SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:

PREPARED BY ARCH. ROMY FLORES

1.) STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS, TERMS & METHODOLOGIES.

•BUILDING is any structure used or intended for supporting or sheltering any use or occupancy.
•STRUCTURE is that which is built or constructed, an edifice or building of any kind, or any piece of work artificially built up or
composed of parts joined together in some definite manner. iStructures may be categorized as building structures or
nonbuilding structures.
•STRUCTURAL ENGINEER is a registered Civil Engineer with special qualification in the practice of Structural Engineering as
recognized by the Board of Civil Engineering of the Professional Regulation Commission of the Philippine Institute of
Civil Engineers through the Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines
•BEDROCK is in-place solid rock.
•BENCH is a relatively level step excavated into earth material on which fill is to be placed.
•BORROW is earth material acquired from an off-site location for use on grading on a site
•COMPACTION is the densification of a fill by mechanical means
•EARTH MATERIAL is any rock, natural soil or fill or any combination thereof.
•EROSION is the wearing away of the ground surface as a result of the movement of wind, water or ice.
•EXCAVATION is the mechanical removal of earth material
•FILL is a deposit of earth material placed by artificial means.
•GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEER is an engineer experienced and knowledgeable in the practice of geotechnical engineering.
•GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING is the application of the principles of soil and rock mechanics in the investigation, evaluation
and design of civil works involving the use of earth materials and the inspection or testing of the construction thereof.
•GRADE is the vertical location of the ground surface.
•GRADE, EXISTING, is the grade prior to grading.
•GRADE, FINISH, is the final grade of the site that conforms to the approved plan.
•GRADE, ROUGH, is the stage at which the grade approximately conforms to the approved plan.
•GRADING is any excavating or filling or combination thereof.
•KEY is a designed compacted fill placed in a trench excavated in earth material beneath the toe of a proposed fill slope.
•SITE is any lot or parcel of land or contiguous combination thereof, under the same ownership, where grading is performed or
permitted.
•SLOPE is an inclined ground surface the inclination of which is expressed as a ratio of vertical distance to horizontal distance.
•SOIL is naturally occurring superficial deposits overlying bedrock.
•TERRACE is a relatively level step constructed in the face of a graded slope surface for drainage and maintenance purposes.
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:

• ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN METHOD is a method of proportioning structural elements such that computed stresses
produced in the elements by the allowable stress load combinations do not exceed specified allowable stress (also called working
stress design).
•DEAD LOADS consist of the weight of all materials and fixed equipment incorporated into the building or other structure.
•ESSENTIAL FACILITIES are buildings and other structures that are intended to remain operational in the event of extreme
environmental loading from wind or earthquakes. Are those structures that are necessary for emergency operations
subsequent to a natural disaster.
•LIMIT STATE is a condition in which a structure or component is judged either to be no longer useful for its intended function
(serviceability limit state) or to be unsafe (strength limit state).
•LIVE LOADS are forces or other actions that result from the weight of all building materials, occupants, and their possessions,
environmental effects, differential movements, and restrained dimensional changes. Permanent loads are those loads in
which variations over time are rare or of small magnitude. All other loads are variable loads.
•BASIC WIND SPEED, V is a 3-second gust speed at 10 meters above the ground in Exposure C and associated with an annual
probability of 0.02 of being equaled or exceeded (50-year mean recurrence interval).
•DESIGN FORCE, F, is the equivalent static force to be used in the determination of wind loads for open buildings and other
structures.
•DESIGN PRESSURE, p, is the equivalent static pressure to be used in the determination of wind loads for buildings.
•FLEXIBLE BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES are slender buildings and other structures that have a fundamental natural
frequency less than 1 Hz. Included are buildings and other structures that have a height, h, exceeding four times the least
horizontal dimension.
•IMPORTANCE FACTOR, I, is a factor that accounts for the degree of hazard to human life and damage to property.
•MAIN WIND-FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM is an assemblage of structural elements assigned to provide support and stability for
the overall structure. The system generally receives wind loading from more than one surface.
•BASE is the level at which the earthquake motions are considered to be imparted to the structure or the level at which the
structure as a dynamic vibrator is supported.
•BASE SHEAR, V, is the total design lateral force or shear at the base of the structure.
•BEARING WALL SYSTEM is a structural system without a complete vertical load-carrying space frame.
•BOUNDARY ELEMENT is an element at the edges or openings or at perimeters of shear walls or diaphragms.
•BRACED FRAME is an essentially vertical truss system of the concentric or eccentric type that is provided to resist lateral forces.
•BUILDING FRAME SYSTEM is an essentially complete space frame that provides support for gravity loads.
•CANTILEVERED COLUMN ELEMENT is a column element provided to transfer lateral-force-resisting system that cantilevers
from a fixed base and has minimal moment capacity at the top, with lateral forces applied essentially at the top.
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
•COLLECTOR is a member or element provide to transfer lateral forces from a portion of a structure top vertical elements of the
lateral-force-resisting system.
•COMPONENT is a part or element of an architectural, electrical, mechanical or structural system.
•COMPONENT, EQUIPMENT, is a mechanical or electrical component or element that is part of a mechanical and/or electrical
system.
•COMPONENT, FLEXIBLE, is a component, including its attachments, having a fundamental period greater than 0.06 second.
•COMPONENT, RIGID, is a component, including its attachments, having a fundamental period less than or equal to 0.06 second.
•CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME is a braced frame in which the members are subjected primarily to axial forces.
•DESIGN SEISMIC FORCE is the minimum total strength design base shear, factored and distributed.
•DIAPHRAGM is a horizontal or nearly horizontal system acting to transmit lateral forces to the vertical-resisting elements. The
term “diaphragm” includes horizontal bracing systems.
•DIAPHRAGM OR SHEAR WALL CHORD is the boundary element of a diaphragm or shear wall that is assumed to take axial
stresses analogous to the flanges of a beam.
•DIAPHRAGM STRUT (drag strut, tie, collector) is the element of a diaphragm parallel to the applied load that collects and
transfers diaphragm parallel to the applied load that collects and transfers diaphragm shear to the vertical-resisting elements or
distributes loads within the diaphragm. Such members may take axial tension or compression.
•DUAL SYSTEM is a combination of moment-resisting frames and shear walls or braced frames.
•ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME (EBF) is a steel-braced frame.
•FLEXIBLE ELEMENT or system is one whose deformation under lateral load is significantly larger than adjoining parts of the
system.
•HORIZONTAL BRACING SYSTEM is a horizontal truss system that serves the same function as a diaphragm.
•INTERMEDIATE MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME (IMRF) is a concrete frame.
•LATERAL-FORCE-RESISTING SYSTEM is that part of the structural system.
•MOMENT-RESISTING SYSTEM is a frame in which members and joints are capable of resisting forces primarily by flexure.
•MOMENT-RESISTING WALL FRAME (MRWF) is a masonry wall frame especially detailed to provide ductile behavior.
•ORDINARY BRACED FRAME (OBF) is a steel-braced frame or concrete-braced frame.
•ORDINARY MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME (OMRF) is a moment-resisting frame not meeting special detailing requirements for
ductile behavior.
•ORTHOGONAL EFFECTS are the earthquake load effects on structural elements common to the lateral-force-resisting systems
along two orthogonal axes.
•OVERSTRENGTH is a characteristic of structures where the actual strength is larger than the design strength. The degree of over
strength is material-and-system-dependent.
•P EFFECT is the secondary effect on shears, axial forces and moments of frame members induced by the vertical loads acting on
the laterally displaced building system.
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
•SHEAR WALL is a wall designed to resist lateral forces parallel to the plane of the wall (sometimes referred to as vertical
diaphragm or structural wall).
•SHEAR WALL-FRAME INTERACTIVE SYSTEM uses combinations of shear walls and frames designed to resist lateral forces in
proportion to their relative rigidities considering interaction between shear walls and frames on all levels.
•SOFT STORY is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70% of the stiffness of the story above.
•SPACE FRAME is a three-dimensional structural system, without bearing walls, composed of members interconnected so as to
function as a complete self-contained unit with or without the aid of horizontal diaphragms or floor-bracing systems.
•SPECIAL CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME (SCBF) is a steel-braced frame.
•SPECIAL MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME (SMRF) is a moment-resisting frame specially detailed to provide ductile behavior.
•SPECIAL TRUSS MOMENT FRAME (STMF) is a moment-resisting frame specially detailed to provide ductile behavior.
•STORY is the space between levels.
•STORY DRIFT is the lateral displacement of one level relative to the level above or below.
•STORY DRIFT RATIO is the story drift divided by the story height.
•STORY SHEAR, V, is the summation of design lateral forces above the story under consideration.
•STRENGTH is the capacity of an element or a member to resist factored load.
•SUBDIAPHRAGM is a portion of a larger wood diaphragm designed to anchor and transfer local forces to primary diaphragm
struts and the main diaphragm.
•VERTICAL LOAD-CARRYING FRAME is a space frame designed to carry vertical gravity loads.
•WALL ANCHORAGE SYSTEM is the system of elements anchoring the wall to the diaphragm and those elements within the
diaphragm required to develop the anchorage forces, including sub diaphragms and continuous ties.
•WEAK STORY is one in which the story strength is less than 80% of the story above.
•ADMIXTURE is material other than water, aggregate, or hydraulic cement used as an ingredient of concrete and added to
concrete before or during its mixing to modify its properties.
•AGGREGATE is granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone and iron blast-furnace slag, and when used with a
cementing medium forms a hydraulic cement concrete or mortar.
•AGGREGATE, LIGHTWEIGHT, is aggregate with a dry, loose weight of 1120 kg/cu.m. or less.
•AIR-DRY WEIGHT is the unit weight of a lightweight concrete specimen cured for seven days with neither loss nor gain of
moisture at 15deg.C to 27deg.C and dried for 21 days in 50 +- 7 percent relative humidity at 23deg.C +- 1.1deg.C.
•ANCHORAGE DEVICE in post-tensioning is a device used to anchor tendons to concrete member; in pretensioning, a device used
to anchor tendons during hardening of concrete.
•ANCHORAGE ZONE in post-tensioned members is the portion of the member through which the concentrated prestressing force
is transferred to the concrete and distributed more uniformly across the section. Its extent is equal to the largest dimension of
the cross section. For intermediate anchorage devices, the anchorage zone includes the disturbed regions ahead of and
behind the anchorage devices.
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
•BASIC MONOSTRAND ANCHORAGE DEVICE is an anchorage device used with any single 16mm or smaller diameter bar that
satisfies the anchorage device requirements of the Post-Tensioning Institute’s “Specification for Unbonded Single Strand
Tendons”.
•BASIC MULTISTRAND ANCHORAGE DEVICE is an anchorage device used with multiple strands, bars or wires, or single bars
larger than 16mm diameter that satisfies the bearing stress and minimum plate stiffness requirements of AASHTO Bridge
Specifications.
•BONDED TENDON is a prestressing tendon that is bonded to concrete either directly or through grouting.
•CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS are materials, which have cementing value when used in concrete either by themselves, such as
Portland cement, blended hydraulic cements and expansive cement, or such materials in combination with fly ash, raw or other
calcined natural pozzolans, silica fume, or ground granulated blast-furnace slag.
•COLUMN is a member with a ratio of height-to-least-lateral dimension of 3 or greater used primarily to support axial compressive
load.
•COMPRESSION-CONTROLLED SECTION is a cross section in which the net tensile strain in the extreme tension steel at nominal
strength is less than or equal to the compression-controlled strain limit.
•COMPRESSION-CONTROLLED STRAIN LIMIT is the net tensile strain at balanced strain conditions.
•CONCRETE is a mixture of Portland cement or any other hydraulic cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water, with or
without admixtures.
•CONCRETE, SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF (f’c) is the compressive strength of concrete used in design and
expressed in megapascals (Mpa).
•CONCRETE, STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT, is concrete containing lightweight aggregate and has an air-dry unit weight as
determined by “Test Method for Unit Weight of Structural Lightweight Concrete” (ASTM C 567) not exceeding 1840 kg/cu.m. In
this code, a lightweight concrete without natural sand is termed “all-lightweight concrete” and lightweight concrete in which
all fine aggregate consists of normal-weight sand is termed “sand-lightweight concrete.”
•CONTRACTION JOINT is a formed, sawed, or tooled groove in a concrete structure to create a weakened plane and regulate the
location of cracking resulting from the dimensional change of different parts of the structure.
•CURVATURE FRICTION is friction resulting from bends or curves in the specified prestressing tendon profile.
•DEFORMED REINFORCEMENT is deformed reinforcing bars, bar and rod mats, deformed wire, welded smooth wire fabric and
welded deformed wire fabric.
•DEVELOPEMENT LENGTH is the length of embedded reinforcement required to develop the design strength of reinforcement at
a critical section.
•EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF SECTION (d) is the distance measured from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension
reinforcement.
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
•EFFECTIVE PRESTRESS is the stress remaining in prestressing tendons after all losses have occurred, excluding effects of dead
load and superimposed load.
•EMBEDMENT LENGTH is the length of embedded reinforcement provided beyond a critical section.
•EXTREME TENSION STEEL is the reinforcement (prestressed or nonprestressed) that is the farthest from the extreme
compression fiber.
•ISOLATION JOINT is a separation between adjoining parts of a concrete structure, usually a vertical plane, at a designed location
such as to interfere least with performance of the structure, yet such as to allow relative movement in three directions and
avoid formation of cracks elsewhere in the concrete and through which all or part of the bonded reinforcement is interrupted.
•JACKING FORCE is the temporary force exerted by device that introduces tension into prestressing tendons in prestressed
concrete.
•LOAD, DEAD, is the dead weight supported by a member.
•LOAD, FACTORED, is the load, multiplied by appropriate load factors, used to proportion members by the strength design method.
•LOAD, LIVE, is the live load.
•LOAD, SERVICE, is the load specified (without load factors).
•MODULUS OF ELASTICITY is the ratio of normal stress to corresponding strain for tensile or compressive stresses below
proportional limit of material.
•NET TENSILE STRAIN is the tensile strain at nominal strength exclusive of strains due to effective prestress, creep, shrinkage and
temperature.
•PEDESTAL is an upright compression member with a ratio of unsupported height to average least lateral dimension not exceeding
of 3.
•PLAIN CONCRETE is structural concrete with no reinforcement or with less reinforcement than the minimum amount specified for
reinforced concrete.
•PLAIN REINFORCEMENT is reinforcement that does not conform to definition of deformed reinforcement.
•POST-TENSIONING is a method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened.
•PRECAST CONCRETE is a structural concrete element cast in other than its final position in the structure.
•PRESTRESSED CONCRETE is structural concrete in which internal stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile
stresses in concrete resulting fro loads.
•PRETENSIONING is a method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned before concrete is placed.
•REINFORCED CONCRETE is structural concrete reinforced with no less than the minimum amounts of prestressing tendons or
nonprestressed reinforcement.
•REINFORCEMENT is material excluding prestressing tendons unless specifically included.
•RESHORES are shores placed snugly under a concrete slab or other structural member after the original forms and shores have
been removed from a larger area, thus requiring the new slab or structural member to deflect and support its own weight and
existing construction loads applied prior to the installation of the reshores.
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
•SHEATHING is a material encasing a prestressing tendon to prevent bonding the tendon with the surrounding concrete, to provide
corrosion protection, and to contain the corrosion inhibiting coating.
•SHORES are vertical or inclined support members designed to carry the weight of the formwork, concrete and construction loads
above.
•SPIRAL REINFORCEMENT is continuously wound reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical helix.
in “Specifications for Lightweight Aggregate for Structural Concrete” (ASTM C 330).
•STIRRUP is reinforcement used to resist shear and torsion stresses in a structural member, typically bars, wires, or welded wire
fabric (plain or deformed) bent into L, U or rectangular shapes and located perpendicular to or at an angle longitudinal
reinforcement. (The term “stirrups” is usually applied to lateral reinforcement in flexural members and the term “ties” to those
in compression members.)
•STRENGTH, DESIGN, is the nominal strength multiplied by a strength-reduction factor, .
•STRENGTH, NORMAL, is the strength of a member or cross section calculated in accordance with provisions and assumptions of
the strength design method before application of any strength-reduction factors.
•STRENGTH, REQUIRED, is the strength of a member or cross section required to resist factored loads or related internal moments
and forces in such combinations.
•STRESS is the intensity of force per unit area.
•STRUCTURAL CONCRETE is all concrete used for structural purposes, including plain and reinforced concrete.
•TENDON is a steel element such as wire, cable, bar, rod or strand, or a bundle of such elements, used to impart prestress forces to
concrete.
•TENSION-CONTROLLED SECTION is a cross section in which the net tensile strain in the extreme tension steel at nominal
strength is greater than or equal to 0.005.
•TIE is a loop of reinforcing bar or wire enclosing longitudinal reinforcement. A continuously wound bar or wire in the form of a
circle, rectangle or other polygon shape without re-entrant corners is acceptable.
•TRANSFER is the act of transferring stress in prestressing tendons from jacks or pretensioning bed to concrete member.
•UNBONDED TENDON is a tendon that is permanently prevented from bonding to the concrete after stressing.
•WALL is a member, usually vertical, used to enclose or separate spaces.
•WOBBLE FRICTION in prestressed concrete, is friction caused by unintended deviation of prestressing sheath or duct from its
specified profile.
•YIELD STRENGTH is the specified minimum yield strength or yield point of reinforcement in megapascals (Mpa). Yield strength or
yield point shall be determined in tension according to applicable ASTM standards.
COLLECTOR ELEMENTS are elements that serve to transmit the inertial forces within structural diaphragms to members of the
lateral-force-resisting system.
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
•SHEATHING is a material encasing a prestressing tendon to prevent bonding the tendon with the surrounding concrete, to provide
corrosion protection, and to contain the corrosion inhibiting coating.
•SHORES are vertical or inclined support members designed to carry the weight of the formwork, concrete and construction loads
•LATERAL FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM is that portion of the structure composed of members proportioned to resist forces related
to earthquake effects.
•LIGHTWEIGHT-AGGREGATE CONCRETE is an all-lightweight or sand-lightweight aggregate concrete made with lightweight
aggregates.
•MOMENT FRAME is a space frame in which members and joints resist forces through flexure, shear, and axial force.
•SEISMIC HOOK is a hook on a stirrup, hoop or crosstie having a bend not less than 135 degrees, except that circular hoops shall
have a bend of not less than 90 degrees. Hooks shall have a six-diameter (but not less than 75mm), extension that engages the
longitudinal reinforcement and projects into the interior of the stirrup or hoop.
•SHELL CONCRETE is the concrete outside the transverse reinforcement confining the concrete.
•STRONG CONNECTION is a connection that remains elastic, while the designated nonlinear action regions undergo inelastic
response under the Design Basis Ground Motion.
•STRUCTURAL DIAPHRAGMS are structural members, such as floor and roof slabs, that transmit inertial forces to lateral force
resisting members.
•STRUCTURAL TRUSSES are assemblages of reinforced concrete members subjected primarily to axial forces.
•STRUCTURAL WALLS are walls proportioned to resist combinations of shears, moment, and axial forces induced by earthquake
motions.
•TIE ELEMENTS are elements that serve to transmit inertia forces and prevent separation of building components such as footings
and walls.
•WET CONNECTION uses any of the splicing methods to connect precast members and uses cast-in-place concrete or grout to fill
the splicing closure.
•CONVENTIONAL LIGHT-FRAME CONSTRUCTION is a type of construction whose primary structural elements are formed by a
system of repetitive wood-framing members.
•DIAPHRAGM is a horizontal or nearly horizontal system acting to transmit lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements. When
the term “diaphragm” is used, it includes horizontal bracing systems.
•FIBERBOARD is a fibrous-felted, homogenous panel made from lignocellulosic fibers (usually wood or crane) having a density of
less than 497 kg/cu.m. but more than 160 kg/cu.m.
•GRADE (Lumber), the classification of lumber in regard to strength and utility in accordance with the grading rules of an approved
lumber grading agency.
•HARDBOARD is a fibrous-felted, homogenous panel made from lignocellulosic fibers consolidated under heat and pressure in a hot
press to a density not less than 497 kg/cu.m.
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
•NOMINAL SIZE (Lumber), the commercial size designation of width and depth, standard sawn lumber grades; somewhat larger
than the standard net size of dressed lumber.
•NORMAL LOADING is a design load that stressed a member or fastening to the full allowable stress. This loading may be applied
for approximately 10 years, either continuously or cumulatively, and 90 percent of this load may be applied for the remainder
of the life of the member or fastening.
•PARTICLE BOARD is a manufactured panel product consisting of particles of wood or combinations of wood particles and wood
fibers bonded together with synthetic resins or other suitable bonding system by a bonding process, in accordance with
approved nationally recognized standard.
•PLYWOOD is a panel of laminated veneers.
•SUBDIAPHRAGM is a portion of a larger wood diaphragm designed to anchor and transfer local forces to primary diaphragm struts
and the main diaphragm.
•TREATED WOOD is wood treated with an approved preservative under treating and quality control procedures.
•WOOD STRUCTURAL PANEL is a structural panel product composed primarily of wood. Wood structural panels include all-veneer
plywood, composite panels containing a combination of veneer and wood-based material, and mat0formed panel such as
oriented stranded board and waferboard.
•BEDDED AREA is the area of the surface of a masonry unit, which is in contact with mortar in place of the joint.
•EFFECTIVE AREA OF REINFORCEMENT is the cross-sectional area of reinforcement multiplied by the cosine of the angle between
the reinforcement and the direction for which effective area is to be determined.
•GROSS AREA is the total cross-sectional area of a specified section.
•NET AREA is the gross cross-sectional area minus the area of ungrouted cores, notches, cells and unbedded areas. Net area is the
actual surface area of a cross section of masonry.
•TRANSFORMED AREA is the equivalent area of one material to a second based on the ratio of moduli of elasticity of the first
material to the second.
•ADHESION BOND is the adhesion between masonry units and mortar or grout.
•REINFORCING BOND is the adhesion between steel reinforcement and mortar or grout.
•BOND BEAM is a horizontal grouted element within masonry in which reinforcement is embedded.
•CELL is a void space having a gross cross-sectional area greater than 967 sq. mm.
•COLLAR JOINT is the mortared or grouted space between wythes of masonry.
•COLUMN, REINFORCED, is a vertical structural member in which both the reinforcement and masonry resist compression.
•COLUMN, UNREINFORCED, is a vertical structural member whose horizontal dimension measured at right angles to the thickness
does not exceed three times the thickness.
•GROUTED HOLLOW-UNIT MASONRY is that form of grouted masonry construction in which certain designated cells of hollow
units are continuously filled with grout.
•GROUTED MULTIWYTHE MASONRY is that form of grouted masonry construction in which the space between the wythes is
solidly or periodically filled with grout.
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:

•BED JOINT is the mortar joint that is horizontal at the time the masonry units are placed.
• HEAD JOINT is the mortar joint having a vertical transverse plane.
•MASONRY JOINT is brick, tile, stone, and glass block or concrete block.
•HOLLOW-MASONRY JOINT is a masonry unit whose net cross-sectional area (solid area) in any plane parallel to the surface
containing cores, cells or deep frogs is less than 75% of its gross cross-sectional area measured in the same plane.
•SOLID-MASONRY JOINT is a masonry unit whose net cross-sectional area in any plane parallel to the surface containing the cores
or cells is at least 75% of the gross cross-sectional area measured in the same plane.
•REINFORCED MASONRY is that form of masonry construction in which reinforcement acting in conjunction with the masonry is
used to resist forces.
• Hazardous facility Buildings or structures therein housing and supporting toxic or explosive chemicals
• Special occupancy Buildings used for college or adult education with a capacity of 500 or more students
•Miscellaneous occupancy Private garages, carports, sheds, agricultural buildings
•Essential facilities Aviation control towers
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
PREPARED BY ARCH. ROMY FLORES

2.) STRUCTURAL BUILDING REQUIREMENTS (NSCP).

STANDARD HOOKS

a) 180º bend plus 4db extension but not less than 65 mm at free end.

b) 90º bend plus 12db extension, at free end of bar

c) for stirrups and tie hooks:

16 mm bar and smaller, 90º bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar or
20 mm and 25 mm bar, 90º bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar or
25 mm bar and smaller, 135º bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar

MINIMUM BEND DIAMETER

6db for 10 mm to 25 mm bar

8db for 10 mm to 28 mm bar
10db for 10 mm to 36 mm bar

ONE- WAY SLAB

A one-way slab is considered as wide shallow rectangular beam. The reinforcing steel is usually spaced uniformly
over its width. The flexural reinforcement of a one-way slab extends in one direction only.
Maximum flexural reinforcement spacing: = 3 times the slab thickness or 450 mm
Minimum thickness of one-way slab:
Solid one-way slab

L/20 - simply supported

L/24 - one end continuous
L/28 - both end continuous
L/10 - cantilever
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
Ribbed one-way slab
L/16 - simply supported
L/18.5 - one end continuous
L/21 - both end continuous
L/8 - cantilever
LOAD FACTORS
Dead load, DL……………………………………………….. 1.40
Live load, LL…………………………….…………………… 1.70
Wind load, WL………...…………………………………….. 1.70
Earthquake, E……………………………………….………. 1.87
Earth or water pressure, H……………………...……….… ………1.70
STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR Ø
Flexure w/o axial load……………………………………………….. 0.90
Axial tension & axial tension w/ flexure……………………………. 0.90
Shear and torsion ……………………………………………………. 0.85
Axial compression & axial compression w/ flexure
a. spiral reinforcement ……………………………………… 0.75
b. tie reinforcement …………………………………………. 0.70
Bearing on concrete ………………………………………………….. 0.70
a) 180º bend plus 4db extension but not less than 65 mm at free end.
b) 90º bend plus 12db extension, at free end of bar
c) for stirrups and tie hooks:

REQUIRED STRENGTH, U
Required strength U to resist dead load DL and live load LL is
U= 1.4DL + 1.7LL
Wind load W are included in design
U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.7W)
Earthquake loads or forces are included in design
U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.87E)
Where structural effect T of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage or temperature change are significant in design
U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.4T + 1.7LL)
but required strength U shall not be less than U= 1.4 (DL + T)
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
SIZE AND SPACING OF MAIN BARS AND TIES

Clear distance between longitudinal bars shall be not less than

1.5 db nor 40 mm
Use 10 mm diameter ties for 32 mm bars or smaller and at least
12 mm in size for 36 mm and bundled longitudinal bars
Vertical spacing of ties shall be the smallest of the following:
• 16 x db (db = longitudinal bar diameter)
• 48 x tie diameter
•least dimension of columns
Ties shall be arrange such that every corner and alternate longitudinal bar shall have lateral support provided by the
corner of the tie with an included angle of not more than 135º and no bar shall be farther than 150 mm clear on each side
along the tie from such a laterally supported bar. Where longitudinal bars are located around the perimeter of a circle tie
is allowed.
AGGREGATES
Fine aggregates- sand are those that passes through a No.4 sieve (about 6mm in size)
Coarse aggregate -gravel or crushed stone
Coarse aggregate shall not be less than:
• 1/5 the narrowest dimension between sides of forms
• 1/3 the depth of slabs
• ¾ minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcing bars or wires, bundle of bars or prestressing tendons or
ducts
CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT
75 mm - for concrete cast and permanently exposed to earth such as footings
40-50 mm - for concrete members exposed to weather
40 mm - concrete cover of pipes, conduits or fittings and exposed to weather
40 mm - for beams and columns
20 mm - for concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground, such as slabs, walls and joists
FOR BUNDLED BAR
 groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact as a unit shall be limited to 4 in any one bundle
bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties
bars larger than 32mm shall not be bundled in beams
individual bars within a bundle terminated within the span of flexural members should terminate at a different points at
least 40db stagger
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
concrete exposed to earth or weather:
wall panels:
45mm and 60mm diameter bars – 40mm
36mm diameter bar and smaller – 20mm
other members:
• 45mm and 60mm diameter bars – 50mm
• 20mm through 36mm diameter bar – 40mm
• 16mm diameter bar and smaller – 30mm

• primary reinforcement – db but not less than 15mm and need not exceed 40mm
concrete not exposed to earth or in contact with ground:
slabs, walls, joists:
• 45mm and 60mm diameter bars – 30mm
• 36mm diameter bar and smaller – 15mm
beams, columns:
•Ties, stirrups, spirals – 10mm
• shells, folded plate members:
• 20mm diameter bar and larger – 15mm
• 16mm diameter bar and smaller – 10mm

MINIMUM CONCRETE COVER FOR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

 concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth – 75mm
 concrete exposed to earth or weather:
wall panels, slabs, joists – 25mm
other members – 40mm
 concrete not exposed to earth or in contact with ground:
slabs, walls, joists – 20mm
beams, columns:
• primary reinforcement – 40mm
• ties, stirrups, spirals – 25mm
• shells, folded plate members:
• 16mm diameter bar and smaller – 10mm
• other reinforcement – db but not less than 20mm
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:

3.) SOIL AND FOUNDATION

• Excavation

•Soil pressure

•Footing

•Strip footing

•Cantilever footing

•Isolated footing

•Combined footing

•Stepped footing

•Mat footing/foundation

•Base course

•Piles

•Pile cap

•Shear walls

•Retaining walls
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
4. ) REINFORCED CONCRETE.

Concrete is a mixture of sand and gravel held together in a rock like mass with a paste of cement and water.
Reinforced Concrete is a combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement provides the tensile strength lacking in
the concrete.
A.) BEAM a rigid structural member designed to carry and transfer transverse loads across spaces supporting elements
•SPAN the extent of space between two supports of a structure
•CLEAR SPAN the distance between inner faces of the support of a span
•EFFECTIVE SPAN the center to center distance between the supports of a span
•BENDING MOMENT an external moment tending to cause part a structure to rotate or bend, equal to the algebraic sum of the
moments about the neutral axis of the section under consideration
•RESISTING MOMENT an internal moment equal and opposite to a bending moment, generated by a force couple to
maintain equilibrium of the section being considered
•DEFLECTION the perpendicular distance a spanning member deviates from a true course under transverse loading,
increasing with load and span, and decreasing with an increase in the moment of inertia of the section of the modulus of
elasticity of the material
•NEUTRAL AXIS an imaginary line passing through the centroid of the cross section of a beam, other member subject to
bending, along which no bending stresses occur
•BENDING STRESS a combination of compressive and tensile stresses developed at a cross section of structural member to
resist transverse force, having a maximum value at the surface furthest from the neutral axis
•CAMBER a slight convex curvature intentionally built into beam, girder, or truss to compensate for an anticipated deflection
•TRANSVERSE SHEAR an external shear force at a cross section of a beam or other member subject to bending, equal to the
algebraic sum of transverse forces on one side of the section
•VERTICAL SHEARING the shearing stress developed along cross section of a beam to resist transverse shear, having a
maximum value at the neutral axis and decreasing nonlinearly toward the outer faces
•HORIZONTAL SHEARING he shearing stress developed to prevent slippage along longitudinal planes of a beam under
transverse loading, equal to any point to the vertical shearing stress at that point. Also called LONGITUDINAL SHEARING
•FLEXURE FORMULA a formula defining the relationship between bending moment, bending stress, and the cross sectional
properties of a beam. Bending stress is directly proportional to bending moment and inversely proportional to the
moment of inertia of a beam section.
• MOMENT OF INERTIA the sum of the products of each element of an area and the square of its distance from a coplanar axis
of rotation. Moment of inertia is a geometric property that indicates how the cross sectional area of structural member is
distributed and does not reflect the intrinsic physical properties of a material
pushes towards joint
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
SHEAR DIAGRAM a graphic representation of the variation in magnitude of the external shears present in a structure
for a given set of transverse loads and support conditions concentrated loads produce external shears which are constant
In magnitude between the loads uniformly distributed loads produce linearly varying shears
MOMENT DIAGRAM a graphic representation of the variation in magnitude of the bending moment present in a structure for a
given set of transverse load and support conditions. The overall deflected shape of a structure subject to bending can
often be inferred from the shape of its moment diagram
CONCENTRATED LOADS
produce bending moments which vary linearly between loads
UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS produce parabolically varying moments
POSITIVE SHEAR a net resultant of shear forces that acts vertically upward on the left part of the structure being considered
NEGATIVE SHEAR a net resultant of shear forces that act vertically downward on the left part of the structure being considered
POSITIVE MOMENT a bending moment that produces moment that produces a concave curvature at a section of a structure
INFLECTION POINT a point at which a structure changes curvature from convex to concave or vise versa as it deflects under a
transverse load: theoretically an internal hinge and therefore a point of zero moment
NEGATIVE MOMENT a bending moment that produces a convex curvature at a section of a structure
SIMPLE BEAM a beam resisting on simple supports at both ends which are free to rotate and have no moment resistance. As
with any statistically determinate structure, the values of all reactions, shears, and moments for a simple beam are
independent of its cross sectional shape and material
CANTILEVER BEAM a projecting beam supported at only one fixed end
CANTILEVER a beam or other rigid structural member extending beyond a fulcrum and supported by a balancing member or a
downward force behind the fulcrum
OVERHANGING BEAM a simple beam extending beyond one of its supports. The overhanging reduces the positive moment at
midspan while developing a negative moment at the base of the cantilever over the support
FIXED END BEAM a beam having both ends restrained against translation and rotation. The fixed ends transfer bending
stresses, increase the rigidity of the beam and reduces its maximum deflection
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

B.) COLUMN:
Three categories of columns:
1. Pedestal or Short Compression Blocks - height is less than three times the least dimension
2. Long or Slender Column - strength of the column is significantly reduced due to slenderness
3. Short Column - failure is initiated by material failure
Types of Columns 1. Tied 2. Spiral 3. Composite
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
C.) WALLS

BEARING WALL is any wall meeting either of the following classifications:

Any metal or wood stud wall that supports more than 0.5 KN per linear meter of superimposed load.
Any masonry or concrete wall that supports more than 1.0 KN per linear meter superimposed loads, or any such
wall supporting its own weight for more than one story.

EXTERIOR WALL is any wall or element of a wall, or any member or group of members, that defines the exterior
boundaries or courts of a building and that has a slope of 60 degrees or greater with the horizontal plane.

NONBEARING WALL is any wall that is not a bearing wall

PARAPET WALL is the part of any wall entirely above the roof line.

RETAINING WALL is a wall designed to resist the later displacement of soil or other materials.

Types of internal forces

TENSION - pulls away from joint

COMPRESSION - pushes towards joint
SHEAR - for connections

5.) FLOOR & ROOF FRAMING .

Space frames
Trusses - wood, steel trusses
Roof deck
Steel Decking
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:
6.) CONNECTORS

EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION
a joint designed to take expansion and contraction
the designed break in a structure to allow for the drying and temperature shrinkage of concrete, brickwork of
similar material, thereby preventing the formation of harmful cracks
CONSTRUCTION JOINT the vertical or horizontal face in a concrete structure where concreting has been stopped and
continued later
COLD JOINT formed when a concrete surface hardens before the next batch o f concrete is placed
Control joints
Steel to steel connectors

Concrete to steel connectors

Wood to steel connectors
 SPLBE LECTURE 2011: STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES:

7.) STEEL CONSTRUCTION.

water= 1000 kg/ m3

steel= 7850 kg/ m3
concrete= 2400 kg/ m3
weight= density x volume
Steel beams
space frames
steel trusses
steel columns
steel buildings

8.) PRECAST CONSTRUCTION

Prestressed concrete
The effect of prestress on concrete is to minimize cracks, reduce depth and dead weight,or increase the span. Analogy with a
non-prestressed beam clarifies this effect. In a simply supported non-prestressed beam the bottom rebars elongate in tension
and concrete cracks due to tensile weakness. In prestressed concrete tendons (high-strength steel strands) replace rebars. The
tendons are pulled against concrete to compress it before service load is applied. Service load increases the tension in tendons
and reduces the initial concrete compression. Avoiding tensile stress in concrete avoids cracks that may cause corrosion in rebars
due to moisture. Further, prestress tendons can take the form of bending moments that balances the service load to minimize
deflection. This, combined with higher strength concrete of about 6000 psi (40 MPa), allows for longer span or reduced depth in
beams.
 Topics that came out in the
Exams
• Definition of Structural Terms from
NSCP
• Concrete Mixes
• Slump Test
• Details of Reinforcement
Concrete Mixes
 Concrete Mixes
CEMENT : SAND :
CLASS GRAVEL USES
AA 1:1½:3 concrete under water,
retaining walls

A 1:2:4 footings, column beams,

R. C. slabs

B 1:2½:5 slab on fill, non-bearing

walls

C 1:3:6 concrete plant boxes, etc.

Slump Test
 Slump Test

- when freshly mixed concrete is checked

to ensure that the specified slump is
being attained consistently. A standard
slump cone is 12 inches high (0.30) and
8 inches (0.20) in diameter at the bottom
and 4 inches (0.10) on top which is open
on both ends.
Slump Test
 ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION ‘X’

Beams and Columns 7.5 cm (.075) 3”

Slabs and Tunnel Inverts 5.0 cm (.05) 2”

Tops and walls, piers,
parapets and curbs 5.0 cm (.05) 2”

Side walls and arch in

tunnel lining 10.0 cm (.10) 4”

Canal lining 7.5 cm (.075) 3”

Heavy mass construction 5.0 cm (.05) 2”
Compressive Strength Test
Compressive Strength Test

- common quality-control test of concrete, based on 7

and 28 day curing periods
- specimens usually cylindrical with a length equal to
twice the diameter
- standard size is 12 inch high and 6 inch diameter
- filling done the same way as the slump test but
taken out from the mold in 24 hours
- sent to a compression testing laboratory, by marking
the cylinder while still wet
- some compressive stresses are 2,000 psi, 2500 psi,
3,000 psi.
Details of Reinforcement
 Details of Reinforcement
407.2 STANDARD HOOKS
“Standard Hook” as used in the NSCP
is one of the following:

407.2.1 180-degree bend plus 4 db

extension, but not less than 60 mm at
free end of bar.

407.2.2 90-degree bend plus 12 db

extension at free end of the bar.
 Details of Reinforcement
407.2.3 For stirrup and tie hooks:
1. 16 mm diameter bar and smaller,
90-degree bend plus 6 db extension at
free end of bar, or
2. 20 and 25 mm diameter bar, 90-
degree bend, plus 12 db extension at free
end, or
3. 25 mm diameter bar and smaller.
135-degree bend plus 6 db extension at
free end of bar.
 Details of Reinforcement
407.3 MINIMUM BEND DIAMETERS

407.3.1 Diameter of bend measured on the

inside of the bar, other than for stirrups and ties in
sizes 10 mm diameter through 16 mm diameter,
shall not be less than the values in Table 407-1.

407.3.2 Inside diameter of bends for stirrups

and ties shall not be less than 4 db for 16 mm
diameter bar and smaller. For bars larger than 16
mm, diameter of bend shall be in accordance with
Table 407-1.
 Details of Reinforcement

407.3.3 Inside diameter of bends in welded

wire fabric (plain or deformed) for stirrups and tie
shall not be less than 4 db for deformed wire larger
than D6 and 2 db for all other wires. Bends with
inside diameter of less than 8 db shall not be less
than 4 db from the nearest welded intersection.
Table 407-1 Minimum Diameters of Bend
MINIMUM
BAR SIZE DIAMETER

10 mm through 25 6 bar diameters

mm

28 mm, 32 mm and 8 bar diameters

36 mm
Live Load
- any moving or movable load on a structure
resulting from occupancy.

occupancy load
The live load on a structure resulting from the weight of
people, furniture, stored material, and other similar
items in a building. Building codes specify minimum live
loads for various uses and occupancies.
water load
The live load of water that may accumulate on a roof
because of its form, deflection, or clogging of its
drainage.
occupancy load

water load
Static Load
- a load applied slowly to a structure until it
reaches its peak value without fluctuating
rapidly in magnitude or position.

dead load
The static load acting vertically downward on a
structure, comprising the self-weight of the structure
and the weight of building elements, fixtures, and
equipment permanently attached to it.

settlement load
A load imposed on a structure by subsidence of a
portion of the supporting soil and the resulting
differential settlement of its foundation.
 dead load

settlement load
Definition of Terms
Structure
- that which is built or constructed, an edifice or building
of any kind, or any piece of work, artificially built up or
composed of parts joined together in some definite
manner.

Prefabricated Assembly
- a structural unit, the integral parts of which have been
built up or assembled prior to incorporating in the
building.
Access Floor System
- an assembly consisting of panels mounted on pedestals
to provide an under-floor space for the installation of
mechanical, electrical, communications or similar systems
or to serve as an air-supply or return-air plenum.

Assembly Building
- a building or portion of a building for the gathering
together of 50 or more persons for such purposes as
deliberation, education, instruction, worship,
entertainment, amusement, drinking or dining, or awaiting
transportation.
Awning
- a shelter supported entirely from the exterior wall of the
building.

Balcony, Exterior
- an exterior floor system projecting from a structure and
supported by that structure, with no additional
independent supports.

Dead Loads
- consist of the weight of all materials and fixed
equipment incorporated into the building or other
structure.
Deck
- an exterior floor system supported on at least two
opposing sides by an adjoining structure and/or posts,
piers, or other independent supports.

Essential Facilities
- buildings and other structures that are intended to
remain operational in the event of extreme environmental
loading from wind or earthquakes.

Garage
- a building or portion thereof in which motor vehicle
containing flammable or combustible liquids or gas in its
tank is stored, repaired or kept.
Limit State
- a condition in which a structure or component is judged
either to be no longer useful for its intended function
(serviceability limit state) or to be unsafe (strength limit
state).

Live Loads
- those loads produced by the use and occupancy of the
building or other structure and do not include dead load,
construction load, or environmental loads such as wind
load, snow load, rain load, earthquake load or flood load.
Marquee
- a permanent roofed structure attached to and supported
by the building and projecting over public property.

Bearing Wall
- any wall meeting either of the following classifications:

1. Any metal or wood stud wall that supports more

thean 0.5 kN per linear meter of superimposed load.

2. Any masonry or concrete wall that supports more

than 1.0 kN per linear meter superimposed loads, or any
such wall supporting its own weight for more than one
story.
Exterior Wall
- any wall or element of a wall or any member or group of
members, that defines the exterior boundaries or courts of
a building and that has a slope of 60 degrees or greater
with the horizontal plane.

Nonbearing Wall
- any wall that is not a bearing wall.

Parapet Wall
- that part of any wall entirely above the roof line.

Retaining Wall
- a wall designed to resist lateral displacement f soil or
other materials.
Building, Enclosed
- a building that does not comply with the requirements for
open or partially enclosed buildings.

Building, Open
- a structure having all walls at least 80% open.

Building, Partially Enclosed

- a building that complies with both of the following
conditions:
1. the total area of opening in a wall that receives external pressure exceeds
the sum of the areas of opening in the balance of the building envelope
(walls and roof) by more than 10%; and
2. the total area of openings in a wall that receives external pressure exceeds 0.5 m2
or 1% of the area of that wall, whichever is smaller, and the percentage of openings in
the balance of the building envelope does not exceed 20%.
Building, Low Rise
- an enclosed or partially enclosed building which
complies with the following conditions:
1. mean roof height, h, less than or equal to 18 meters.

2. mean roof height, h, does not exceed least horizontal dimension.

Components and Cladding

- elements that do not qualify as part of the main wind-
force resisting system.

Design Force, F
- the equivalent static force to be used in the
determination of wind loads for open buildings and other
structures.
Design Pressure, P
- the equivalent static pressure to be used in the
determination of wind loads for buildings.

Flexible Buildings and other

Structures
- slender buildings and other structures that have a
fundamental natural frequency less than 1 Hz.
Included are buildings and other structures that have
a height, h, exceeding four times the least horizontal
dimension.
Base Shear, V
- the total design lateral force or shear at the
base of a structure.

Bearing Wall System

- a structural system without a complete vertical load-
carrying space frame.

Boundary Element
- an element at edges of openings or at perimeters of
shear walls or diaphragms.
Braced Frame
- an essentially vertical truss system of the
concentric or eccentric type that is provided to
resist lateral forces.

Building Frame System

- an essentially complete space frame that provides
support for gravity loads.

Cantilevered Column Element

- a column element in a lateral-force-resisting system
that cantilevers from a fixed base and has minimal
moment capacity at the top, with lateral forces applied
essentially at the top.
Concentrically Braced Frame
- a braced frame in which the members are subjected
primarily to axial forces.

Diaphragm
- a horizontal or nearly horizontal system acting to
transmit lateral forces to the vertical-resisting
elements. The term “diaphragm” includes horizontal
bracing system.

Horizontal Bracing System

- a horizontal truss system that serves the same
function as a diaphragm.
Lateral-Force-Resisting System
- that part of the structural system designed to resist the
Design Seismic Forces.

Shear Wall
- a wall designed to resist lateral forces parallel to the
plane of the wall (sometimes referred to as the vertical
diaphragm or structural wall).

Soft Story
- one which the lateral stiffness is less than 70 percent
of the stiffness of the story above.
Story Drift
- the lateral displacement of one level relative to the
level above or below.

Strength
- the capacity of an element or a member to
resist factored load.

Weak Story
- one which the story strength is less than 80 percent
of the story above.
Modulus of Elasticity
- the ratio of normal stress to corresponding strain for
tensile or compressive stresses below proportional
limit of material.

Shores
- vertical or inclined support members designed to carry
the weight of the formwork, concrete and construction
loads above.
Stirrup
- reinforcement used to resist shear and torsion
stresses in a structural member; typically bars, wires,
or welded wire fabric (plain or deformed) bent into L,
U, or rectangular shapes and located perpendicular
to or at an angle to longitudinal reinforcement.

(The term “stirrups” is usually applied to lateral

reinforcement in flexural members and the term
“ties” to those in compression members.)
Nominal Strength
- the capacity of a structure or component to resist the
effects of loads, as determined by computations using
specified material strengths and dimensions and
formulas derived from accepted principles of structural
mechanics or by field tests or laboratory tests of scaled
models, allowing for modeling effects and differences
between laboratory and field conditions.

Plane Frame
- a structural system assumed for the purpose of analysis
and design to be two-dimensional.
Plastic Analysis
- determination of load effects (force, moment, stress, as
appropriate) on members and connections based on the
assumption of rigid-plastic behavior, i.e., that equilibrium
is satisfied throughout the structure and yield is not
exceeded anywhere.
Plastic-limit Load
- the maximum load attained when a sufficient number of
yield zones have formed to permit the structure to deform
plastically without further increase in load
- the largest load a structure will support, when perfect
plasticity is assumed and when such factors as
instability, second-order effects, strain hardening and
fracture are neglected.
Questions from the Previous
Exams
Identify minimum slump for mass
concrete construction.

Identify minimum slump for

pavements.
 Beams and Columns 7.5 cm (.075) 3”

Slabs and Tunnel Inverts 5.0 cm (.05) 2”

Tops and walls, piers,
parapets and curbs 5.0 cm (.05) 2”

Side walls and arch in

tunnel lining 10.0 cm (.10) 4”

Canal lining 7.5 cm (.075) 3”

Heavy mass construction 5.0 cm (.05) 2”
Definition of Terms

Proportional Limit
Elastic Limit
Yield Point
 Yield Point

Fracture

Elastic Limit
Proportional Limit
 proportional limit A Visual Dictionary of
Architecture
The stress beyond which the ratio of
stress to strain for a material no longer
remains constant.

proportional limit Dictionary of

Architecture and Construction
the greatest stress which a material is
capable of sustaining without any
deviation from Hooke’s Law.
Proportional Limit

Hooke’s Law A Visual Dictionary of

Architecture
The law stating that the stress on a
body is directly proportional to the
strain produced, provided the stress
does not exceed the elastic limit of the
material.
 elastic limit A Visual Dictionary of
Architecture
The maximum stress that can be applied
to a material without causing permanent
deformation.

elastic limit Dictionary of Architecture

and Construction
the greatest stress which a material is
capable of sustaining without permanent
Elastic Limit deformation upon complete release of
the stress.
 yield point A Visual Dictionary
The stress beyond which a marked
increase in strain occurs in a material
without a concurrent increase in stress.
Many materials do not have clearly
defined yield points. For these
materials, a theoretical yield strength is
calculated from the stress-strain curve.
Yield Point

yield point NSCP

The first stress in a material at which an
increase in strain occurs without an increase
in stress, the yield point less than the
maximum attainable stress.
fracture A Visual Dictionary
The breaking of a material resulting
from the rupturing of its atomic bonds
when stressed beyond its ultimate
strength.

Fracture
What class of concrete has
1 : 2½ : 5 concrete proportion?
AA, A, B, C, D?
 Concrete Mixes
CEMENT : SAND :
CLASS GRAVEL USES
AA 1:1½:3 concrete under water,
retaining walls

A 1:2:4 footings, column beams,

R. C. slabs

B 1:2½:5 slab on fill, non-bearing

walls

C 1:3:6 concrete plant boxes, etc.

Diameter of bend for main bars
25mm diameter and below?
Table 407-1 Minimum Diameters of Bend
MINIMUM
BAR SIZE DIAMETER

10 mm through 25 6 bar diameters

mm

28 mm, 32 mm and 8 bar diameters

36 mm
Term used to describe the level of
damage of an earthquake?

PSI of Structural Grade Deformed

Steel Bar according to PNS
Standard?