A REPORT ON​

Scanning Electron Microscope

(SEM)

By

Abhishek Gaur
2017B2A21037P

Prepared in partial fulfilment of

CE F323: Biophysical Chemistry
submitted to

Dr.​ ​Ajay Kumar Sah

Associate Professor,
Department of Chemistry

BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE, PILANI

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

I. Abstract

In the report presented, the definition of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was
explained in terms of the main part of the tool and the step by step process of the SEM
system. Schematic diagrams with SEM component elements are provided to
understand the work process in a simple and realistic way. Also, SEM types are
introduced and discussed. The power of the energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS) has
also been introduced; this includes the background history of EDS and how it works
according to SEM. The presence of EDS capabilities in SEM instruments is critical to
quality and quantity analysis in any template. In the absence of EDS only more
information on the sample location area can be generated by SEM. Two of the most
powerful aspects of SEM imagery are introduced and discussed namely second
electron imaging and rear electron imaging. Understanding the law of operation of these
two components is essential to having a complete understanding of how SEM tools
work. SEM is characterized by its simple operation. With that knowledge one can
manage analysis and thinking very well.

Keywords: ​SEM, ESEM, LVSEM, Backscattered electron imaging, Energy-dispersive

spectrometer, Scanning electron microscopy, Secondary electron imaging.

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

II. Acknowledgements

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Birla Institute of Technology &

Science (BITS) Pilani, Pilani Campus for giving me a platform to work on this project. I
would also like to convey special gratitude to Dr. Ajay Kumar Sah, Associate Professor,
Department of Chemistry for giving me the opportunity to work on this project report and
whose contribution to stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped me a lot in
this project, and this course overall.

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page No.

I. Abstract ii

II. Acknowledgement iii

1. Introduction 5

2. Background Development of SEM 8

3.​ ​Types of Scanning Electron Microscopes 10

3.1 Conventional SEM (CSEM) 10

3.2 Environmental SEM (ESEM) 10

3.3 Low Vacuum SEM (LVSEM) 11

4. Components and Working of SEM 12

4.1 Electron Column 13
4.2 ​Electron gun 13
4.3 ​Condenser Lenses 14
4.4 ​Apertures 14
4.5 ​Scanning System 15
4.6 ​Specimen Chamber 15
4.7 ​Electron Detectors 15
4.8 Vacuum System 16

5. SEM Analysis Process 17

6. Applications of SEM 19

7. Conclusion 21

8. References 22

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

1. Introduction

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that

produces sample images by scanning the surface with a concentrated electron beam.
Electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing a variety of signals that contain
information about the shape of the earth and the shape of the sample. The electron
beam is scanned with a raster scanning pattern, and the beam position is combined
with the signal strength obtained to produce the image. In the most common SEM
mode, the second atoms emitted by atoms excited by an electron beam are obtained
using a second electron detector (Everhart-Thornley detector). The number of
secondary electrons can be detected, and therefore the strength of the signal, depends,
among other things, on the nature of the condition. Some SEMs can get better results
than 1 nanometer.

Fig. 1 ​Optical microscopy with compound lenses

Generally, there are two types of microscopy available: optical microscopy (OM)
and electron microscopy (SEM) scanner. The first is the oldest, used since two
centuries ago in the form of a simple device with limited capabilities. Also called simple
microscopy. OM differs from SEM in these properties with the following characteristics:
(a) the main principle of operation in OM is light which is different from SEM, depending
on the electron emission. (b) The simple OM has only one lens while the OM has two
lenses. The lenses rely on the bending of light to magnify images. (c) modern OM

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

enlargement amounts to between 400-1000 times the original size, which is very low
compared to SEM with an enlargement of 300,000x. (d) both living cells and solids can
be tested by OM. (e) however, very few living creatures can be seen and small
fragmentary fragments can be seen. This is due to the power of OM in only small and
small samples. (f) on the other hand, SEM offers a more detailed field with gray scale
images. (g) therefore, it can be said that SEM is more expensive than OM and is not
easily maintained. (h) images generated in OM show the actual colors of the object
being tested. Fig. 1 shows visual microscopy with mixed lenses.
There are three commercial OM types: stereo zoom optical microscope,
petrographic microscope and automated optical microscope.

Fig. 2​ SEM Quanta device

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), also known as SEM analysis or SEM

process, has been used worldwide in many studies. It can be considered an effective
method for the analysis of living and nonliving things in the nanometer scale to
micrometer (µm). SEM works at high magnification up to 300,000x and even 1000000
(in some modern forms) in accurately reproducing images with various materials.

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) works in conjunction with SEM to provide
quality and quantitative results. Both of these methods, combined, have the potential to
present basic data on the design of a variety of scanned materials, which would not be
provided for standard laboratory tests.

The analysis was performed with SEM equipment, as shown in Fig. 2, which is
the most advanced SEM Quanta tool for building materials science [2]. The device has
a flexible pressure system capable of capturing any samples (or wet or samples with
minimal preparation). The device allows to analyze samples with a diameter of up to
200 mm and a height of 80 mm. Device range increases from 5x to 300,000 x. The
materials that can be used in SEM are organic and solid non-living materials including
metals and polymers [3].

This report presents an overview of SEM analysis in relation to the SEM

post-development, definition, types and procedures. Energy Dispersive X-ray
Spectroscopy (EDS) was introduced for its historical development and performance in
the SEM system. Advanced SEM tool designs with available purchase models are very
important to be included in this study. Electron Microscope scanning works exactly with
its optical counterparts except that they use a fixed electron beam instead of light to
match the image and get information about its shape and structure.

Given enough light, the unaided human eye can distinguish two points at a
distance of 0.2 mm. If the points are closer together, they will appear as one point. This
stage is called the optimal resolution. Similarly, light microscopes use visible light (400-
700nm) and transparent lenses to detect small objects such as about one micrometer (a
million meters), such as a red blood cell (7 μm) or human hair (100 μm). The bright
microscope has a magnification of about 1000x and empowers the eye to resolve
objects separated by 200 nm.

Electron Microscopes are developed due to the limitations of light microscopes,

limited by light physics. Electron microscopes are much larger and have a much larger
resolution than a bright microscope, allowing them to see tiny objects at subcellular,
molecular, and atomic levels. The longest length of light sources is the best choice for a
microscope.

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

2. Background Development of SEM

The concept of SEM dates back to the thirteenth century where the first electron
microscopy was developed based on the work of two physics scientists Ruska and Knoll
in 1933. in Fig. with electrons passing through only small specimens, and a
magnification greater than that of a well-known optical microscope. Next, in 1938, Von
Ardenne added a scanner coil (TEM) to create an electron microscope (STEM) scanner
using a power of (23 kV) amplification (8000x) and a resolution of (50-100 nm).
Ardenne's laboratory equipment has incorporated many features, which have been the
standard since then to establish any SEM system [5]. However no trading instrument
was developed based on the results of the Ardenne SEM policy due to the explosion in
his Lab.

Zworykin, Hillier and Snyder in 1942 introduced a new SEM definition for
specimens. The role of the second electron release of the environmental comparison
has been identified [7]. Oatley in 1952 with the company of his student McMullan
expanded the electrostatic SEM lens using a power (40 kV) electron gun. McMullan
followed Smith, who added other principles to McMullan's work in his research. Smith
has seen that micrographs can be improved by signal processing and introduced
non-linear amplification amplification. Also, it has produced double scanning to improve
the scanning system [5]. The study of both students laid the foundation for some of the
musical instruments. New stereoscopic pairs designed by O. Wells in 1953 to test the
third dimension in micrographs.

Two other research students (Everhart, T and Thornley, R.) improved the
performance of the scintillator detector (second detector) in the conversion of electron to
light, which was transmitted to an efficient photomultiplier. This has led to an increase in
collected signals and an improvement in signal over sound [8]. In 1963, Pease
developed the SEM V system with three magnetic lenses. This was the first trading tool
under the name "Stereoscan" Cambridge Scientific Instruments Mark 1, which was
available on the market in 1965 [6]. Since then a number of advances have been
recorded such as the development of electron sources for the emission of more
electrons and improved processing. The introduction of an energy-dispersive
spectrometer (EDS) was a great help. The system has been successfully used with
SEM since 1968 to measure x-rays by a state-of-the-art detector.

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

SEM development has continued with the production of modern commercial

equipment. During 1991-1993, Danilatos conducted research on environmental effects
on experimental species. As a result a new tool is tested that is superior to any wet or
dry sample. The latest emergence of SEM is the process of digital photography.
Followed by displaying images on a computer screen. Most commercial SEMs available
have a system (EDS) and state-of-the-art data analysis software [5]. EDS added the
benefits of testing the composition of various materials in a sample with the help of a
computer. The latter makes up the whole process of operation; converts the size of the
x-ray ratio into chemical tracks in a few seconds without increasing the performance of
the growth analysis.

Fig. 3​ M. von Ardenne's first SEM

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

3. Types of Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEMs)

There are three types of SEM, conventional SEM (CSEM), environmental SEM (ESEM)
and low vacuum SEM (LVSEM) [12]:

3.1 Conventional SEM (CSEM)

In standard SEM (CSEM), the interaction of an electron beam with a specimen

occurs in the upper vacuum (10–6 torr), where torr is a pressure measurement method
(1 torr = 133.32 Pascal). Thus the second energy electrons will be released from the
sample with minimal collisions with the gas molecules in the chamber. However, water
loss and breakage of concrete will occur as a result of this high leakage, which will
impair the ability to look directly at crack distribution. However, it can be used more
efficiently in other conditions such as Alkali Silica Reactivity (ASR) or concrete
composite components, which can be converted to vacuum.

Fig. 4​ ​Conventional SEM

3.2 Environmental SEM (ESEM)

The second type is natural SEM (ESEM). In this type the interaction between the
electron beam and the specimen occurs at high pressures (0.2 to 20 torr), this has both
positive and negative effects. Reduces or eliminates dehydration (typically, the
minimum water retention pressure is 4.6 torr). High gas pressure has another
advantage; The extraction of any ground charge will occur by ionization of gas
molecules. This reduces the need for luxury clothing and improved photography will be
available. The ionization of electrical molecules is the result of a collision between

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

electrons and electrons extracted from a sample. This ionization will increase the power
of the electron signal and this is a result of sensitivity.

However, such collisions lead to the dispersing and deceleration of the electron
pole, leading to uncertainty in the position of the electron beam in the model. This is not
a photographic problem but a major problem in x-ray microanalysis because the object
viewed in the analyzed spectrum may not be present in the imaginary field. It can be
argued that ESEM can be used effectively for concrete imaging but has limited ability to
perform x-ray microanalysis.

Fig. 5​ ​Environmental SEM (ESEM)

3.3 Low Vacuum SEM (LVSEM)

The third type of electron microscope scanner is a low vacuum SEM (LVSEM),
similar to CSEM but also modified to operate at high pressures (0.2 to 2 torr). In such an
environment, any liquid can be neglected and will melt slowly in the machine. The effect
of this type of SEM on cracks will be greatly reduced and less noticeable during
standard analysis. Similar to CSEM, LVSEM eliminates local charging and the need for
coverage.

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Fig. 6​ ​Low Vacuum SEM (LVSEM)

4. Components and Working of SEM

In the Scanning Electron Microscope, the electron beam is formed by the Electron
Source and accelerated towards the specimen using positive electrical energy. The
electron beam is enclosed and focuses on the use of metal and magnetic lenses in a
small, compact, monochromatic coil. The electrons in the beam combine with the atoms
of the model, producing signals that contain information about their surface,
composition, and other electrical properties. These combined effects are obtained and
converted into an image.

Fig. 7​ Components of Scanning Electron Microscope

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

4.1 Electron Column

An electron beam is when an electron beam is produced under a vacuum,

concentrated in a small diameter, and scanned across the template with
electromagnetic deflection coils. The lower part of the column is called the template
room. A second electron detector is located above the sample stage inside the
specimen chamber. Specimens are set and secured on a goniometer-controlled stage.
Hand distance controls are located on the front side of the template room and allow for
xyz movement, 360 rotation and 90 rotations but bending only cannot be controlled by a
computer program so there is no need to use all manual controls to manipulate sample
position within the sample chamber.

Fig. 8​ Scanning electron microscope column

4.2 Electron gun

The electron beam is emitted electronically from an electron gun fitted with a
tungsten filament cathode. Tungsten has a very high melting point and a very low
evaporation pressure of all metals, thus allowing it to be absorbed by electron
emissions, even because of its low cost. Other types of electron emitters include the
lanthanum hexaboride (LaB6) cathode, as well as field-fired emissions (FEG), which
can be a cold type using tungsten single crystal emitters or a Schottky-assisted heat
exchanger, using emitters. zirconium oxide.

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Fig. 9​ Electron Gun

4.3 Condenser Lenses

After the beam passes the anode it is influenced by two nourishing lenses that
cause the beam to rotate and pass through the focus area. What happens is that the
electron beam is actually tilted 1000 times lower than the original size. In combination
with the selected speed of the condenser lenses primarily responsible for determining
the size of the electron pole when striking the template.

Fig. 10​ Condenser Lenses

4.4 Apertures

Depending on the microscope, one or more of these atoms can be found in the
electron column. The function of this opening is to reduce and exclude foreign electrons
from lenses. The opening of the last lens located under the scanning coils determines
the size or size of the bay area in the template. The size of the area in the statue will in
part determine the alignment and depth of the field. Reducing the size of the area will
allow for an increase in resolution and depth of the field with light loss.

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

4.5 Scanning System

Images are formed by illuminating an electron beam across all specimens using
deflection coils within the objective lens. The stigmator or astigmatism corrector is
located on the target lens and uses magnetic force to reduce the flexibility of the
electron pole. The electron beam should have a circular section when striking the
sample but it is usually circular so the compressor takes action to control the problem.

4.6 Specimen Chamber

The bottom part of the column is the sample stage and controls are available.
Specimens are set and secured on a goniometer-controlled stage. Second electrons
from the specimen are drawn to the detector at a good charge The Manual stage
controls are located in the front part of the x-y-z movement chamber.

4.7 Electron Detectors

Detectors collect a signal generated by a combination of a pole and a template.

Electronic detectors convert the signal into digital images and the most commonly
collected signal is the second electron with the second electron detector (Everhart -
Thornley) -rays is an Energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) detector.

Fig. 11​ Electron Detectors in the SEM System

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

4.8 Vacuum System

The ability for a SEM to provide a controlled electron beam requires that the
electronic column be under vacuum at a pressure of at least 5x10-5 Torr. A high
vacuum pressure is required for a variety of reasons. First, the current that passes
through the filament causes the filament to reach temperatures around 2700K [2]. A hot
tungsten filament will oxidize and burn out in the presence of air at atmospheric
pressure. Secondly, the ability of the column optics to operate properly requires a fairly
clean, dust-free environment. Third, air particles and dust inside the column can
interfere and block the electrons before the ever reach the specimen in the sample
chamber [1]. In order to provide adequate vacuum pressure inside the column, a
vacuum system consisting of two or more pumps is typically present.

Vacuum is produced by an oil diffusion pump backed by a mechanical pump. In

the diffusion pump a stream of hot oil vapor strikes and pushes air molecules toward a
mechanical pump that expels them from the system. A mechanical pump and valve
system are used to pre evacuate the system because a diffusion pump only operates
after a vacuum is created. If the column is in a gas filled environment, electrons will be
scattered and collide with air molecules which would lead to reduction of the beam
intensity and stability. Similarly, other gas molecules, which could come from the
sample or the microscope itself, could form compounds and condense on the sample.
This would lower the contrast and obscure detail in the image. The chemical and
thermal stability is necessary for a well-functioning filament (gun pressure). The field
emission gun, LaB6 and tungsten filament requires ~ 10​-10​, ~ 10​-6 and 10​-4 Torr,
respectively. Hence, the gun column of electron microscopes require vacuum to
facilitate the electrons signals from the sample to the detector for better imaging.

Separate pumps are required because one pump isn’t really capable of doing all
the work but, in conjunction they can provide a good vacuum pressure relatively quickly
and efficiently. A majority of the initial pumping is done by the action of a mechanical
pump often called a roughing pump. The roughing pump operates first during the
pump-down process and has excellent efficiency above 10-2 Torr. Although many
mechanical pumps used in SEMs are capable of producing pressures better than
5x10-5 Torr, a very long pump down time would mostly be required. Pressures lower
than 10-2 Torr are more easily acquired by the action of a turbo-molecular pump.
Turbo-molecular pumps make use of a turbine that rotates at 20,000 to 50,000 rotations
per minute to evacuate gas molecules and particles found inside the column.

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

5. SEM Analysis Process

SEM's ability to supply a controlled electron beam requires the electronic column
to be under the machine with a pressure of at least 5x10​-5 Torr. High relaxation pressure
is required for a variety of reasons. First, the current passing through the cable causes
the cord to reach temperatures of around 2700K. ​Output. ​The hot tungsten wire can turn
out an element and warm it once there's air within the pressure of the atmosphere.
Second, the flexibility of column optics to perform properly needs a clean, dust-free
setting. Third, air and dirt particles within the column will disrupt and block electrons
before they reach the sample chamber pattern [1]. to produce adequate mechanical
pressure within the column, a vacuum system containing 2 or a lot of pumps is usually
out there.

The machine is produced by an oil distribution pump supported by a mechanical

pump. At the distribution pump it attacks the hot oil pressure vapor and pushes the air
molecules towards the pump pump that removes them from the system. A mechanical
pump and valve system are used to remove the front system because the distribution
pump operates only after the creation of a vacuum. If the column is in a gas-filled area,
the electrons will disperse and combine with the air molecules which can lead to
reduced beam stability and stability.

Similarly, other gas molecules, either derived from the sample or the microscope
itself, can form compounds and compounds in the sample. This will reduce the details of
the comparison and mystery in the image. Chemical stability and temperature are
required for efficient thread (gun pressure). The field extraction gun, LaB6 and tungsten
filament require ~ 10​-10​, ~ 10​-6 and 10​-4 Torr, respectively. Therefore, the electron
microscope gun column needs to be filled to simplify the electron signals from the
sample to the detector to get a better image.

Different pumps are required as a result of one pump cannot extremely do all the
work however, along it will give sensible pressure to induce out quickly and quickly.
Most of the initial pumping is finished by the action of a repair pump normally remarked
as a performance pump. The flood pump works initial throughout the bottom pump
method and works alright over 10​-2 mm Hg. Although most machine pumps utilized in
SEMs will turn out pressures higher than 5x10-5 mm Hg, an extended pumping time
could also be needed. Pressures below 10​-2 mm Hg are simply detected by the
operation of a turbo-molecular pump. Turbo-molecular pumps use a rotating rotary

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

engine of twenty,000 to 50,000 revolutions per minute to extract the electrical molecules
and particles found within the column.

The whole process depends on the magnification required. In the event that the
operator requests an enlarged image, the scanning coils make the cross diversion pole
smaller. It should be noted that the working distance, which is the distance from the last
lens to the surface of the template, contributes to magnification, whereas in modern
SEM this is resolved by automatic adjustment. Electron detector to detect extruded
electrons (signals) from a scanned sample.

In the absence of detectors each signal made as a result of an interaction between an

electron pole and a sample surface can produce a single, unambiguous image. Both
secondary electrons (SE) and reverse electrons (BSE) are used to produce SEM image.
When a positive voltage is directed to the collector screen, both SE and BSE will be
collected. However, only BSE will be collected in the event of a negative voltage applied
to the collector screen. The generator displays the Scintillator detector, which can be
used for second and rear electrons.

Signals are then displayed on the view screen and the operator will control the
brightness and power until a clear image is obtained. In the event that small details are
required within the template, an extra magnification (10,000x) should be used. The
electron voltage mode (released from the gun) has an impact on the details provided.
The scanned image will be richer in the upper part if the low speed cables are used
below (5 kV). Conversely, high-speed, medium-density (15-30 kV) cables, which go
underground, will produce a reflective signal from the surface with details in the center
and inside of the sample. Fig. It was introduced to show the different penetration rates
of electrons in the sample and the symbols shown.

The three-dimensional image obtained from SEM depends on the shape of the sample
shape (shape, size and texture). And this depends on the BSE and SE numbers.
Surprisingly, the angle of inclination of the sample surface has a direct effect on
magnifying both the above-mentioned numbers and as a result of spatial variability. The
inclination (or also called inclination angle) above 50o to 70 raises the BSE and SE
signal peaks.

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Fig. 12​ Schematic of SEM Layout and functioning

6. Applications of SEM

SEM's ability to produce high-resolution sample images while maintaining high

resolution has led to SEM being established with a wide range of applications in all
sectors of industry, commerce and research. Some of the applications are included in
this report.

Life sciences

SEM is used in many fields of natural science such as; cell and molecular biology to
investigate cell morphology, microbiology that investigates bacteria and viruses and
their interactions with space, other cells. SEM has allowed the investigation of cellular
response to cryopreservation, which allows the creation of appropriate media to save
space, while minimizing cold damage quickly. SEM has been useful in evaluating the
effects of antibiotics on bacterial morphology and ultrastructure to improve
understanding of how it works. Local production of directly marked proteins in
mitochondria was made possible by SEM. In medicine, SEM has been used to diagnose
tissues and cells and can facilitate the diagnosis. In forensic science, SEM is used to
analyze tracking evidence such as fossils, hair, strands, pieces of paint with glass and

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

fingerprints. SEM can be used to investigate the causes of death, including analysis of
soil around the body or damaged tissue.

Materials science

High-resolution, surprisingly elevated images in SEM are useful within the building
materials science to assess the quality of materials that are guaranteed to be suitable
for the purpose and can be used to predict and prevent asset failures. Research into
innovation depends on gaining a deeper understanding of the new story and its
structures through observation. Industries such as aerospace, electronics, chemistry
and energy rely on SEM when they innovate. Recently, there has been some progress
in the use of nanowire to create new, sensitive, gas sensors. SEM plays a major role in
these developments, allowing the formation of nanowires and greater understanding of
their behavior to improve existing gas-generating mechanisms.

Semiconductor sciences

Detailed environmental data is important in developing semiconductors that perform

best. Therefore, SEM is used within this field to provide fast and accurate
measurements of the formation of semiconductors. Some sophisticated production
processes rely on SEM, which is one of three quality control tools used in these
processes. New electronic devices are shrinking in size; this has led to the need for
SEM research into the workings of new manufacturing and construction methods in the
construction of these small electronic devices. As the demand for electronics in our daily
lives continues to grow, alongside the Internet of Things (compatible computer devices
with different identifiers and the ability to communicate information without the need for
human interaction as smart home devices), product designers strive to create more
accurate, less expensive, and use devices. power well. Studying the microchips and
materials used in these devices can provide a basic understanding of these important
things.

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

7. Conclusion

Electron microscopy scanning is a key tool for studying the effect of physicochemical
properties on phenomena adherence (pH, roughness, topography, temperature, etc).
SEM also plays an important role in assessing the number of young people,
three-dimensional, body shape, size, etc. SEM has proven to be a very important form
of structural investigation, allowing for the visualization of the complete and / or specific
characteristics of biofilms, such as microbial colonies and individual cells, glycocalyx,
and the presence of inanimate products within biofilm. Sure, the Skyning Electron
Microscope (SEM) is a powerful research tool, but as it requires high relaxation
conditions, wet materials and biological samples must go through complex adjustments
that reduce the use of SEM in this type of template and often create artefacts.
Understanding the law of operation of both secondary electron imaging and
electron-based electronics features is essential for a complete knowledge of how the
SEM device works. SEM is characterized by its simple operation. Having that
knowledge one (engineer) can handle analysis and critical thinking fluently. SEM's
ability to produce high-resolution sample images while maintaining high resolution has
led to SEM being established with a wide range of applications in all sectors of industry,
commerce and research.

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

8. References

[1] Guidelines for Detection, Analysis, and Treatment of Materials-Related

Distress in Concrete Pavements: Volume 1”,,Federal Highway Administration Research
and Technology.
[2] Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. Electron Microscopy Solutions.
https://www.fei.com/products/sem/quantasem/ Accessed online on 28-4-2018
[3] Laboratory Testing Inc. Material testing- SEM analysis.
https://www.labtesting.com/services/materialstesting/metallurgical-testing/sem-analysis/.
Accessed online on 3-5-2018.
[4] Electron microanalysis core facilities. Northern Arizona University.
https://nau.edu/cefns/labs/electronmicroprobe/glg-510-class-notes/introduction/#Cathod
e_rays. Accessed online on 4/5/2018
[5] Goldstein, J., I., Newbury, D., E., Echlin, P., Joy, D., C., Lyman, C., E., Lifshin,
E., Linda Sawyer, L. and Michael, J.,R. “Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray
Microanalysis”, Kluwer Academic, New York. (2003).
[6] Nixon, w. “History and early developments of the Scanning Electron
Microscobe within Cambridge University”, Department of Engineering, Cambridge
University, England.
[7] Zworykin, V., K. Hillier, J. and Snyder, R., L. “ASTM Bull” in Hawkes, P. W.
(Ed.) “Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics”, Academic Press, INC., San
Diego, 73(1989): 117-123.
[8] Everhart, T. E. and Thornley, R., F. “Wide-band detector for
micro-microampere low-energy electron currents”, Journal of Science Instruments,
37(1960).
[9] Australian Microscopy and Microanalysis Research Facility, “My
Scope-training for advanced research”
http://www.ammrf.org.au/myscope/sem/background/ Accessed online on 3-5-2018.
[10] A Caen group company, Inorganic Scintillator
Detectors.https://caensys.com/inorganic_sd/. Accessed online on 22-7-2018.
[11]Zhang, R. and Ulery, B. D. “Synthetic Vaccine Characterization and Design”,
American Scientific Publishers, 12(2018): 1-11.
[12] Van Dam, T., J., Sutter, L., L., Smith, K., D., Wade, M., J. and Peterson, K.,
R. “Guidelines for Detection, Analysis and Treatment of Materials- Related Distress in
Concrete Pavements”, Federal Highway Administration, Research Technology and
Development, Virginia, 2(2002): 246.

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

[13] Heirnrich, K., F. and Yakowitz, H. “Quantitative Electron Probe

Microanalysis: Fluorescence Correction Uncertainty”, Microchimica Acta, USA,(1968):
905-916.
[14] Newbury, D., E. “Quantitative Electron Probe Microanalysis”, National
Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, USA. (1995).
[15] Hitachi High Technology America, Inc. Products.
http://www.selectscience.net/product-directory/hitachihigh-technologies-america,-inc/?c
ompID=7443. Accessed online on 25-5-2018.
[16] M.T. Postek, K.S. Howard, A.H. Johnson and K.L. McMichael, Scanning
Electron Microscopy: A Student’s Handbook, (Ladd Research Ind., Inc. Williston, VT.,
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