Chapter 2

Impedance & Complex

Numbers in AC Circuit
 Resistors

• A resistor has a constant resistance (R), measured in

ohms (Ω).
 Inductors

• An inductor has a constant inductance (L), measured in

henries (H).

• It also has a variable inductive reactance (XL), measured

in ohms. We’ll see in a minute how to compute XL.
 Capacitor

• A capacitor has a constant capacitance (C), measured in

farads (F).

• It also has a variable capacitive reactance (XC), measured

in ohms.
Impedance
• Resistance (R) and reactance (X) are
special cases of a quantity called
impedance (Z), also measured in ohms.

Impedance (Z)

Resistance (R) Reactance (X)

Inductive Reactance (XL) Capacitive Reactance (XC)

 Reactance Depends on Frequency

• A resistor’s resistance is a constant and

does not change.
• But an inductor’s reactance or a capacitor’s
reactance depends on the frequency of the
current that’s passing through it.
 Formulas for Reactance

• For inductance L and frequency f, inductive

reactance XL is given by:
XL = 2fL
• For capacitance C and frequency f,
capacitive reactance XC is given by:
XC = 1 / (2fC)
• As frequency increases, inductive reactance
increases, but capacitive reactance
decreases.
 Frequency & Angular Frequency

• Two common ways of specifying a

frequency:
• Frequency f, measured in hertz (Hz); also called
“cycles per second”.
• Angular frequency , measured in radians per
second (rad/s).

• They’re related by the following:

 = 2f
 Formulas for Reactance (Again)

• Using  = 2f, we can rewrite the earlier

formulas for reactance.
• For inductance L and frequency f, inductive
reactance XL is given by:
XL = 2fL = L
• For capacitance C and frequency f,
capacitive reactance XC is given by:
XC = 1 / (2fC) = 1 / (C)
 Total Impedance
• To find total impedance of combined
resistances and reactance, treat them as
complex numbers (or as vectors).

• Resistance is positive real (angle = 0).

ZR = R
• Inductive reactance is positive imaginary (angle =
+90).
ZL = j XL = j 2fL = j L
• Capacitive reactance is negative imaginary
(angle = −90).
ZC = −j XC = −j  (2fC) = −j  (C)
Mathematical Review: Complex
Numbers

• The system of complex numbers is based

on the so-called imaginary unit, which is
equal to the square root of 1.
• Mathematicians use the symbol i for this
number, while electrical engineers use j:

or

i  1 j  1
Two Uses of i and j

• Don’t confuse this use of i and j with the use

of and as unit vectors in the x- and y-
directions

ˆ
i ĵ
A Unique Property of j

• j is the only number whose reciprocal is equal to its

negation:

1
j
• Therefore, for example, j

1 j
 
j3 3
Rectangular versus Polar Form

• Just as vectors can be expressed in

component form or polar form, complex
numbers can be expressed in rectangular
form or polar form.
Rectangular Form

• In rectangular form, a complex number z is

written as the sum of a real part a and an
imaginary part b:

z = a + ib

or

z = a + jb
The Complex Plane

• We often represent complex numbers as

points in the complex plane, with the real
part plotted along the horizontal axis (or
“real axis”) and the imaginary part plotted
along the vertical axis (or “imaginary axis”).
Polar Form

• In polar form, a complex number z is written

as a magnitude |z| at an angle :

z = |z| 

• The angle  is measured from the positive

real axis.
Converting from Rectangular Form to
Polar Form

• Given a complex number z with real part a

and imaginary part b, its magnitude is given
by
z  a b
2 2

and its angle is given by

b
  tan  
1

a
Converting from Polar Form to
Rectangular Form

• Given a complex number z with

magnitude |z| and angle , its real part
is given by
a  z cos
and its imaginary part is given by

b  z sin 
Exponential Form

• Complex numbers may also be written in

exponential form. Think of this as a
mathematically respectable version of polar
form.

Polar form Exponential Form

|z|  |z|ej
Example: 3/6  3ej/6
• In exponential form,  should be in radians.
Euler’s Identity

• The exponential form is based on Euler’s

identity, which says that, for any ,

j
e  cos  j sin 
Mathematical Operations

• We’ll need to know how to perform the

following operations on complex numbers:
• Addition
• Subtraction
• Multiplication
• Division
• Complex Conjugate
Addition

• Adding complex numbers is easiest if the

numbers are in rectangular form.
• Suppose z1 = a1+jb1 and z2 = a2+jb2

Then z1 + z2 = (a1+a2) + j(b1+b2)

• In words: to add two complex numbers in

rectangular form, add their real parts to get
the real part of the sum, and add their
imaginary parts to get the imaginary part of
the sum.
Subtraction

• Subtracting complex numbers is also easiest

if the numbers are in rectangular form.
• Suppose z1 = a1+jb1 and z2 = a2+jb2

Then z1  z2 = (a1a2) + j(b1b2)

• In words: to subtract two complex numbers

in rectangular form, subtract their real parts
to get the real part of the result, and subtract
their imaginary parts to get the imaginary
part of the result.
Multiplication

• Multiplying complex numbers is easiest if the

numbers are in polar form.
• Suppose z1 = |z1| 1 and z2 = |z2| 2

Then z1  z2 = (|z1||z2|)  (1+ 2)

• In words: to multiply two complex numbers

in polar form, multiply their magnitudes to
get the magnitude of the result, and add
their angles to get the angle of the result.
Division

• Dividing complex numbers is also easiest if

the numbers are in polar form.
• Suppose z1 = |z1| 1 and z2 = |z2| 2

Then z1 ÷ z2 = (|z1|÷|z2|)  (1 2)

• In words: to divide two complex numbers in

polar form, divide their magnitudes to get the
magnitude of the result, and subtract their
angles to get the angle of the result.
Complex Conjugate

• Given a complex number in rectangular

form,
z = a + ib
its complex conjugate is simply
z* = a  ib
• Given a complex number in polar form,
z = |z| 
its complex conjugate is simply
z* = |z| 
End of Chapter 2