SPE-187905-MS

Formation Evaluation for Thin Bed Shaly Sand Reservoirs

Alexander Kolomytsev and Alexey Kalistratov, Schlumberger

Copyright 2017, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Russian Petroleum Technology Conference held in Moscow, Russia, 16-18 October 2017.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
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Abstract
When developing oil and gas fields, there are often the reservoirs consisting of alternating thin sedimentary
thin layers of various rocks, clays, siltstone and sandstone (Fig. 1). Current low oil prices driving
reexploration of mature fields and, therefore, the interest in interpretation of such non-standard, thin and/
or low resistivity and low resistivity contrast formations is increasing. Over time, they ceased to be simply
a phenomenon and turned into objects of careful attention. The vertical thickness of these layers varies
from a few millimeters to several centimeters. Such deposits are widespread on the territory of Russia
(Volga-Urals, Timan-Pechora, West Siberian and East Siberian oil and gas provinces, Pre-Caucasian region,
Sakhalin, etc). Thin-bedded Reservoirs are a promising oil and gas objects, but quantification of individual
petrophysical properties of thin layers, such as porosity and saturation, with standard set of logging and
standard methods of interpretation involve considerable complexity. In case of thin-laminated reservoirs
logging data are the averaged characteristics of interlayers of sandstones and clays, with a thickness less
than the vertical resolution of standard logs. In this regard, traditional approaches to data interpretation
in thinly bedded reservoirs do not allow to reliably estimate their reservoir properties to determine the
volumetric parameters for the subsequent estimation of hydrocarbon reserves or even just for involvement
in the development of hydrocarbons.

Figure 1—Silty sand mudstone

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Introduction
Deposition of thin-laminated sediments and classification
Thin-laminated formations can be seen in different conditions of sedimentation (Fig. 2): among the fluvial
sediments, meandering channels, deltaic systems, floodplain and coastal-marine sediments in the littoral
zone of the shallow sea, turbidite systems and deep water marine (Fig. 3). The formation of thin-bedded
reservoirs often caused by rapidly changing facies conditions of sedimentation basin. Such deposits are
represented by thin two or three lithotypes (sandstones, siltstones and clays), creating a layered texture.
In itself a form of layered texture reflects the nature of the traffic environment in which there was an
accumulation of precipitation and are caused by rhythmic oscillations of the intensity of various factors
of sedimentation (pulse speed bottom waters; the reduction or increase in the inwash of clastic material).
Layering often is the decisive criterion to determine the conditions of sediment formation, because it
gives an idea of the strength, direction, constancy or variability of the aquatic environment. According to
the morphological characteristics there are three main forms of stratification: parallel (horizontal), wave
lamination (lenticular, as a special case) and cross-bedding/cross-lamination.

Figure 2—Deposition environment (main types).

Figure 3—Clastic depositional environments

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Horizontal (parallel) layering can be stripe-like, discontinuous and tape. In parallel to the bedding surface
layering are subparallel and close in form to the planes. It is formed by sedimentation in a relatively quiet
and stationary environment, lake and marine basins below the level of wave.
Wavy lamination is wavy-curved surface layers and is formed by the motion of the medium in
two different directions, for example, in the littoral zone of the shallow sea. Lenticular lamination is
characterized by a variety of forms and abrupt changes of capacity of the individual layers until the complete
pinching out. It is formed by the rapid and changeable movement of water or air environment (e.g. river
flows or tidal area of the sea), could be due to periodic inputs in a quiet part of the reservoir more than the
coarse material or erosion of previously suspended material and the irregularities of the bottom.
Cross-bedding is characterized by straight and curved different - or unidirectional surface layers. The
motion of the material in one direction (e.g., river flow, sea currents) formed by unidirectional oblique
layering, and when changing directions of movement of the material (for example, the movement of wind,
sea currents) is mixed. Cross-bedding are a number of varieties – deltaic, fluvial, Eolian, cross. Layering in
all cases will be inclined in the direction of fluid flow (water or air) from which the sediments fall out.
There are can be combinations of different types of lamination in the geological sections. The thickness
of layers can often indicate the relative intensity and duration of their deposition. From the point of view
of sedimentology, sedimentary rocks in layer thicknesses are divided into: Massive laminated (> 100 cm),
Coarse-layered (100-50 cm), Medium-bedded (50-10 cm), Thinly laminated (10-2 cm), Lamellar laminated
(2-0.2 cm) and Microlaminated (< 0.2 cm).
From the point of view of interpretation to thin-layered deposits it is necessary to relate layers whose
individual properties can not be measured by standard logs.

Vertical resolution of modern logs

The vertical resolution of logs is becoming more and more detailed. However, existing and used in practice
modern logs basically do not have sufficient vertical resolution to measure the properties of the individual
layers of the lamellar formation. The maximum vertical resolution for today are electrical microimages,
whose vertical resolution is as high as 0.5 cm and microcylindrically focused log with a vertical resolution
of up to 5 cm. Such standard and necessary logs as gamma, neutron and density logging without the use of
special methods of recording and / or processing have a vertical resolution of about 40-60 cm, which is not
sufficient for separation of lithological different thin layers of rocks and detailed differentiation properties
of these sediments. All nuclear tools require a certain time to generate statistically meaningful counts and
as such, resolution is a function of logging speed and the time constant applied to the tool.
Special methods of recording density logging allow to raise its vertical resolution up to 5 cm, and special
algorithms for processing neutron logging (alpha processing) up to 30 cm. Resistivity measurements, such
as lateral and induction logs, with a maximum vertical resolution of 30 cm for today do not allow to reliably
estimate the water saturation value and, as a consequence, the fluid content. The vertical resolution of
nuclear magnetic logging tools, depending on their modification and recording modes, ranges from 15 to 60
cm, which also does not allow to define the reservoir characteristics of individual thin layers. Acoustic logs
usually have a resolution of about 60 cm. Resolution is also a function of sample rate. Spontaneous potential
log has a variable vertical resolution, depending on the sampling rate and SP amplitude, but generally does
not exceed 15 cm.
Thus, it is obvious that logs are averaged characteristics of interlayers of sandstones and clays, and
measure a generalized vertical information on the investigated section and their vertical resolution does
not allow to measure the physical properties of individual interlayers of a thin-layered formations whose
thickness is the first centimeters. Although the indications of logs in such reservoirs have their own specific
features, thin layers are usually difficult to recognize by a standard logs without the use of microimages
or cores.
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Laminated shaly sand formations have relatively low amplitudes of Spontaneous potential (PS) and
medium or increased natural radioactivity, which are caused by the presence of clay interlayers in the
study zone along with sandstone layers. Such formations are characterized by lowered resistivity, which
are sometimes called low-contrast, which do not allow differentiating oil and water-saturated intervals. A
radial gradient of shallow, medium and deep resistivity curve is sometimes noted, an increased density, a
sufficiently high hydrogen content and, often, the presence of a mud cake.

Methodology
The first methods of working with thin bed reservoirs appeared in the second half of the 70-ies of the last
century. In 1975 an article was published concerning the evaluation of reservoir properties of shaly sand
sediments. It was a work entitled "The distribution of shale in sandstones and its effect upon porosity," the
authors Thomas Estes and Stanley Stieber. Later the technique described in the article called "the method
of Thomas-Stieber". It paved the way for a large number of works on analysis of thin bed formations using
conventional log methods.
To solve the problem of determining the reservoir properties of a thin-layered formations, there are several
approaches. Most methods of working with thin bed shaly sand formations can be divided into three groups.
The first group tries to increase the vertical resolution of the resistivity methods to the vertical resolution
of the methods of "porosity" and "clayiness," in other words, to conduct the deconvolution of resistivity.
Obviously, such approaches are limited in the possibility of interpretation on the minimum thickness of
interlayers and only allow to overcome the difference in the logs resolutions. The use of standard approaches
to the interpretation of log data, even with the use of deconvolutionary approaches (combining data of
high-resolution microimages and standard resolution methods together), often does not allow to evaluate
individual petrophysical properties of thin interlayers, or is laborious and subjective enough.
The second group of methods is based on measuring the anisotropy of the properties of the rocks,
determining the proportion of sandy interlayers and a reliable estimate of their properties. To do this, a
special combination of logs is used, which includes the Triaxial Induction and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
tools. The integrated interpretation of the data of the comprehensive logs suite provides for the application
of a special methodological approach, including the justification of the bimodal water saturation model and
the residual water saturation of the reservoir to obtain a reliable estimate of the formation properties of
laminated shaly sand reservoirs.
The third group aims to determine the net-to-gross ratio and clay content in the lamellar stack, regardless
of its degree of stratification. In addition, the analysis takes into account the effect of clay material present
in the rock in various states. These techniques are the methods of Thomas-Stieber and LowReP (Low
Resistivity Pay)
To identify the layering it can be used both conventional log or core and modern methods, such
as borehole imagers with high vertical resolution. On conventional logs thin bed layering will lead to
unevenness of some methods, for example gamma logging. The allocation of thin bed layering on the core, as
a rule, is not difficult even on core photo. As for borehole imagers, it is possible to allocate bed with thickness
of a few millimeters when appropriate quality and high vertical resolution are obeying. However, none
of the above listed sources of information does not fully solve the problem of determining the estimation
parameters in thin bed formation. Conventional logs, used for calculations of formation properties, will not
work in thin bed formation along of the limited vertical resolution of logs, to the extent that in some cases
the producing interval can be completely ignored in the interpretation. Of course, during the core analysis,
you can easily identify the layering, but the problem is that temporary, technical and financial frameworks of
core recovery intervals are limited. However, even with a good coring there are problems of core recovery,
representativeness of the samples and volume of knowledge. As for modern borehole images, they do not
answer the questions about oil saturation.
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We used two methods for analysis implemented in Techlog: Thomas-Stieber and LowReP (Low
Resistivity Pay).
The methodology of Thomas-Stieber based on the different influence of different types of clayness on
gamma ray and total porosity. Solution of system of linear equations allows to determine the content of sand
and clay fractions in the rock, and also to estimate volumes of different clay types: dispersed, laminated and
structural. The next step is reconstruction of resistivity using the obtained volume fractions. In addition, it
should be noted that methodology has some significant limitations and assumptions. The main limitation is
due to gamma ray. This method implies that the total radioactivity of rocks is due solely to content of clay
fraction. This limitation is not associated with the realization of method explicitly on the object in which
the sandstones have a feldspar composition or in the rock are occur accessory minerals with extremely high
radioactivity, such as monazite in some of clastic Vendian formations of the East Siberian fields.
The method LowReP allows working with different methods of well logging by combining them in
various combinations. The principle of methodology is similar to the construction of volume models. The
solution of linear and nonlinear equations system are realized for different well logs. Equation system
includes equations for resistance, including vertical and horizontal values of shale resistivity. Thus, it
becomes possible to consider the influence of the anisotropy of conductivities of shaly sublayers on value
of measured resistances, including Rv and Rh, obtained with the help of special devices. Using Rv and Rh
can significantly increase the accuracy of calculations in the case of anisotropy of the resistance.
In contrast to the method of Thomas-Stieber, the methodology LowReP is not focused on restoring the
values of true formation resistivity, in fact, resistivity measurements involved in calculations and affect
outcome. In the same way as in the method of the Thomas-Stieber the methodology LowReP allows to
calculate the Volume of different clay types – dispersed, laminated and structural. In addition, the NTG is
calculated, which allows to determine porosity and saturation of sand fraction. This approach provides an
increase in effective thickness in thin bed formation.
The complexity of using the techniques of thin bed analysis is consist in the choice of values of
petrophysical parameters for the components of rock: sandstone, clay, hydrocarbons and formation water.
Especially it is difficult to assess shale properties, because their parameters can vary significantly. Using
results of core analysis is necessary for evaluation of mineral composition.
For quality control can be use information from borehole images with high-resolution, photos and core
analysis results. For quality control of results XRD, grain size analysis and core porosity measurements can
be used. However, using core measurements should be careful and know how was selected the sample. In
addition, a good qualitative indicator for comparing results of the methodology will be macrophotography
of core, in day and in ultraviolet light. Core photographs can be decomposed in RGB channels and using
one or more channels can be computed for different petrophysical parameters such as NTG. Using images
of high resolution can also be carried out as a comparative visual analysis, and carried out, for example,
the analysis of net-to-gross. All of this helps to set thin bed model and to evaluate quality and accuracy
of calculations.
Consider the results of applying methods of thin bed analysis with other interpretation techniques,
including standard.
For account for anisotropy of shale resistivity used Klein plot (Fig. 4). It defines values of vertical and
horizontal resistivity of shales using Rv and Rh measurements obtained by RtScanner tool or analogs.
Thereafter, the resulting values are used in the model. This significantly improves quality of the calculations.
After LowReP analysis becomes possible to divide shale content on different types. Analyzing the results
we can understand reason of properties changing. For example, in interval 2 (Fig. 5) the change in the shale
volume (track 5) leads to a change are calculated water saturation according to Dakhnov-Archie method
(track 9). Actually, the refractive volume of laminated shale (track 6), and the contents dispersed shale (track
7) changes in small range. In other words, the formation becomes more layered, which has an effect on
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resistivity, and thus leads to errors on saturation. In this case, in second interval, the saturation of the sand
is almost constant, which matched so good with results of core data (track 10) and MDT (track 11).

Figure 4—Klein plot

Figure 5—Results of LowReP method. Scale 1:200.

On Track 8 compares the results of NTG calculation from LowReP methodology with same parameters,
but obtained using the method SandCounting on the image of FMI and one of the RGB channels core photo
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in ultraviolet light. In first interval, all the results are in good agreement with the ratio of net-to-gross derived
for grain size analysis of core samples.
In 3th interval, the differences of saturation in the track 10 due to the presence of free water, which is
verified by results of MDT.
The LowReP method works sufficiently accurately even in the shaly sand intervals, the thickness of beds
which does not exceed a few centimeters (Fig. 6). This allows to apply the method in the sections with
different degree of layering.

Figure 6—Copmarison of LowReP results with FMI

Conclusions
Of course, the LowReP is a model with assumptions and limitations, but nonetheless it gives opportunity
to work more effectively with logs in the context of thin bedded formations, and to obtain more accurate
values of estimation parameters. The application of the methods of thin bed analysis in some cases allows
to increase estimates.
The above-described algorithms can work effectively even in the sections with a high degree of layering
and provide petrophysical support.

References
1. The Lowdown on Low-Resistivity Pay. Oilfield Review Autumn 1995. Austin Boyd, Bob Davis,
Charles Flaum, James Klein, Alan Sibbit.
2. The distribution of shale in sandstone and its effect upon porosity. Thomas,E.G. Steiber.S.J.
SPWLA Sixteenth annual logging symposium, June 4-7, 1975.
3. Graphical Analysis of Laminated Sand-Shale Formations in the Presence of Anisotropic Shales.
Chanh Cao Minh, Jean-Baptiste Clavaud, Serge Froment, Emmanuel Caroli, Olivier Billon,
Graham Davis, Richard Fairbairn. SPWLA 48th Annual Logging Symposium, June 3-6, 2007.
4. Sedimentology of Reservoir. O. S. Chernova. Tomsk 2004, UDK 551.3.051.