410 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 39, NO.

5, DECEMBER 1992

Pulsewidth Modulation-A Survey

Joachim Holtz, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract-This paper evaluates the state of the art in does not only depend on the performance of the
pulsewidth modulation for ac drives fed from three-phase volt- pulsewidth modulator, but also on the internal impedance
age source inverters. Feedforward and feedback pulsewidth
modulation schemes having relevance for industrial application of the machine. This influence is eliminated when the
are described and their respective merits and shortcomings are distortion factor
explained. Secondary effects such as the influence of load cur-
rent dependent switching time delay and transients in synchro- = I k rms/’h rms six-steu (2)
nized pulsewidth modulation schemes are discussed, and ade-
quate compensation methods are presented. Recorded oscillo- is used as a figure of merit. Here, the distortion current
grams illustrate the performance of the respective pulsewidth Zhrms (1) of a given switching sequence is referred to the
modulation principles. The paper provides a guideline and quick
reference for the practicing engineer to decide which methods
distortion current Zh rms six.step of same machine operated
should be considered for an application of a given power level, in the six-step mode, i.e., with unpulsed rectangular volt-
switching frequency, and dynamic response. age waveforms.
B. Harmonic Spectrum
I. INTRODUCTION The contributions of individual frequency components
are expressed in a harmonic current spectrum, which is a
P ULSEWIDTH modulation (PWM) techniques have
been the subject of intensive research during the last more detailed description than the global distortion factor
few decades. A large variety of methods, different in d. We obtain discrete current spectra hi(k fi) in the case
concept and performance, have been newly developed and of synchronized PWM, where the switching frequency
described. Their implementation in the design of ac drive f, = N . f, is an integral multiple of the fundamental
systems depends on the machine type, the power level, frequency f,,N is the pulse number, or gear ratio, and k
and the semiconductor devices used in the power con- is the harmonic order. Note that all spectra in this paper
verter. It is lastly performance and cost criteria which are normalized as per the definition in Section 11-A.
determine the choice of a PWM method in a specific
application. h i ( ‘fl) = ‘k rms( *fi) / z k rms six-step * (3)
They describe the properties of a pulse modulation scheme
11. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA independently from the parameters of the connected ma-
Operation in the switched mode is a very efficient chine.
means of controlling the power flow in the machine. The Nonsynchronized pulse sequences produce harmonic
switching harmonics are suppressed to a large extent by amplitude density spectra h d ( f )of the currents, which are
the low-pass characteristic of the machine inductances continuous functions of frequency. They generally contain
and by the inertia of the mechanical system. The remain- periodic and nonperiodic components that must be dis-
ing distortions of the current waveforms and the electro- played with reference to two different scale factors on the
magnetic torque can be valued by performance criteria ordinate axis, e.g., Fig. 13(c). The normalized harmonic
[ 1-41. current (2) is computed from the discrete spectrum (3) as

A. Current Harmonics (4)

The harmonic currents basically determine the copper
losses of the machine, which account for a major portion and from the amplitude density spectrum as
of the machine losses. The rms harmonic current

A figure of merit for a given PWM scheme is the product

Manuscript received March 9, 1992.
The author is with the Electrical Machines and Drives Laboratory.
University of Wuppertal, D-5600 Wuppertal 1, Germany.
IEEE Log Number 9202739.
of the spectral amplitudes and the switching frequency of
the inverter. This value can be used to compare different
PWM schemes operated at different switching frequencies
provided that the pulse number N 2 15. The relation
becomes nonlinear at lower values of N.

0278-0046/92$03.00 0 1992 IEEE

HOLTZ PULSEWIDTH MODULATION-A SURVEY 411

C. Torque Harmonics current harmonics. Filtering of feedback signals increases

The torque ripple produced by a given switching se- the response time of the loop.
quence can be expressed as PWM methods for the most commonly used voltage-
source inverters impress either the voltages, or the cur-
"= (Tmax - 'av)/'R (6) rents into the stator windings of the machine. The respec-
where
tive approach determines the dynamics and, in addition,
T,,, = maximum air-gap torque influences on the structure of the drive control system:
Tay = average air-gap torque The methods of the first categoIy operate in an open-loop
TR = rated torque. feedforward fashion. Closed-loop PWM schemes inject
the stator currents into the machine and require different
Although the torque harmonics are produced by the
structures of the drive control system.
harmonic currents, there is no stringent relationship be-
tween both of them. Lower torque ripple can go along 111. FEEDFORWARD
SCHEMES
with higher current harmonics, and vice versa.
Feedforward schemes generate switched three-phase
D.Switching Frequency voltages such that the normalized fundamental space vec-
tor u l ( t ) equals a given reference vector u*(t). The ratio
Another important parameter is the switching fre-
m =u * / u ~ , ~ is ~called
- ~ ~the
~ ~modulation index, where
quency f,. The harmonic distortion of the ac currents
u1six.step is the fundamental voltage of a six-step waveform.
reduces almost linearly with this frequency. Yet the
We have m I1 for PWM control and m = 1 in the
switching frequency cannot be deliberately increased for mode.
the following reasons:
1) The switching losses of semiconductor devices in- A. Carrier-Based PWM
crease proportional to the switching frequency. These are the classical and most widely used methods
2) Semiconductor switches for higher power generally of pulsewidth modulation. They have as common charac-
produce higher switching losses. This limits the teristic subcycles of constant time duration, a subcycle
switching frequency for bipolar transistor modules of being defined as the total duration T, during which an
higher rating to a few kilohertz; IGBT's are conve- active inverter leg assumes two consecutive switching
niently operated around 5-10 kHz while the maxi- states of opposite voltage polarity. Operation at subcycles
mum switching frequency for GTO's is only a few of constant duration is reflected in the harmonic spectrum
100 Hertz. by two salient sidebands, centered around the carrier
3) The regulations regarding electromagnetic compati- frequency, and additional frequency bands around inte-
bility ( E M 0 are stricter for power conversion equip-
gral multiples of the carrier.
ment operating at switching frequencies higher than 1) Suboscillation Method: This method employs individ-
9 kHz [5].This is primarily a cost problem. ual modulators in each of the three phases (see Fig. l(a)).
Exemplified waveforms for phase a are shown in Fig. 1
E. Polarity Consistency Rule (b), consisting of the sinusoidal reference voltage U: and
While the design of a single-phase PWM modulator is a the triangular carrier signal U, of frequency f,. The
straightforward task, the voltage of one phase in a three- switched output waveform is U',. The maximum value of
phase system depends on the switching states of all three the modulation index, mmaxl= 7i-/4 = 0.785, is reached
inverter legs. The result of such interaction can be seen at a point where the amplitudes of the reference and the
when looking at the individual phase voltages, or at the carrier signal become equal (Fig. 1 (b)).
a,P components of the switching state vector. These A distorted reference waveform, containing only triplen
waveforms are composed of up to five different voltage harmonics to an extent that its maximum assumes a
levels, with the phase potentials having only the two flattoplike shape (Fig. 2(b)), increases the maximum mod-
levels. The phase voltage at a given time instant should ulation index up to a second limit value mmax2= 7r/6
not differ much from the value of the sinusoidal reference fi= 0.907 (Fig. 3(c)). The added triplen harmonics
wave for a well-designed modulation scheme. Generally modify the switched voltage waveforms, increasing their
speaking, the switched voltage should assume at least the fundamental content; they do not produce harmonic cur-
same polarity as the reference voltage. The polarity con- rents in a three-phase system [61, [71.
sistency rule is a means to identify ill-designed PWM 2) Space Vector Modulation: The space vector modula-
schemes. tion technique averages three consecutive switching state
vectors U,, U , and U , (Fig. 3(a)) over the time interval of
F. Dynamic Peiformance a subcycle T, = 1/2f,. The resultant average voltage vec-
There is mostly a current control loop incorporated in tor must equal the sampled reference vector u*(l,). Hence,
an ac drive, the response time of which determines the
dynamic performance of the system. It is influenced by 2fs ' + tbUb) = (7)
the switching frequency and/or the PWM method used. determines the on-durations t , of U , and t, of u b ,respec-
Some schemes require feedback signals that are free from tively. u*(t,) is the reference vector at sampling instant t,
HOLTZ: PULSEWIDTH MODULATION-A SURVEY 413

t
U
0
ml u,

t-

Fig. 5. Sampling technique, waveforms.

t
TS,
-
t
hi
T
sampling techniques is slightly inferior than that of the
.05
suboscillation method, but only at low pulse numbers [13]. 1.

B. Carrierless PWM
0
The typical harmonic spectrum of carrier controlled 0.8
0 2n f-
pulsewidth modulation exhibits prominent harmonic am- 7[. ut-
plitudes around the carrier frequency and its harmonics. (C) (d)
Fig. 6. Carrierless PWM. (a) Signal flow diagram. (b) Voltage vectors.
Acoustic noise can be generated by the machine at these (c) Subcycle duration T,, measured. (d) Harmonic spectrum over a
frequencies through the effects of magnetostriction and fundamental cvcle,
mechanical resonances of the active iron and its support-
ing structures. It can be considered advantageous to have
the harmonic energy distributed over a larger frequency
range instead of being concentrated at few discrete fre-
quencies.
A way to achieve this is a modified space vector modu-
lation in which the complex volt-second contribution of
the actual switching state vector u , , ~is continuously mon-
itored (Fig. 6). The on-time of this vector terminates when

+ Ult,
uaCttact + u 2 . ( T - tact- t l ) = ~ * ( t T)
* (9) m+
(a) (b)
holds, where tact is the resultant on-time of uact, t , is
another solution of (9) which is disregarded, and T is a Fig. 7. Overmodulation. (a) Trajectory of the average output voltage
vector. (b) Distortion factor versus modulation index.
constant, the inverse of which adjusts the average switch-
ing frequency. Once the on-time tact of u , , ~has elapsed,
u 1 is chosen as uaCt for the next switching interval, u 2 voltage vector U , averaged over a subcycle to become uaV,
becomes u l , and the cyclic process starts again. as the characteristic variable. The overmodulation tech-
Since (9) is not evaluated at predetermined sampling nique subdivides into two different modes. In mode I, the
instants, but in dependence of previous values of tact,the trajectory of the average voltage vector U , , follows a
durations of the subcycles become time-varying. This re- circle with radius m > mmax2as long as the circle arc is
sults in a frequency modulation of the carrier signal. located within the hexagon; it tracks the hexagon sides in
Measured subcycle durations in a fundamental cycle are the remaining portions (Fig. 7(a)). Equations (7) and (8)
shown in Fig. 6(c). The comparison of the harmonic are used to compute the switching durations while U," is
spectra of Figs. 6(d) and 3(d) demonstrates the desired on the arc. On the hexagon sides, they are governed by
effect. Similar results are achieved by controlling the t , = 0 and by
carrier frequency by a randomly varying signal [14], [15].
t , = T, . (6 . cos cp - sin cp)/(& . cos cp + sincp)
C. Overmodulation (loa)
It is apparent from the averaging approach of the space
t , = T, - t ,
vector modulation technique that the on-duration to of
the zero vector U , decreases as the modulation index m where T, is the subcycle duration.
increases. to = 0 is reached at m = mmax2, which means Overmodulation mode I1 is reached at m > mmax3=
that the circular path of the reference vector U* touches 0.952 when the length of the arcs reduces to zero and the
the outer hexagon that is opened up by the switching state trajectory of U , , becomes purely hexagonal. In this mode,
vectors (Fig. 7(a)). The modulation range of conventional the velocity of the average voltage vector is controlled
modulation methods terminates at this point. along its linear trajectory by varying the duty cycle of the
Control in the range m > mmax2can be achieved by two adjacent switching state vectors. The velocity becomes
overmodulation. It is convenient to consider the output gradually higher on the center portion of the hexagon
~

414 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 39, NO. 5 , OCTOBER 1992

d2M
side, and lower near the corners, as m increases. Over-
t 3 t 3

2M
modulation mode I1 converges smoothly into six-step op-
eration when the velocity on the edges becomes infinite, d
2 mi
the velocity at the corners zero.
Note that a subcycle is made up by only two switching
1 , 010 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
state vectors in mode 11. These are the two vectors that
define the hexagon side on which U,, is traveling. Since - 00 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
0
the switching frequency is normally maintained at con- 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
stant value, the subcycle duration T, reduces due to the
reduced number of switching state vectors. This in turn
reduces the distortion factor (Fig. 7(b)), [16], [171.
D. Optimized Feedforward P W M
PWM inverters of higher power rating are operated at
low switching frequency to reduce the switching losses.
Here, only synchronized pulse schemes can be employed
in conjunction with feedforward schemes in order to avoid
-0
intolerably high subharmonic components. The same ap- 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
plies for drive systems operating at high fundamental m- m-+
frequency while the switching frequency is in the lower (a) (b)
kilohertz range. As there are only a few switching instants
Fig. 8. Off-line optimized pulsewidth modulation; distortion factor d
t , per fundamental period, small variations of the respec- and current factor K versus m. (a) d + min scheme. (b) K + min
tive switching angles uk = w 1 . t, have considerable in- scheme.
fluence on the harmonic distortion of the machine cur-
rents.
It is advantageous in this respect to determine the finite
number of switching angles per fundamental period by a subcycle being the time sequence of three consecutive
optimization procedures. The fundamental frequency has switching state vectors. The sequence is arranged in such
necessarily then to be considered constant. This favors the a way that the instantaneous distortion current equals
expedient off-line optimization approach. However, its zero at the beginning and at the end of the subcycle. This
application is restricted to quasi steady-state operating enables the composition of the switched waveforms from
conditions. Operation in the transient mode produces the precalculated set of optimal subcycles in any desired
waveform distortions worse than with nonoptimal meth- sequence during transient operation without causing un-
ods. The best optimization results are achieved with desired current transients under dynamic operating condi-
switching sequences having odd pulse numbers and quar- tions. The approach eliminates a basic deficiency of the
ter-wave symmetry. Off-line schemes can be classified optimal pulsewidth modulation techniques that are based
with respect to the optimization objective [18]. on precalculated switching angles.
1) Harmonic Elimination: This technique aims at the Operation at variable subcycle duration entails a pre-
elimination of a well-defined number x1 = (N- 1)/2 of diction of the controlling reference voltage vector to avoid
lower order harmonics from the discrete Fourier spec- phase distortions of the fundamental wave. It is a special
trum. It eliminates all torque harmonics having 6 times advantage that both the optimization and, under the as-
the fundamental frequency at N = 5 , 12 times the har- sumption that the fundamental frequency remains con-
monic frequency at N = 7, and so on. The approach is stant during a subcycle interval T ( K ) ,the prediction can
suboptimal as regards other performance criteria [191. be carried out off-line. The optimal subcycle method
2) Objective Functions: A well-accepted approach is the exhibits high dynamic performance. It can be used for
minimization of the distortion factor d as defined by (2) or synchronized and asynchronous modulation in a wide
(4). Alternatively, the peak value i,, of the phase current range of switching frequencies. The optimization reduces
can be considered a quantity to be minimized at very low the harmonic currents at given switching frequency. The
pulse numbers. The objective functions that define the Fourier spectrum lacks dominant carrier frequencies that
optimization problem generally exhibit a large number of reduces the radiation of acoustic noise from connected
local minimums, which makes the numerical solution loads. Hardware implementation cost compares with exist-
problem extremely time consuming, even on today's mod- ing nonoptimal modulation methods.
ern computers. Fig. 9(a) shows the optimal subcycle durations as func-
Fig. 8 compares the performance of off-line schemes tions of the fundamental phase angle, with the modula-
having different objective functions; the current factor K tion index and the switching frequency as parameters. The
in Fig. 8(b) is defined as K = ( i p h- &ill/ a i , [201-[221. performance of the optimal subcycle method is compared
3) Optimal Subcycle Method: This method considers the with the space vector modulation technique in Fig. 9(b)
durations of switching subcycles as optimization variables, and (c)[231.
HOLTZ: PULSEWIDTH MODULATION-A SURVEY
20 kHz
1 kHz
I 18
1.6
1.4
12
1 The delay time counts from the time instant at which one
08
0.6
1
(b)
1 proportional to the actual safety time interval Td - qt;its
\
(C)
Fig. 9. Optimal subcycle method. (a) Optimal subcycle duration versus
fundamental phase angle, m,f,= par. (b) and (c) distortion current
versus the complex reference vector: (b) space vector modulation, (c)
optimal subcycle method.
E. Switching Conditions
It was assumed until now that the inverter switches
behave ideally. This is not true for nearly all types of
semiconductor switches. The devices react delayed to their
control signals at turn-on and turn-off. The delay time
depends on the type of semiconductor, its current and
voltage rating, on the controlling waveforms at the gate
electrode, on the device temperature, and on the actual
current to be switched.
1) Minimum On-Time: In order to avoid unnecessary
switching losses of the devices, allowance must be made
by the control logic for minimum on-time and minimum
off-time. The time required by the snubber circuits to
energize or deenergize must also be included in this
margin. The resulting minimum on-time of a switching
state vector is of the order 1-100 ps. If the duration of a
switching state commanded by feedforward modulators is
less than the required minimum, the respective switching
state has to be either extended or skipped (pulse drop-
ping). This causes additional current waveform distor-
tions, and also constitutes a limitation of the maximum
modulation index. The overmodulation techniques de-
scribed in Section 111-C avoid such limitation.
415
2) Tum-Off Delay: Minority carrier devices in particular
have their turn-off delayed owing to the storage effect.
The storage time varies with the current and the device
temperature. To avoid short-circuits of the bridge legs, a
delay time Td must be introduced by the inverter control.
switch is turned off and terminates when the opposite
switch is turned on. The delay time Td is set as the
maximum value of storage time T,, plus a safety time
interval.
We have now two different cases. If the load current
flows through the active switch, the phase voltage polarity
reverses at the beginning of the safety time interval. It
reverses at the end of this interval if the current has the
opposite polarity, flowing through the antiparallel feed-
back diode of the opposite semiconductor switch. Conse-
quently, the actual duty cycles of the bridge legs differ
from those of their respective control signals. The differ-
ences can be described by a normalized error voltage
vector
Au = U* - U,, = (Td - T,,)/T, sig(i) (11)
where U, is the inverter output voltage vector averaged
over a subcycle. It is seen that the magnitude of Au is
direction changes in discrete steps, depending on the
polarity of the phase currents. This is expressed in (11) by
a polarity vector of constant magnitude
sig(i) = 2/3[sign (i,) + a sign ( i b ) + a' sign ( i , ) ] (12)
where a = e x p ( j 2 ~ / 3 ) .The notation sig(i) was chosen
to indicate that this complex nonlinear function exhibits
properties of the sign function. The graph sig(i) is shown
in Fig. 10 for all possible values of the current i. The
three phase currents are denoted as i,, i,, and i,. The
nonlinear distortion of the average voltage vector U,, by
variable switching time delay is exemplified in Fig. 11.
The distortion does not depend on the fundamental volt-
age u1 and hence its influence is very strong in the lower
speed range where the fundamental voltage is low. The
effect influences the waveform of the currents and may
cause electromechanical stability problems in certain op-
erating ranges of the drive.
A switching delay compensation scheme for one phase
is shown in Fig. 12. There is always a constant time delay
established by closed-loop control between the logic out-
put signal uph, of the pulse modulator and the actual
switching instant of the bridge leg. To achieve this, the
instant at which the phase voltage changes is measured
and the obtained signal sign(uph)is used as a feedback
signal. Uph" is the signal that is fed to the time delay logic
of the bridge leg.
The changes of the error voltage vector A u act as
sudden disturbances on the current control loop. They are
compensated only at the next switching of the phase leg.
The remaining transient error is mostly tolerable in induc-
416 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 39, NO. 5, OCTOBER 1992
CO- I, - o.
Fig. 10. Locations of the polarity vector sidi).
Fig. 11. Trajectory of the average voltage U,, as influenced by variable
switching time delay.
(b)
Fig. 12. Switching time delay compensation for one phase. (a) Circuit
diagram. (b) Waveforms.
tion motor drive systems; synchronous machines having
sinusoidal back-emf behave more sensitively to these ef-
fects as they tend to operate partly in the discontinuous
current mode at light loads. The reason for this adverse
effect is the absence of a magnetizing current component
in the stator currents. Such machines require more elabo-
rate switching delay compensation schemes when applied
to high-performance motion control systems. Alterna-
tively, a d-axis current component can be injected into the
machine that shortens the discontinuous current time
intervals at light loads [24]-[26].
IV. FEEDBACK
PWM-CONTROL
Feedback PWM schemes generate the switching se-
quences inherently in a closed control loop, which can be
established either for the stator currents or for the stator
flux vector. The schemes are generally fast enough to
inherently compensate the nonlinear effects of pulse
dropping and variable switching delay.
A. Nonoptimal Methods
1) Hysteresis Current Control: The signal flow diagram in
Fig. 13(a) shows three hysteresis controllers, one for each
bl 0
0 10 20 30 kHz 50
1-
(C)
Fig. 13. Hysteresis current control. (a) Signal flow diagram. (b) Wave-
forms. (c) Amplitude density spectrum.
phase. Each controller determines the switching state of
one inverter leg such that the error of the corresponding
phase current is maintained within the hysteresis band.
The control method is simple to implement, and its dy-
namic performance is excellent.
Hysteresis current control requires high switching fre-
quency to compensate for some inherent drawbacks:
There is no intercommunication between the individ-
ual hysteresis controllers of the three phases and
hence no strategy to generate zero voltage vectors.
This increases the switching frequency at lower mod-
ulation index.
There is a tendency at lower speed to lock into
limit-cycles of high-frequency switching which com-
prise only nonzero voltage vectors (Fig. 13(b)).
The current error is not strictly limited. The signal
will leave the hysteresis band whenever the zero
vector is turned on while the back-emf vector has a
component that opposes the previous active switching
state vector. Double the current error magnitude
permitted by one hysteresis controller can occur at
maximum (Fig. 13(b)).
Hysteresis controllers should be operated at higher
switching frequency to compensate for their inferior qual-
ity of modulation. Their application is restricted to lower
power levels. Fig. 13(c) shows a typical amplitude density
spectrum h , including in addition a number of discrete
components h , at subharmonic frequencies. The spectrum
is almost independent of the modulation index [27], [281.
2) Suboscillation Current Control: A carrier-based mod-
ulation scheme as part of a current control loop elimi-
nates the basic shortcomings of the hysteresis controller.
Fig. 14(a) shows that a proportional-integral (PI-type)
controller is used to derive the reference voltage U* for
the pulsewidth modulator from the current error. The
back-emf of the machine acts as a disturbance in this
control loop. This voltage is free from harmonics and
discontinuities in amplitude and phase angle. It is there-
fore possible to compensate the influence of the back-emf
HOLTZ PULSEWIDTH MODUJATION-A SURVEY
Uf
Q @
(a)
t l
U
t O3
h,
0
02
01
-1
0
0 0.5 ms
0 5 10
I-
kHz 20
t--,
(b) (C)
Fig. 14. Suboscillation current control. (a) Signal flow diagram. (b)
Harmonic spectrum. (c) Carrier signal and reference signal.
through the I channel of the PI controller. However, a
steady-state current error will persist (tracking error).
This error should be kept low by choosing a high gain
for the PI controller. The gain is limited, on the other
hand, as it also amplifies the harmonic currents that must
not impair the proper operation of the pulsewidth modu-
lator. This is ensured if the slope of the current error
signal is always less than the slope of the triangular
carrier signal.
The scheme cannot be simply looked at as a pulsewidth
modulator having a superimposed current control loop.
This becomes obvious when comparing the harmonic
spectra of Fig. 3(d) and Fig. 14(b). The difference is
explained by Fig. 14(c), which shows that the current
distortions have an influence on the switching instants.
The advantage is a fast response of the current loop,
provided that the modulator reacts on instantaneous
changes of its reference signal U*. Hence, an analogue
circuit implementation of the suboscillation method is an
adequate solution [29].
3) Space Vector Current Control: The nonzero current
error in the steady-state, inherent to the previous scheme,
may be undesired in a high-performance vector controlled
drive. The error can be eliminated by deriving the back-
emf voltage from a machine model and using it as a
compensating feedforward signal (Fig. 15). The function
of the current controller is then basically reduced to
correct minor errors that originate from a mismatch of
the model parameters or the model structure. The dy-
namic performance is improved by feedforward control
based on the derivative of the current reference. The
influence of current distortions on the modulated wave-
form is eliminated by implementing a space vector modu-
lator in conjunction with digital current controllers, the
algorithms of both subsystems being executed in synchro-
nism [30]. The method requires a high-bandwidth A/D
conversion.
417
Fig. 15. Space vector current control.
4) Current Control in Field Coordinates: It is a common
approach for high performance dynamic drives to control
1
the components of the current vector after a transforma-
tion to field coordinates (Fig. 16). A low-pass filter is
generally used for the current feedback signals to reduce
their harmonic content and to avoid irregular operation of
the pulse modulator. The reference voltage vector U*
generated by the current controllers is transformed into
stator coordinates and acts on any convenient feedfor-
ward PWM scheme. The extreme fast response time of
nonlinear current controllers is not obtained f311.
5) Look-Up Table Methods: In a closed-loop control
scheme for a suitable space vector (stator current or
stator flux vector), the error is also a space vector quan-
tity, for instance A i ( t ) = i*(t) - i(t). Limiting the magni-
tude [Ail of this error vector, or the respective magni-
tudes of suitable error components, either Aia and Aip,
or A & and A{arg($,)}, by boundary values is a means to
terminate an actual switching state at time t,. The next
switching state vector is then read from a look-up table.
The table is addressed by the error vector and other state
variables, like the back-emf vector and/or the actual
switching state vector (Fig. IXa)).
1 hese schemes generate asynchronous pulse sequences.
Since the distortion factor d is mostly fixed by predefined
boundary conditions, the performance at varying modula-
tion index is reflected in the switching frequency. This is
demonstrated in Fig. 17(b) for a current look-up table
control scheme, and in Fig. 18 for a flux look-up table
scheme. The latter method exhibits increased torque rip-
ple at higher modulation index [32]-[35].
B. Feedback PWM with Optimization in Real-Time
1) Predictive Current Control: Pulsewidth modulation by
predictive current control has common elements with
look-up table methods discussed above. The time of
switching is determined by suitable error boundaries. As
an example, Fig. 19 shows a circular boundary, the loca-
tion of which is determined by the current reference
vector i*. When the current vector i touches the bound-
ary line, the next switching state vector is determined by
prediction and optimization.
To this aim, the trajectories of the current vector are
computed, and the time required to reach the next error
boundary is predicted. Note that the error boundary moves
~

418 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 39, NO. 5, OCTOBER 1992

selected. This procedure minimizes the switching fre-

quency. The optimization can be extended to include the
next two switching state vectors.
The predictions of the current trajectories are based on
a simplified mathematical model of the machine. All
algorithmic procedures to determine the optimal switch-
ing state vector take about 20 p s on a DSP. This delay
field _ - ~ - *
stator
coordinates coordinates
I can be tolerated at lower switching frequency. Higher
Fig. 16. Current control in field coordinates; 6 : field angle.
frequencies can be obtained by employing the double
prediction method. Here, the trajectory predictions are
made at an earlier time, based on a prediction of the
system state at the next error boundary.
The performance of a predictive current control scheme
f, 5HZ fs0 max =0 562 bHZ T ~ - which maximizes the on-durations of the next two switch-
ing state vectors is illustrated in Figs. 18c and 18d [35-371.
d-06
2 5 0 1 4 -
2) Pulsewidth Control with Field orientation: A further
reduction of the switching frequency, as required in very
o l , l ~ i i
0 2 4 6 8 1
high-power applications, can be achieved by defining a
,m current error boundary of rectangular shape, having the
(a) (b) rectangle aligned with the rotor flux vector of the machine
Fig. 17. Current look-up table method. (a) Signal flow diagram. (b) (Fig. 20(b)). This transfers a major portion of the unavoid-
Switching frequency versus modulation index.
able current harmonics into the rotor-field axis where
they have no influence on the machine torque, owing to
the large rotor time constant T, (Fig. 20(a)). The selection
of the switching state vectors is based on prediction,
satisfying the objectives that the switching frequency is
minimized, and that switching at d-current boundaries is
avoided (Fig. 20(b)). Using a rectangular boundary area in
1 1 o l ! field coordinates entails a reduction of switching fre-
0 2 4 6 8 1 0 2 4 6 8 1
quency over what can be achieved with a circular bound-
m- m-
(a) (b) ary area (Fig. 20(c)) [38].
Fig. 18. Flux look-up table method. (a) Switching frequency. (b) Torque 3) Trajectoiy Tracking Control: The off-line optimization
ripple. approach subjects all switching instants in a fundamental
period to a closed algorithmic procedure; the dynamic
performance is poor, which renders these schemes nearly
impracticable. On-line methods, in contrast, rely only on
the next, or on the next two switching instants as the basis
1
of optimization. This restriction impairs the optimization
result, and also fails to provide synchronous switching.
The combination of off-line optimization for the
steady-state and on-line optimization for transient opera-
tion exploits the advantages of both methods. A n imple-
mentation requires all steady-state current trajectories, in
correspondence to the stored off-line optimized pulse
sequences, be available in the modulator and used as
templates for the actual current waveforms.
This defines a tracking problem to be solved in real-time.
Fig. 21 shows the current trajectory of a transient process.
High overcurrents occur in an off-line optimized PWM
scheme (Fig. 21(a)). With the tracking control engaged
Fig. 19. Predictive current control. (a) Signal flow diagram. (b) Refer- (Fig. 21(b)), the dynamic current error is minimized and
ence current and actual current vector. (c) Switching frequency. (d) the optimal steady-state trajectory is reached immediately
torque ripple.
after the transient. The template trajectory is shown as a
dotted line in the lower right of Fig. 21(b).
in the complex plane as commended by the varying cur- Note that the current space vector on the template
rent reference. Predictions of on-times are made for all trajectory constitutes a moving target, the location of
potential switching state vectors. Finally, the switching which is determined by the actual phase angle of the
state vector, which produces the maximum on-time, is voltage reference vector U*, and by the fundamental
HOLTZ PULSEWIDTH MODULATION-A SURVEY
t OS
‘4 06
04
200
, [15]
0 02 0.4 06
,I -
08 1
(C)
Fig. 20. Pulsewidth control with field orientation. (a) Signal flow dia-
gram of the induction motor. (b) Current trajectory in field coordinates.
(c) Switching frequency, Aid = 0.25, Aiq = 0.15.
(a) (b)
Fig. 21. Current trajectory showing a transient at t , 5 t 5 t , . (a) Off-
line optimized PWM. (b) Off-line optimized with trajectory tracking.
current i,. It is not sufficient that the actual current just
follows the template trajectory; it must exactly hit the
moving target point on the template [391-[401.
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Joachim Holtz (M’87FSM’88) graduated from
the Technical University Braunschweig, Ger-
many, in 1967. He received the Ph.D. degree
from the same university in 1969.
In 1969 he became Associate Professor and in
1971 Full Professor and Head of the Control
Engineering Laboratory, Indian Institute of
Technology in Madras, India. He joined the
Siemens Research Laboratories in Erlangen,
Germany, in 1972. Since 1976 he has been Pro-
fessor and Head of the Electrical Machines and
Drives Laboratory at the University of Wuppertal, Germany. His pre-
ferred working areas are electronic energy conversion, optimal PWM
control, control of ac machines, and uninterruptable power supplies.
Dr. Holtz is the author of more than 70 technical papers and 26
patents. He is a member of the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure VDE,
Associate Editor of IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIALELECTRONICS,
member of AdCom, the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, the IEEE
IAS Static Power Converter Committee, and the IEEE IAS Industrial
Drives Committee.