points:
The Contractor shall adopt slope ratios in cut and fills (Back and Side slopes) in accordance with ERA’s 2013 Geometric
Design Manual unless the Contractor come up with other proposals supported by adequate engineering analysis and
evidence for the Employer’s Representative review and approval.
In cuts, a berm having a minimum width of 3 m shall be provided when depth of cut exceeds 7 m for soils and
decomposed rocks and 10 m for weathered and strong rocks in order to ensure the stability of the slopes. Details of
cut benching shall be referred to the attached Typical Drawings.
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8.7.1.2 Geometric Parameters for Design Class DC5
(AADT 300-1,000, as per ERA’s 2013 Geometric Design Standard)
Table 8- 14: Geometric Design Parameters of DC-5

design
Road Functional Classification Main Access Road
Geometric Design standard DC5
Design Vehicle DV4
Rural Village
Terrain and land use Town
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment (kebele)
Design speed (km/hr.) 85 70 60 40 50 50

G=0% 155 110 85 45 65 65
Stopping sight distance
G=5% 175 120 90 47 70 70
(m)
G=10% 205 140 105 50 75 75
Minimum Passing sight distance (m) 330 270 230 135 180 180
Percent passing opportunity (%) 25 25 15 0 20 20
Length adequate for

Minimum Tangent Length for Length adequate for
independent super Length adequate for independent
consecutive curves in opposite independent super
elevation of both super elevation of both curves
direction (m) elevation of both curves
curves
Minimum Horizontal SE=4% 95 95

curve radius (m) SE=8% 280 175 120 80 - -
Transition (spiral) curve requirement Yes Yes No No No No
Table 8.5 (ERA

Transition (spiral) curve length (m) Geometric Design N/A
Manual 2013)
Design Controls
Isolated Curves Radius (m) (section

8.5 of ERA Geometric Design manual, Increase minimum radius by 50%
2013)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
design
Minimum length of horizontal curves

with deflection angle less than 5 As per paragraph 3 of section 8.6 of ERA Geometric Design Manual 2013
degrees (m)
Maximum super elevation (%) 8 8 8 8 4 4
Design super elevation (%) Table 8.6 (ERA

Table 8.5 (ERA Geometric Design Manual 2013) Geometric Design
Design runoff length (m) Manual 2013)
Widening on curves and high fills (m) Table 8.3 (ERA Geometric Design Manual 2013) None
Limiting Middle ordinate for stopping

sight distance in horizontal curves
As per section 7.6 of ERA Geometric Design Manual 2013
with cut back slope sight obstruction
(m)
Maximum Gradient (%) 6 8 10 10 9 9
Maximum length of the desirable

N/A N/A
maximum gradient (m)
Maximum length of the absolute

N/A N/A 400 with relief gradient <6%for minimum of 200m
maximum gradient (m)
Minimum Gradient (%) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Climbing lane requirements No No No No No No
Minimum K-factor for crest vertical

55 30 17 10 10 10
Minimum K-factor for sag vertical

18 12 9 7 7 7
Normal Cross fall (%) 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Cross section
Shoulder Cross fall (%) 4 4 4 4 4 4
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design
Right of way(m) 50 50 50 50 50 50
Note - Other considerations applied in designing of the project road include the following points:
The Contractor shall adopt slope ratios in cut and fills (Back and Side slopes) in accordance with ERA`s 2013 Geometric
Design Manual unless the Contractor come up with other proposals supported by adequate engineering analysis and
evidence for the Employer`s Representative review and approval.
In cuts, a berm having a minimum width of 3 m shall be provided when depth of cut exceeds 7 m for soils and
decomposed rocks and 10 m for weathered and strong rocks in order to ensure the stability of the slopes. Details of
cut benching shall be referred to the attached Typical Drawings.
8.7.2 Typical Cross sections

Various types of typical cross section suitable for the different contextual requirements are prepared and included:
• Rural areas over flat /rolling terrain

• Rural areas over Mountainous/Escarpment
• Built up areas for rural footpaths, villages, developing towns and towns
The typical cross sections are included in Appendix 8-1.
8.7.3 Side slopes for cuts and fills

Side slopes and back slopes are an integral part of cross section design. The following table indicates the
recommended side slopes and back slopes based of height of slopes and type of embankment fill or cut slope material.
Table 8- 15: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal

Slope Ratio Table
Slope Height (m) Material description Side slope (V:H)
Cut Fill Back slope (V:H)
0 -2 4:5 2:1
2-10 Slightly weathered to 1:1 4:1
Sound Rock Benched with 4:1 slope every 10m
>10 1:2 1:1 with 3m wide benches
0-2 Moderately Weathered 2:3 2:1
2-10 Rock 1:1 2:1
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Slope Ratio Table
Slope Height (m) Material description Side slope (V:H)
Cut Fill Back slope (V:H)
>10 Benched with 2:1 slope every 10m
1:1 with 3m wide benches
0-1 1:3 1:3
1-2. Highly Weathred to 1:2 1:2
2-10 Decomposed Rock and 2:3 1:1.5
Earth or Soil
Benched with 1:1 slope every m
>10 2:3 7with 3m wide benches
0-2 1:6
Expansive soil
>2 1:4
8.7.4 Climbing lanes

Provision of climbing lane stipulated in the ERA Geometric Design Manual 2013 is not economically justified for the full
stretch of the project road
8.7.5 Medians and median openings

Medians will form an integral part of the cross section in town and developing town section areas as indicated in the
typical sections. A median width of 2.0m and 2.5m are provided for developing town and town sections.
Median breaks shall be designed at appropriate locations to create connections with other connecting roads and to
serve important abutting facilities. However, medians should not be broken too frequently to give balanced emphasis
to through traffic movements and crossing and turning traffic shall be managed to minimize conflict points. Considering
the forgoing and in accordance with AASHTO, a preferred spacing at 400 to 800 m is suitable in most instances. Fixed
spacing is not necessary, nor is it fitting in all cases because of variations in terrain and local service needs.
A minimum median opening width of 22m and 44m for semi-circular nose for mid-block median openings and for
junction median openings with near 90 degrees angle of turn shall be provided in accordance with AASHTO –
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2001. The effect of skew shall be considered as per the same manual.
8.7.6 Phasing of horizontal and vertical alignment

The following major considerations in phasing of horizontal and vertical alignment as extracted from AASHTO
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2001 shall be considered:
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➢ Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the top of a pronounced crest vertical curve.
This condition is undesirable because the driver may not perceive the horizontal change in alignment,
especially at night. The disadvantages of this arrangement are avoided if the horizontal curvature leads the
vertical curvature (i.e., the horizontal curve is made longer than the vertical curve). Suitable designs can also
be developed by using design values well above the appropriate minimum values for the design speed.
➢ Somewhat related to the preceding guideline, sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced near the
bottom of a steep grade approaching or near the low point of a pronounced sag vertical curve. Because the
view of the road ahead is foreshortened, any horizontal curvature other than a very flat curve assumes an
undesirable distorted appearance. Further, vehicle speeds, particularly for trucks, are often high at the bottom
of grades, and erratic operations may result, especially at night.
➢ On two-lane roads and streets, the need for passing sections at frequent intervals and including an
appreciable percentage of the length of the roadway often supersedes the general guidelines for combinations
of horizontal and vertical alignment. In such cases, it is appropriate to work toward long tangent sections to
assure sufficient passing sight distance in design.
The horizontal alignment and vertical alignment shall be phased as much as possible giving due considerations to the
above guidelines and specially to avoid defects that may endanger the safety of road users by concealing hazards on
the road ahead. In all cases drivers shall be able to anticipate changes in both horizontal and vertical alignment well
within the safe stopping sight distance.
8.7.7 At Grade Intersections

The types of at grade intersection expected in the project road section can be categorized in to four types
➢ Private access which include driveways to road side houses and facilities
➢ Minor junctions which are Intersections with Local/Feeder roads
➢ Moderate junctions which include Intersections with Collector roads
➢ Major junctions which include Intersections with Main Access/Link and Trunk roads
The following table indicates the identified list of moderate and major at grade intersections in the project road sections.
Table 8- 16: List of major and moderate intersections

No. Station Intersection/Junction Direction Type
1 1+910 Junction to TVT college LHS Major

2 5+200 intersection Major
Private and minor at grade intersections can be designed based on typical at-grade intersections layouts designed to
accommodate at least single unit truck.
Moderate and major junctions however require site specific detailed at grade intersections based on ERA Geometric
Design Manual, 2013 and AASHTO – Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2001.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
The following are major considerations in the design of moderate and major at grade intersections:
➢ The design of at grade intersections must consider safety, operational comfort, capacity and economy.
➢ Since the angle of intersection influences the safety and operation of the intersection, the angle of intersection
shall be limited to 75 to 120 degrees.
➢ The layout of the intersection shall fulfil intersection sight distance requirements in accordance with ERA
Geometric Design Manual, 2013.
➢ Approach horizontal alignment shall have a minimum radius curvature for the class of road and specific terrain
and urbanization condition.
➢ The gradients of all the intersecting roads shall be desirable be less than 3% and absolutely less than 6%.
➢ Appropriate channelization islands shall be designed specially at major intersections.
➢ Auxiliary left turn lanes and right turn lanes shall be designed especially for major intersections as appropriate.
In addition of the aforementioned major and moderate intersections, roundabouts shall be designed in Haya Dima town
in accordance with the master plans of the town at the following location.
Table 8- 17: Roundabouts as per the master plan of town
No. Easting Northing Town

1 668587 1112832 Asosa
The identified roundabouts shall be designed as single lane roundabout primarily as per NCHRP report 672,
Roundabouts: An informational guide, second edition in addition to ERA Geometric Design manual, 2013.
The asphalt pavement work (with similar pavement structure as the main road) shall extend 50m into the approach
roads for major, moderate and roundabout intersections while it shall extend to 20m for minor intersections. For private
access, base course and asphalt surfacing shall extend to 10m and the extent of the driveway whichever is lesser. If
there is a realignment of the intersecting road with approach distances in excess of 50m for major, moderate,
roundabout and minor intersections, the section beyond the asphalt work shall be constructed to the design standard
and pavement structure of the intersecting road.
8.7.8 Departures from standard

Departure from standard proposed to arrive at an optimum design considering the contrasting and conflicting design
objectives of highways which includes safety, stability, environmental and social compatibility and sensitive social and
environmental areas and sensitive ROW obstructions due to maximum grade and horizontal curve radius in
consultation with the community, regional, Zonal, Wereda and local authorities and the Employer’s Representative. On
this Road section of the project rout the Design-Builder shall not face a problem in fulfilling the requirements for
minimum Horizontal Radius and minimum vertical gradient of the Geometric Design DC-7 and Geometric Design DC-
5. Therefore, No departures will be applicable for this contract.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
9 STRUCTURES DESIGN
The Contractor shall perform detailed structural analysis and design of bridges, culverts and other road appurtenance
structures within the project and get approval before commencing construction of design related structural works.
9.5 Structures Design Standard
ERA’s bridge design manual Part-1, Part-2, Part-3 with 2013 edition is adopted along with ERA Standard of
Specification 2014 edition and AASHTO LRFD bridge design specification 2007 4th edition and ERA’s 2013 Standard
Drawings for the structural design of bridges recommended to be designed along the project route alignment.
The Contractor shall use ERA’s 2013 Standard Drawings, ERA’s 2013 Drainage Design Manual and ERA’s 2013
Standard Technical Specifications and Method of Measurement for Road works for the selection of pipe class. The
more conservative (safe) detail prevails whenever there is discrepancy between the different details of the standard
drawings, like discrepancy of diameter and/or spacing of reinforcing bars. The Contractor shall not allow using Type–
A end wall and Type-A inlet shown in ERA 2013 Standard drawings. If Type-A (drop inlet) inlet is compulsory due to
its location, the contractor has to provide wider drop inlet catch pit size to attract incoming storm water towards the
culvert. Revised Type-C standard masonry end wall for pipe culverts for the project are attached in the employer
requirement of the project.
9.6 Design Methodology
The bridges must be designed using the ULS and SLS methods set in ERA BDM 2013. However, Bridge Superstructure
Design AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 4th Edition, 2007; using finite element computer programs,
together with spreadsheets and specific software for concrete and pre-stressed structures, all based on the ULS
(Ultimate limit state) & SLS (Service limit state) theory shall be adopted. Also EBCS (Ethiopian Building Code Standard
- 1995) and European Eurocodes could be considered in comparison with the code to achieve the most probable
seismic design loads conditions applicable and the most severe conditions.
9.7 Loading
In general, structures shall be designed for the loads of loading conditions specified at “Section 3 (SI): LOADS & LOAD
FACTORS” in ERA Bridge Design Manual 2013 and AASHTO LRFD Specification for Bridges. The minimum standard
loading to be adopted shall be HL-93 and AML.
Seismic loads combinations must be checked according with Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program (GSHAP)”
and AASTHO 2007 4th Edition LRFD.
9.8 Materials
The following Construction material shall be used in the project
a. Steel Reinforcement:
The steel industries available in the country produce grade 60-reinforcement steel for diameter of bar equal to and
greater than 20mm, and grade 40 steel for those less than 20mm diameter. The minimum yield strength of grade 60
reinforcement steel is 420Mpa, while that of grade 40 is 300Mpa. These and other strength parameters are used in the
design of structures.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Concrete:
Design parameters of C-30/20 Concrete for RC(Reinforced Concrete) Slab, RC Deck Girder, RC Box Girder
superstructure, RC abutment, RC Wing Wall, RC Pier, RC Retaining wall, Masonry Substructure Footing Pad, RC Slab
culvert, RC Box culverts, Curb stone, C-25/20 concrete shall be used for Masonry Retaining wall Footing Pad, Concrete
Ditches, Ditch covers, kilometre post and C-15/40 concrete shall be used for Lean Concrete under footing pad of
bridges, culverts and retaining wall. The contract has to use higher concrete grade above C-30/20 concrete for
prefabricated reinforced concrete superstructures, prestressed and post tensioned bridge and culvert structures in the
project.
In addition to this C-35/20 Concrete is used for RC Pipe as per ERA Standard pipe culvert drawings of 2013 edition.
These strength parameters are specified on design drawings and technical specifications to be attained during
construction stage.
Resistance factors are recommended on the design manuals to account the imperfection in production of these
construction materials. Accordingly the appropriate resistance factors for shear and bend, the critical factors
contributing to the durability of concrete structures are:
• Adequate cover over reinforcement;
• Thorough consolidation of concrete;
• Adequate cement content;
• Low W/C ratio; and
• Thorough curing, preferably with water.
c. Masonry:
The unit weight of stone masonry used in the design of substructure components has to be taken from Table 3.5.1-1:of
ERA bridge design manual 2013.
As per ERA's Standard Specification cement mortared stone masonry walls shall be constructed with mortar of 3:1
cement sand ratio. Therefore sand cement ratio of 3:1 is recommended to be used for major and minor drainage
structures of the subject project.
9.9 Structure Type Selection

For structure site(s) identified provide a Structure Selection Report as part of the Draft Structural Report. Prepare the
selection report with supporting drawings, tables, and discussion as needed. Include the following (as a minimum):
(1) Review the structure site data to determine the requirements that will control the structure size, layout, and
type.
(2) Propose recommended superstructure and substructure alternative(s). Propose foundation alternative(s).
Determine the structure length, width, and span configurations that satisfy horizontal and vertical clearance
criteria. Consider hydraulic opening and potential scour requirements. For walls, propose wall type and
foundation alternatives.
(3) Consider environmental constraints.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
(4) Consider restrictions due to site access and transport limitations, and local material availability.
(5) Recommend proposed adjustments to profile alignment and grade necessary to accommodate bridge
location and freeboard requirements.
(6) Recommend a structure layout, type and rehabilitation alternative(s) as applicable. Include a preliminary
sketch(s). More than one alternative may be recommended. State criteria used to evaluate each
alternative.
For the items listed below (as a minimum) provide a summary of the preliminary structural design criteria and submit
to Employer’s Representative for approval.
• Geometric Layout:
a) Bridge spans, horizontal and vertical alignment, typical section, and hydraulic information per
Structure Preliminary Layout
b) Bridge and transition railing
c) Abutment pitching or slope protection
d) Clearance for under through
• Design Loads
• Materials
• Superstructure Design
a) Railings and parapets/median barriers
b) Concrete Deck Design
c) Approach Slab
d) Precast Girders
• Substructure Design
a) Piers
b) Abutments
c) Deep and shallow Foundations
• Wall Design
• Miscellaneous
a. Abutment and Deck Drainage
b. Bearings
c. Expansion joints and seismic dumpers
For the items listed below (as a minimum) prepare design calculations. Design calculations shall be annotated with
specific references to the applicable design specification sections.
1. Superstructure
2. Connections
3. Substructure
4. Foundations
9.10 Structural Evaluation of Existing structures
Strength Evaluation of Existing Structure has to be executed using ERA Bridge Design Manual 2013 sec. 5 for bridge
where structural evaluation is required.
The condition of an existing structure component has to be checked based on ERA bridge maintenance manual 2103.
A bridge component with seriously/major damages, defects and deterioration which further causes reduction of load
______________________________________________________________________________________________
carrying capacity that needs urgent intervention/replacement as categorized to Damage Ranking A. Those bridge with
major damages, defects and deterioration observed in any of the bridge components that affecting reduction of
durability which need urgent repair is categorized as Damage Ranking B. If there is any bridge which has a damage
rating with Damage Ranking A and B has to be replaced.
Deflection of the existing bridge has to be checked. The limiting criterions of visible sag/deflection of existing
superstructures are: -
• Live Load deflection should be should be checked by HL-93 live load and if the deflection passes the
limit of S/800, where S is length in meter unit measured between center to center of support.
• If Sag on superstructure (dead load deflection beyond limit) is measured greater than 15mm.
9.10.1 Detail Design
The contractor has to prepare detailed design of bridge for the selected types of structures, culverts and other road
appurtenance structure along with its computation sheet for getting approval before construction of structural works
commenced.
9.10.1.1 Bridges
The Contractor shall perform structural analysis and design of bridges based on the output of the Hydraulic Design and
prevailing topographic conditions. In fulfilling the requirements for drainage, the Contractor shall abide by and fulfil the
requirements related to drainage features while at the same time meeting requirements of other required design
elements on the project. The detailed design of bridge consists of superstructure design for vehicular and non-
motorized traffic crossing, substructure design for vehicular and non-motorized traffic, bearing design, railing design,
False work and formwork design, stair case design for pedestrian high cut and high fill section for accesses and also
cattle crossing at high fill section.
The detailed design of Bridge consists of the followings: -

1) Deck & Superstructure Design
The Contractor may propose different types of superstructure in structural selection stage in line with standards
provided in this section and get approval to precede the detail design of deck and superstructure component. The
detailed design computation of deck and superstructure components has to be submitted in design document.
2) Acceptable Bridge
The bridge may be a one, two or three span structure. Minimum span length shall be determined by carrying out
detailed Hydrological & Hydraulic analysis along with subsurface investigation and considering on the geometry of the
road. The span combination of the bridge has to get acceptance in structural selection stage before proceeding the
detailed design of the bridge superstructure components.
3) Substructure
The contractor has to prepare detailed design of substructure components of the bridge such as abutments, wing walls
and pier for the selected and approved structure type. The designed computation sheet and drawings has to be
submitted and get acceptance by the client representative and client to proceed construction works.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
The Contractor may propose and design different types of substructure in line with standards provided in this section
if their proposal is accepted by the client representative and the client.
The proposed designed of the bridge substructure components has to be submitted to the client representative
consisting of acceptable structural computation sheet, detailed design drawings, detailed construction methods along
with false and form work design if formwork and false work required for its construction.
4) Bridge Foundation Design

All bridge foundations shall be designed as described in ERA Bridge Design Manual 2013. The Contractor shall use
standards listed in this section for all works related with Bridge Foundation Construction. The Contractor is responsible
for developing any special provisions required to address work not covered by the standards. All special provisions
developed or modified by the Contractor require ERA’s approval prior to application during construction.
5) False and formwork Design

The Contractor has to prepare formwork and false work design and get approval before proceeding superstructure
construction activities
6) Structural drawings
The designed bridge superstructure and substructure components has to include the followings.
a. Prepare structure drawing(s) that show all details necessary for construction of the bridge.
b. The following (as a minimum) is an estimate of the contract plan sheets required for typical structure:
Table 9- 1: List of compulsory structural drawings
Sheet Description Sheet Description

A Plan View, Elevation View, General Notes, L Deck Plan
Profile Grade Diagram
B Foundation Plan, Subsurface Profile, Estimate M Bridge Railing
C Slope Protection N Bridge Railing End block
D Abutment 1 O Transition Railing
E Abutment 2 P Rebar List
F Wing walls Q Deck Drainage
G Girder Framing Plan R Abutment Drainage
H Girder S Bearing
I Girder Details T Expansion Joint
J Typical Section U Approach Slab
K Pier and Abutments layout, geometry and detail V Backfill Details
drawings
Among the existing three bridges the first existing bridge recommended to be retained with additional pedestrian
bridges beside the existing bridge while those two existing bridges along the project rout alignment have to be replaced
by new bridge structure. Basing the findings of site reconnaissance survey and preliminary hydrology/hydraulic
recommendation, provision of additional new bridges might be recommended by hydrologist during detailed design
period of the project.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
9.10.1.2 Culverts
The Contractor shall provide a well-drained corridor and a safe environment for the individuals who use and maintain
the road. The design and construction of all drainage structures and appurtenances shall adequately address
functionality, durability, ease of maintenance, maintenance access, safety, aesthetic and protection against vandalism
according to contract specifications and standards. In fulfilling the requirements for drainage, the Contractor shall abide
by and fulfil the requirements related to drainage features while at the same time meeting requirements of other
required design elements on the project.
Reinforced concrete shall be used for all pipe and box culverts crossing the roadway. Reinforced concrete with Class
C-30/12.5 for pipe, C-30/20 for Slab and Box culverts and Class ‘B’ or Class ‘A’ stone masonry abutments and wing
walls shall be used for all slab culverts crossing the roadway. Class B masonry shall be used for inlet/outlet and end
wall structures for pipe culverts. Cement-Sand ratio for mortar shall be 1:3.
The Contractor shall provide sufficient justification as to how selection between slab and box culverts is made, based
on geotechnical investigation findings and other considerations, for each and every major culvert to be designed and
constructed within the project.
9.10.2 Structures in the Project

Condition survey of existing major and minor drainage structures is performed in view of investigating ways in which it
might be possible to incorporate existing drainage structures in the new design of the road so as to utilize the asset
value of these drainage structures during the upcoming design and built road project. Accordingly, the condition of
major and minor drainage structures was investigated to decide on the type and extent of maintenance measures that
shall be taken or the way they are to be replaced by new ones, if replacing these structures is justifiable based on
objective realities.
During the project site assessment period it was found out that there are three existing major drainage structures and
there are around 91 minor drainage structures along the project route corridor. The preliminary conditions of major
drainage structures available along the subject road are as presented in the next sub-section of this report.
9.10.2.1 Major Structures

Existing drainage structure inspection is an action to assess correctly the structure conditions in a standardize manner
and the most important element in the structure management cycles that is the systematic maintenance/rehabilitation
process of inspection, assessment, selection of rehabilitation measures and repair to keep the existing structure in a
satisfactory level if the assessed damage is maintainable without any further aggravation of the noticed damages. It is
a general truth that existing structure cannot be kept in a good condition forever. It is important to understand that
drainage structures consist of lots of members and elements that have different durability in nature, accident happened
and loads imposed on it etc. This indicates that in order to keep the appropriate functions of drainage structure expected
in the design, timing maintenance is among the essential response to its actual deteriorations. For example, a minimum
expected service life of a bridge structure designed and constructed with ERA and AASHTO manual is usually expected
as long as fifty years and above.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
As per ERA drainage structures/bridges maintenance manual all of the existing structure components have to be rated
to its damages, so that the fate of a bridge will be decided based on the actual damage observed on the existing bridge
components. A bridge component with serious or major damages, defects and deterioration which further causes
reduction of load carrying capacity that needs urgent intervention/replacement as categorized to Damage Ranking A.
Those structure/bridge with major damages, defects and deterioration observed in any of the structure/bridge
components that reduces its durability which need urgent repair is categorized as Damage Ranking B.
Furthermore, structure/bridge components with minor/no damages, defects and deterioration which need only routine
maintenances are categorized as Damage Ranking C.
According to ERA’s bridge design manual, drainage structures with 6m or above clear span are defined as Major
drainage structures or Bridges, while those below 6m are considered as minor drainage structures.
There are three existing bridges along the project rout alignment. All of them are made of RC Slab and RC deck girder
superstructures which are simply supported on RC abutments, RC piers and masonry abutments.
From our site observation no existing major drainage structure has been observed along the proposed route.
From the preliminary hydrology/hydraulics investigation findings the proposed route of the project might require more
than 13 major drainage structures. The number might increase further as the contractor conduct detailed investigation
within the project corridor.
9.10.2.2 Minor Structures
A number of minor drainage structures also identified consisting of RC pipe, RC slab and RC box culvert structures
with the project route corridor. From our site assessment, there are around six reinforced concrete box culvert, two
reinforced concrete slab culverts and eighty three reinforced concrete pipe culverts consisting of single cell and double
cell culvert structures.
From the preliminary hydrology/hydraulics investigation finding of Tongo-Assosa section of the project a minimum of
43 major culverts (i.e. RC Slab/RC Box) and 172 minor culverts within the project corridor has been required. The
number of minor structure (i.e. Pipe, Slab/Box) might be higher when a detailed hydrology/hydraulics investigation
executed by the contractor during design phase of the project.
The Contractor shall not allow using ‘Type–A end wall and Type-A inlet shown in ERA 2013 Standard drawings for new
pipe culvert recommended to be furnished in the road corridor of this project. If Type-A (drop inlet) inlet is mandatory,
use wider drop inlet size. New Type-C end wall for pipe culverts design are attached in the ER.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
10 ROAD SAFETY
10.5 Review of Existing Accident Data
Since Ethiopia millennium the number of road traffic accident in Ethiopia was in alarming state. In the past eleven years
the number of road traffic accident were estimated around 291577. From those traffic accidents 36796, 54731, 58987
and 141063 road traffic accident were fatality, serious injuries, light injuries and property damage respectively. The
road network development and motorized vehicles also in increasable way in the past eleven year. Even if; the
government construct road and other infrastructure the severity of traffic accident in the country still in distressing stage.
In the past eleven year the Ethiopia government also construct around 912,956km road network in the country to
reduce road traffic accident in the country for having mobile and accessible road for the user. In case; growth of
motorized vehicle was another issue that causes traffic accident in respect to road network coverage. Similarly, in the
past eleven year around 5,592,358 motorized vehicles were introduced in the country (Jima, 2019).
Another study conducted by WHO in 2018 the reported death shows an overall increase through years 2008 to 2016.
The Following Figure 10-1 was excerpted from WHO report.
Figure 10- 1: Trends in Reported Road Traffic Death , Source ( (WHO, 2018)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
According to Addis Ababa Traffic Police Report (AATPR, 2011), the following were depicted as major causes of road
traffic accident in 2011. Nearly 74% of the accident was attributable to the driver (WHO, 2015). Six percent of the
accidents in Addis also occur by Pedestrian 8% by condition of car, 3% by condition of road & the remaining 9% is by
other causes (WHO, 2015).
Figure 10- 2: Major causes of traffic accident (WHO,2015)
The data presented below will show accident data of the previous year’s 2004-2008, from different stakeholders.
Table 10- 1: Severity of traffic accidents in Ethiopia

Severity of Accidents Severity of Injuries
Ethiopian Fatal Total % Fatal Total Total Fatalities as %
Fiscal Year Accidents Accidents Accidents Fatalities Injuries of injuries
2003/4 1,630 15,346 10.6 2,111 10,618 19.9

2004/5 1,801 17,722 10.2 2,188 11,073 19.8
2005/6 2,029 18,911 10.7 2,522 11,916 21.2
2006/7 2,047 17,147 11.9 2,517 12,070 20.9
2007/8 1,802 15,086 11.9 2,161 9,301 23.2
Data Source: Federal Police Commission
Interstate and city roads accounted for 70.5% of fatal crashes for most of which ERA is responsible. Most of these are
paved two-way two-lane roads.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 10- 2: Road Traffic Fatality Crashes by Road Type and Road Pavement July 2005-June 2011
Road Type Twelve Month Periods (July-June)

2005/6 2006/7 2007/8 2008/9 2009/10 2010/11 Total %
Interstate 728 758 768 606 473 1027 4360 35.9
Collector 211 237 238 300 375 509 1870 15.4
Access 237 327 351 224 360 215 1714 14.1
City 625 707 690 672 1003 499 4196 34.6
Total 1801 2029 2047 1802 2211 2250 12140 100
Road Traffic Fatality Crashes by Road Pavement (Surface) Type
Asphalt roads 1237 1429 1208 1242 1534 1494 8144 67.1
Asphalt roads with
76 65 66 75 221 354 857 7.1
some distress
Gravel roads 379 416 471 314 356 397 2333 19.2
Earth roads 109 119 302 171 100 5 806 6.6
Total 1801 2029 2047 1802 2211 2250 12140 100
The absence of median strips or barriers also has a significant effect in increasing crashes. Usually, rural two-lane
roads lack these physical barriers which separate opposing the incoming and outgoing traffic flows. Two-way, two-lane
roads constitute the major proportion in of the road network in Ethiopia.
Table 10- 3: Fatal and Injury Crashes in the Six Year Period by Lanes/Medians, Road Alignment, Junction Type and
Illumination Conditions
Road Alignment
Fatal Crashes % Injury crashes %
Lanes/Medians
One way 3020 24.88 6391 21.7
Undivided Two way 7278 59.95 16631 56.46
Double carriageway (median) 1482 12.21 5335 18.11
Two-way (divided with solid lines road marking) 236 1.94 727 2.47
Two-way (divided with broken lines road marking) 124 1.02 259 0.88
Total 12140 100.00 29454 100
Road Alignment
Tangent road with flat terrain 7,913 65.18 19832 67.33
Tangent road with mild grade and flat terrain 1,166 9.60 2797 9.50
Tangent road with mountainous terrain and 348 2.87 816 2.77
escarpments
Tangent road with rolling terrain 337 2.78 909 3.09
Gentle horizontal curve 587 4.84 1,325 4.50
Sharp reverse curve 525 4.32 1,069 3.63
Steep grade upward with mountainous terrain 515 4.24 990 3.36
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Steep grade downward with mountainous terrain 669 5.51 1,478 5.02
Other 80 0.66 238 0.81
Total 12,140 100.00 29,454 100.00
Illumination conditions
Daytime with sufficient daylight 7,581 62.5 20,094 68.22
Twilight 871 7.17 2,004 6.80
Sun rising 874 7.20 1,590 5.40
Night with sufficient light 1,293 10.7 2,470 8.39
Night with insufficient light 542 4.46 1,519 5.16
Night without light 781 6.43 1,407 4.78
Other 198 1.63 370 1.26
Total 12,140 100.00 29,454 100.00
Road junction type
Midblock 8,565 70.55 21,977 74.61
Y-junction 1,570 12.93 2,030 6.89
T-junction 742 6.11 2,367 8.04
Roundabout 371 3.06 848 2.88
Four leg junctions 539 4.44 1,600 5.43
Five leg junctions 95 0.78 111 0.38
Rail crossing 34 0.28 68 0.23
Other 224 1.85 453 1.54
Total 12,140 100.00 29,454 100.00
There are also links between different land use types and the occurrence of crashes. Analysis indicates that most fatal
and injury crashes occurred in and around cities, particularly in central business districts and residential areas. Table
below shows that 27.7% fatalities and 33.4% of serious injuries occurred in central business districts and residential
areas in the six ear period.
Table 10- 4: Crashes by Land Use
Land use Fatal % Injury % Property %

Crashes Crashes Damage
Rural village 3041 25.0 4737 16.0 4334 7.1

areas
Agriculture areas 1948 16.1 3584 12.1 4360 7.1
School areas 892 7.4 1903 6.5 2379 3.9

Industrial 355 2.9 929 3.2 1554 2.5
Church areas 462 3.8 1369 4.7 2855 4.7
Market areas 820 6.8 3147 10.8 6720 10.9
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Recreational 562 4.6 1908 6.4 4505 7.3
areas
Hospital areas 342 2.8 617 2.1 2552 4.2

CBD 1765 14.5 6290 21.4 24039 39.1
Urban 1597 13.2 4234 14.3 6955 11.3

Residential
Other 356 2.9 736 2.5 1183 1.9
Total 12140 100 29454 100 61436
Summing up all the data presented in this section as a table above, it is possible to conclude that Design consistency
is the conformance of geometry of a highway with driver expectancy, and its importance and significant contribution to
road safety is justified by understanding the driver–vehicle–roadway interaction. The roadway geometry, traffic
conditions, and roadside environment are the primary inputs to the driving task that determine the workload requirement
of the driver. How quickly and how well these inputs are handled depend on driver expectancy and other human factors.
Once these inputs are processed, they are translated into vehicle operations. When an inconsistency exists that
violates driver’s expectation, the driver may adopt an inappropriate speed or inappropriate maneuver, potentially
leading to accidents. In contrast, when design consistency is ensured, all abrupt changes in geometric features for
contiguous highway elements are eliminated, preventing critical driving maneuvers and minimizing accident risk.
10.6 Road Safety Design

10.6.1 Road safety Philosophy
Road safety philosophies generally express a long-term vision of an ideal road traffic system where accidents and
serious personal injury are virtually eliminated. Road "accidents" are not considered accidental events that are the
inevitable consequence of our demand for mobility; they are seen as events that can be prevented. The main elements
of road safety philosophies reflect generally well known safety principles. People are fallible and make errors.
Furthermore, people are physically vulnerable and can only withstand a limited amount of external forces. Therefore,
road safety measures based on these philosophies and principles take account of these limitations and aim to develop
a road system that:
✓ Minimizes the chances of human error;
✓ Is forgiving of errors when they do occur;
✓ Prevents conflicts among road users with large differences in speed, mass and direction.
The WHO world report on traffic injury prevention (WHO, 2004) sets out a number of guiding principles for road safety
work which are based upon this line of thinking. It says, among other things, that:
"Road crash injury is largely preventable and predictable; it is a human-made problem amenable to rational analysis.
Common driving errors and common pedestrian behavior should not lead to death and serious injury – the traffic system
should help users to cope with increasing demanding conditions. The vulnerability of the human body should be the
limiting design parameter for the traffic system."
______________________________________________________________________________________________
In line with these principles, a road traffic system that is safe and sustainable will have the following features:
➢ its infrastructure will have been adapted to take into account human limitations, using proper road design;
➢ its vehicles will be equipped to make the task of driving easier and to provide a high standard of protection in
crashes;
➢ Its road users will be provided with adequate information and education and, where appropriate, will be
deterred from undesirable or dangerous behavior.
10.6.2 Risk factors influencing crash involvement

Understanding the major risk factors influencing crash involvement is important in arriving at proper roadway design
for safety. The following are the major risk factors.
10.6.2.1 Speed
The speed of motor vehicles is at the core of the road injury problem. Speed influences both crash risk and crash
consequence.
“Excess speed” is defined as a vehicle exceeding the relevant speed limit; “inappropriate speed” refers to a vehicle
travelling at a speed unsuitable for the prevailing road and traffic conditions. While speed limits only declare higher
speeds to be illegal it remains for each driver and rider to decide the appropriate speed within the limit.
The speed drivers choose to travel at is influenced by many factors. Modern cars have high rates of acceleration and
can easily reach very high speeds in short distances. The physical layout of the road and its surroundings can both
encourage and discourage speed. Crash risk increases as speed increases, especially at road junctions and while
overtaking – as road users underestimate the speed, and overestimate the distance, of an approaching vehicle.
Speed has an exponentially detrimental effect on safety. As speed increase, so do the number and severity of injuries.
Studies show that the higher the impact speed, the greater the likelihood of serious and fatal injury.
The speed limit in village sections in Ethiopia is 30kph; however, most drivers operate on these road environments at
a higher speed as they approach from open and agricultural areas, and then do not reduce their speed sufficiently
(National Road Safety Coordination Office, 2006). A probable contributor to this behavior is the lack of provision of
transitional speed zones. For instance, the speed limit on paved, rural, two-lane roads is 80kph, but villages and towns
along the roads have a speed limit of 30 kph without any transitional speed zones in between. As a result of the lack
of transition, geometric parameters and roadside features can change abruptly and motorists may encounter heavy
workload (e.g. pedestrian and animal traffic) which creates safety risks (Fitzpatrick et al., 1999).
10.6.2.2 Pedestrians and cyclists

A disproportionately large number of pedestrian crashes and cyclist crashes occur in low-income countries. In
accordance with the Global status report on road safety, 2009, in Ethiopia, pedestrians constitute about 55% of
fatalities. Pedestrian casualties also represent a huge cost to society in industrialized nations, where the risks
(measured in distance travelled or time spent travelling) are many more times higher for pedestrians and cyclists than
for car users.
In terms of collision types in the six-year period from 2005 to 2011, pedestrian crashes are the dominant types of
collision, as motorized traffic and pedestrians share the same facilities. Failing to observe pedestrian priority and
speeding are the likely root causes for the high level of crashes in the country. As suggested previously, the separation
______________________________________________________________________________________________
of non-motorized traffic from highways—through both hard-scape and soft-scape measures--may represent a viable
solution for protecting pedestrians.
10.6.2.3 Driver fatigue

Fatigue or sleepiness is associated with a range of factors, including long-distance driving, sleep deprivation and the
disruption of circadian rhythms.
10.6.2.4 Road-related factors

While road engineering can greatly help in reducing the frequency and severity of road traffic crashes, poor engineering
can contribute to crashes. The road network has an effect on crash risk because it determines how road users perceive
their environment and provides instructions for road users, through signs and traffic controls, on what they should be
doing.
10.6.2.5 Safety defects in existing roads

Defects contributing to crash risk can appear in road designs, especially if they have not been subject to a safety audit
by experienced safety personnel. Such defects are frequently caused by the poor design of junctions or by design that
allows for large differences in the speed and the mass of vehicles and in the direction of travel.
For example, according to ERA design standard, the typical urban cross-section is four lanes (the outer lanes for
parking). Commonly, this is provided without any physical means of delineating parking lanes and sidewalks from the
travelled ways. Such wide cross-section without any types of self-enforcing physical means of reducing speed
encourages the through traffic to pass urban areas with a speed higher than the speed limits. This unsafe road
environment creates conflicts between the through and local traffic which coupled with unsafe attitude and behavior of
road users creates the worst traffic safety situation in built -up areas.
The absence of median strips or barriers also has a significant effect in increasing crashes. Usually, rural two-lane
roads lack these physical barriers which separate opposing the incoming and outgoing traffic flows. Two-way, two-lane
roads constitute the major proportion in of the road network in Ethiopia. According to the six years of data considered
as described above, 59.95% of fatal crashes occurred on undivided roadways with two lanes. Dual carriageway and
one-way roads accounted for 12.21% of fatal crashes. In the case of injury crashes, the former types accounted for
56.46% of the total injuries and the latter were responsible for 18.11%. The provisions of median barriers are dependent
on traffic volume, which means there are few kilometers of such roads, almost all in Addis Ababa. Medians separate
traffic flows in opposing directions and can also be used as a recovery area for errant vehicles and a refuge for
pedestrians. The absence of medians contributed to crashes in Ethiopia.
Most crashes occurred on paved two-way two-lane roads (in cities and on interstate highways), particularly in central
business districts; and residential areas. As a developing country, the transportation systems in urban areas cater to
mixed traffic including high speed vehicles, pedestrians, animals, and animal drawn carts. The speed can vary from
5km/hr to 80km/hr and these speed differentials have been recognized as risk factors for road traffic crashes. Moreover,
the complexity of land use, lack of comprehensive transportation planning, and many social activities along or on the
roads in urban areas may have contributed to the rise in road traffic crashes. The urban road environment is not
conducive to the safety of road users and could be addressed by implementing sound transport planning which in turn
minimizes activities in and along roads. The separation of non-motorized traffic from roadways could assist in the
______________________________________________________________________________________________
reduction of road traffic crashes. Inconsistencies of speed zoning could be addressed through the implementation of a
road safety audit process during the planning, construction and operation stages of roads.
Midblock road sections had a considerable share of fatal and non-fatal crashes in the six years, probably because
much pedestrian crossing takes place in these sections. Overall, 70.55% of fatalities and 74.61% of non-fatal injury
crashes occurred on midblock road sections. By comparison, intersections were safer, which is contrary to the findings
usually reported in the research literature (Tay & Rifaat, 2007). Marked and other crossing facilities are rare in midblock
areas, which might result in increased fatal and non-fatal crashes.
10.6.2.6 Inattention to safety in designing roads

Where road layouts are self-explanatory to their users – through the use of markings, signs and physically self-enforcing
measures to reduce speed – engineering can have a beneficial influence on behavior. Engineering design, though,
can often have negative influences on behavior – when there is incompatibility between the function of the roads, their
layout and their use, this creates risk for road users.
10.6.3 Road safety design principles and strategies

Road safety design principles and strategies employed in the project road are described in the sections below.
10.6.3.1 Incorporating safety features into road design
A key objective of safety engineering is to make drivers naturally choose to comply with the speed limit. Through the
use of self-explanatory road layouts, engineering can lead to safer road user behavior, as well as correcting defects in
road design that otherwise may lead to crashes. In line with this, a range of engineering measures are designed to
encourage appropriate speed and make hazards easily perceptible. These measures include:
✓ improved vertical alignment;
✓ advisory speed limits at sharp bends;
✓ regular speed-limit signs;
10.6.3.2 Safer routes for pedestrians and cyclists
The creation of networks of connected and convenient pedestrian and cyclist routes, together with the provision of
public transport, can lead to greater safety for vulnerable road users. The routes will typically consist of footpaths or
cycle paths separate from any carriageway, pedestrian-only areas with or without cyclists being admitted, footpaths or
cycle tracks alongside carriageways, and carriageways or other surfaces shared with motor vehicles. Where pedestrian
or cycle routes cross significant flows of motor vehicle traffic, the location and design of the crossing point needs special
attention. Where routes are not separated from carriageways, or where space is shared with motor vehicles, the
physical layout will need to manage speeds.
Section 5.12 of ERA Geometric design manual, 2013 also states that wherever possible, non-motorized traffic should
be segregated by physical barriers, such as raised kerbs (through villages and peri-urban areas).
The project road is classified according to areas: Towns, Developing Towns, Villages, Rural Footpaths and Rural area.
In all but rural areas, pedestrian movements are moderate to high and appropriate safety provisions are proposed for
each type of area. In Towns, Developing Towns and Villages, separate walkways are designed to safely accommodate
pedestrians. In Villages and Developing Towns, 2.5m shoulder on each side of the road are provided while in towns,
3.5m wide on street parallel parking lanes are provided on each side. In addition, in towns, 2.5m wide medians are
______________________________________________________________________________________________
designed which separate opposing traffic, and provide refugee for crossing pedestrians, and provide space for
plantation to enhance aesthetics of the towns. Similarly, in developing towns, 2.0m wide medians are provided.
Furthermore, 2.5m wide shoulders for identified rural footpath sections on both sides are designed to accommodate
pedestrians that often travel between towns and villages in large numbers especially on market days.
10.6.4 Road Safety Audit

The purpose of detailed road safety audit is to:
➢ Identify and address any design issue prior to the construction stage;
➢ Evaluate whether departures from standards will significantly impact safety;
➢ Evaluate the safety of road features not previously made available to the audit;
➢ Determine if the needs of all road users have been adequately and safely met;
➢ Review the interaction of the various design elements with each other and with the surrounding road network;
➢ Identify anything missed during a previous audit.

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Consultancy services for the Route Selection and Survey, Feasibility and Environmental Impact,

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. X

LIST OF PHOTOS ........................................................................................................ XIII

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................XIV

1.1 Introduction and purpose ..................................................................................................................... 1

1.3.2 Scope of the Study .............................................................................................. 4

1.4 Project Description............................................................................................................................... 6

2.1 General ................................................................................................................................................ 9

2.3.2 Traffic Variation: Day and Night .....................................................................10

2.3.3 Seasonal Variation in Traffic and Estimation of Seasonal Conversation Factors..10

2.3.4 Estimation of Average Annual Daily Traffic ................................................... 11

2.4 Conversion of Non-motorable Traffic to Motorable Traffic ................................................................. 13

2.5 Generated Traffic ............................................................................................................................... 15

2.5.2 Generated Traffic Factor Determination .......................................................... 17

2.7.2 Project Schedule ............................................................................................... 19

2.7.3 Traffic Projection .............................................................................................. 19

2.7.4 Analysis of Past Traffic Data ............................................................................20

2.8 Elasticity of Transport Demand……………………………………………..2-2

2.9.2 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Ethiopia ................................................... 2-3

2.9.3 Fuel Consumption........................................................................................... 2-4

2.9.4 Transportation Demand Elasticity .................................................................. 2-4

2.9.5 Projections ...................................................................................................... 2-6

3.1 Identification of alternative routes ..................................................................................................... 3-8

4.1 Sampling of stretches for surveying ................................................................................................ 4-10

4.5.2 Tying with National Coordinate System ...................................................... 4-11

4.5.3 Coordinate System ........................................................................................ 4-12

4.5.5 Data Processing and Mapping ...................................................................... 4-12

4.6 Benchmark Setup ........................................................................................................................... 4-13

4.6.2 Geometric Level-Line................................................................................... 4-13

4.7 Collection of Cross-section Data ..................................................................................................... 4-14

5.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT ....................................................................................... 15

5.1.2 Soil types ..........................................................................................................16

5.1.3 Land use ............................................................................................................17

5.2 DATA COLLECTION & DESKTOP STUDIES ................................................................................... 18

5.2.2 Stream Flow Data ............................................................................................. 20

5.2.3 Topographic Maps and GIS Data .....................................................................20

5.2.4 Relevant Design Manuals & Documents .......................................................... 21

5.3 Hydrology/Hydraulics Analysis & Design ........................................................................................... 22

5.3.2 Hydrologic Regime of the Project Area ........................................................... 23

5.3.3 Return Periods & Rainfall Intensities ............................................................... 23

5.3.4 DEPARTURES FROM STANDARDS ........................................................... 26

5.3.5 DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROJECT AREA ................... 26

5.3.6 CATCHMENT DELINEATION......................................................................27

5.3.7 COMPUTATION OF CATCHMENT PARAMETERS ..................................27

5.3.9 OPENING SIZE DETERMINATION ............................................................. 28

5.4 STRUCTURES IN THE ROAD PROJECT......................................................................................... 28

5.4.2 MINOR DRAINAGE STRUCTURES............................................................. 32

5.4.3 Road Side DitchES Design ............................................................................... 41

5.5 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR Cross Drainage Structures ........................................................................ 42

5.5.2 BRIDGE DESIGN CRITERIA ........................................................................43

6. FIELD INVESTIGATIONS OF SUBGRADE AND CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 44

6.1 GENERAL ......................................................................................................................................... 44

6.1.2 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL INVESTIGATION ......................................44

6.1.3 LABORATORY INVESTIGATION ............................................................... 44

6.1.4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ............................................... 44

6.2 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF LABORATORY TEST RESULTS .................................. 46

6.2.2 EXISTING PAVEMENT CONDITION SURVEY ....................................................... 46

6.2.3 SUB GRADE SOIL INVESTIGATION .....................................................................49

6.3 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL INVESTIGATION ........................................................................... 52

6.4.2 LABORATORY TEST DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION .......60

6.4.3 SUBGRADE SOIL TEST DATA INTERPRETATION .................................67

6.5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .................................................................................... 72

6.5.2 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ...................................................................73