Table 3.

1 S
​ imilarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (Cell
Ultrastructure)

PROKARYOTIC CELL  EUKARYOTIC CELL 

BASIS 
Anim
Bacteria  Archaea  Protists  Fungi  Plants  als
Plasma 
Bilayer Monolayer Lipid bilayer
membrane 
Number of  Unicellular or
Unicellular Multi-cellular
cells  multi-cellular
Cell wall  Present ??? ??? Present Present
Endoplasmic 
Absent Present
reticulum 
Golgi 
Absent Present
apparatus 
Mitochondria  Absent Present
Chromosome  Circular in general Linear
Ribosome size  70S 80S
Table 3.2 S
​ imilarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells  
(Physiology and Molecular Biochemistry). IV: Cellular Types and Histology  
Plant Tissues  
PROKARYOTIC CELL  EUKARYOTIC CELL 
-Plant tissues are classified into general classifications: meristematic and 
BASIS 
Animal permanent tissues.  
Bacteria  Archaea  Protists  Fungi  Plants 
s   
Site of ATP  Meristematic tissues 
Production 
Plasma membrane Mitochondria
● Found at the growing ends of roots and stems as well as in the peripheral 
Autocri areas of stems.   
Quorum Autocrin ne ● These tissues have the tendency to contain undifferentiated, small and 
Cell to Cell  sensing / e Paracri compact cells. 
??? ??? ???
Signalling  feedback Paracrin ne *​Different meristems for specific plant parts: 
inhibition e Endocri *​Apical meristems 
ne -Located on root tips and shoot tips. 
Storage of  -Responsible for the formation and primary growth of various cells and tissues:  
Genetic  DNA ● Protoderm = dermal tissues 
Material  ● Ground meristem = cortical cells 
Common Molecular 
● Procambium = vascular tissues 
Marker for  16S rRNA gene 18S rRNA gene / Mitochondrial genome
Identification   
*Lateral meristems  
 -Responsible for the horizontal expansion of tissues particularly the cork  Somatic cells (Body Cells) 
cambium and vascular meristem.  -Are diverse in the body of an organism. 
*Intercalary meristems  -Play a physiological role in the overall function of the organism. 
-Responsible for regenerating removed parts of the plant.  Germinal cells (Gametes / Reproductive Cells) 
-Occurs between the old tissue regions of the node and leaf attachment.  -Essential for reproduction. 
  -These cells are destined to become either mature sperms or egg cells. 
Permanent tissues   
-Made of differentiated cells that can be further grouped into as lining tissues,  Table 4.1 Summary of the difference between somatic and germ cells.
fundamental tissues and vascular tissues. 
Lining tissues​ are generally called ​epidermis​.    CHARACTERISTICS  GERM CELL  SOMATIC CELL 
-This is a thin-walled layer of cells that is used for protection.   
Hapliod (one copy of Commonly diploid (two sets
-On some epidermal layers, a thick cuticle of wax is secreted to prevent water  Genetic material 
genetic material) of genetic material)
loss of the plant.   
-In some older plants, the surface of the roots and stems consist of a tissue  Mode of Reproduction  Meiosis Mitosis
made-up of several corky cells that are resistant to water called periderm. 
Fundamental tissues   Localization   Testis and Ovary Found anywhere in the body
-are located at the interior of the plant. This kind of tissue is further classified 
into three: parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma.  Function   Reproduction Systematic physiology
● The most abundant and widely distributed are the ​parenchyma​, which is 
characterized by thin-walled cells and highly diffuse in arrangement.   
● Cells with irregular thickening make up the ​collenchyma ​that makes the  Diversity of Human Cells 
stem of the pechay hard to chew.    ● The ​ovum​ is 120 μm in diameter. The zona pellucida surrounds the ovum. 
● Sclerenchyma​, on the other hand, is made of thick-walled cells that  It contains the haploid genetic material of the organism. 
impart structural support for the plant.    ● The​ sperm​ has a head (5 μm) with compact DNA, body (5 μm) equipped 
with mitochondrion, and tail (50 μm). The frontal head contains an 
➔ This may form a fibrous layer that can also exist as the hard part 
of many seed shells and pits.    enzyme that allows the cell to penetrate the zona pellucida. About 100 
*Two(2) types of sclerenchyma cells, known as sclereids and fibers, are  million sperm count is in the semen. 
specialized entirely for support and strengthening.  ● The ​neuron​ can be 4 – 150 μm with multiple dendrites and a single axon. 
➔ Sclereids​ which are shorter than fibers and irregular in shape, have very  Around 100, 000 networks of neurons may connect with one neuron. 
Spine cell has an axon that is usually 1 m long. 
thick, lignified secondary walls.  
➔ Fibers​, which are usually arranged in threads, are long, slender, and  ● Melanocytes​ are epithelial cells that contain long branches that lie in 
tapered.   keratinocytes. Its function is to pass the pigment to the melanosome. 
*The ​Vascular tissues​ are primarily the xylem and phloem.   Normally, the skin contains 1,500 cells per square millimetre. 
● Xylem ​serves as a continuous passageway for the transport of water and  ● Keratinocytes​ are scale-like structures full of keratin, which is devoid of 
dissolved solutes in an upward direction. Xylem loses their living material  a nucleus or any organelles. 
upon maturity but still retains its function.    ● Muscle fiber cells​ are structurally 10 – 100 μm in diameter, 
● Phloem ​transports the food within the plant body until it remains alive to  multinucleated due to myoblast fusion. The most interior part is 1 – 2 μm 
perform its function.  myofibrils with many mitochondria.  
Animal Tissues   ● Fibroblasts ​are unspecialized cells of connective tissue, which can 
Somatic cells vs Gametes   commit to becoming a cartilage, bone, fat or smooth muscle cells.  
 ● Hepatocytes​ are liver cells that are structurally polyhedral, 20 – 30 μm in 
diameter, and sometimes multinucleated. They are rich in mitochondria, 
endoplasmic reticulum and contain lipid droplets. 
 
*Epithelial tissues 
● Structure​: Polygonal cells that are nearly placed together with very few 
or no extracellular matrix. 
● Functions:  
➔ Shielding the organism against harmful infective agents (e.g. skin) 
Examp​les of Stratified Epithelium: (A) 
➔ Uptake and pre-metabolism of nutrients/drugs (e.g. intestine)  Stratified Non-keratinizing Squamous Epithelium—Esophagus; (B) Stratified Keratinizing Squamous 
➔ Sensation (e.g. neuroepithelium)  Epithelium—Palm of the Hand; (C) Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium—Goblet Cells; (D) Stratified 
  Columnar Epithelium—Larynx; and (E) Transitional Epithelium—Urothelium—Ureter. 
Types of Epithelial Tissue:  ● Glandular Epithelium 
● Simple Epithelium  -Distinct due to cells that function for molecular secretion. 
-Has only one layer of cells.  The different types are classified according to: 
➢ Simple squamous epithelium​ – flat cells with a non-regular outline,  A. Number of cells​ – monocellular or multi-cellular 
closely fitted together to form a sheet. This type of cell is  B. Morphology or shape​ – simple, compound or saccular 
prevalent in the alveoli, endothelium of blood vessels and  C. Types of secretion​ – serous, mucous or mixed serous-mucous 
covering mesothelium of body cavities.  D. Presence or absence of secretory ducts​ – endocrine or exocrine; 
➢ Simple cuboidal epithelium​ – it has a box-shaped structure with  and 
brush border in its cell lining, usually found in kidneys.  E. The integrity of secretory cells​ – holocrine, apocrine and 
➢ Simple columnar epithelium ​– cylindrical with a noticeable height  merocrine 
plus a striated border. It has goblet cells that secrete mucus,   
normally found in the stomach.  *Muscle tissues 
● Stratified Epithelium  ● Structure​: Makes up 40% of a mammal’s body weight. Mainly composed of 
-Comprises of more than one layer of cells  elongated cells. 
-Classified according to the structure of the topmost tissue layer.   
  ● Functions​: For movement and locomotion. Other functions vary 
➢ Stratified squamous epithelium​ – a multilayer of cell groups,  according to its location and type. 
Types of Muscle Tissue (MT): 
often found in the skin that protects the organism from 
● Skeletal Muscle 
bacterial invasion. It can be keratinized or non-keratinized. 
➢ Other Names​: voluntary, striated, striped 
➢ Stratified cuboidal epithelium​ – multi-layered cube-shaped  ➢ Structure​: Very long cells, usually called fibers, subdivided into 
cells fused together in some glands.  units called sarcomeres. Fibers bound together by vascular 
➢ Stratified columnar epithelium​ ​– stratified, elongated cell  connective tissue. 
structure often found in the conjunctiva and human salivary  ➢ Innervation​: Under control of the voluntary nervous system via 
glands.  motor nerves from the brain and spinal cord (neurogenic). 
➢ Transitional epithelium​ – overlapping layers of cells that line the  ➢ Activity​: Powerful, rapid contractions, short refractory period, 
uterus and urinary bladder.  therefore fatigues quickly. 
➢ Locations​: Attached to the skeleton in the trunk, limbs and head. 
 ● Smooth Muscle  differentiation or formation (hematopoiesis) and immunological 
➢ Other Names​: Unstriated, involuntary, unstriped  responses. 
➢ Structure​: Consists of individual, spindle-shaped cells, associated 
in bundles or sheets. 
➢ Innervation​: Under control of autonomic nervous system 
(neurogenic). 
➢ Activity​: Shows sustained rhythmical contraction and relaxation, 
as in peristalsis. 
➢ Locations​: In walls of intestinal, genital, urinary and respiratory 
tracts, and the walls of blood vessels. 
● Cardiac Muscle 
➢ Other Name​: Heart 
➢ Structure​: Cells terminally branched and connected to each other   
by special interdigitating surface processes, the intercalated  Types of Connective Tissue (CT): 
discs. Arrangement of fibers is three-dimensional.  ● Collagenous Connective Tissue 
➢ Innervation​: Myogenic, but rate of contraction can be influenced  ● Structure: made up of type II collagen. 
by the autonomic nervous system.  ● Examples: The fasciae containing loose CT, tendons containing 
➢ Activity​: Rapid rhythmical contraction and relaxation, long  dense regular CT, and the periosteum containing dense irregular 
refractory period, therefore does not fatigue; contraction not  CT. 
sustained.  Examples: (A) Loose Connective Tissue—Lip; (B) Dense Regular Connective 
➢ Location​: Found only in the walls of the heart chambers.  Tissue—Tendon; and (C) Dense Irregular Connective Tissue—Eyelid. 
● Reticular Connective Tissue 
● Structure: made up of type III collagen and usually found in the 
supporting structure of the hematopoietic and lymphoid organs. 
● Examples: The basal lamina and stroma of glandular organs. 
● Elastic Connective Tissue 
● Structure: made up of type II collagen containing retractile fibers 
with elastin. 
● Examples: Usually found in the trachea, bronchi and blood vessels. 
Examples: (A) Elastic Fibers—Auricle (Ear Flap); (B) Trachea; and (C and D) Descending 
Thoracic Aorta. 
● Elastic Connective Tissue 
● Structure: made up of type II collagen containing retractile fibers 
  with elastin. 
  ● Examples: Usually found in the trachea, bronchi and blood vessels. 
Connective tissues  Examples: (A) Elastic Fibers—Auricle (Ear Flap); (B) Trachea; and (C and D) Descending 
● Structure​: Groups of tissue that structurally differ according to their  Thoracic Aorta. 
localization. They can be fibrous, elastic, reticular or collagenous.  Connective Tissues with Special Properties 
● Functions​: They are important for support, protection, transport,  ● Adipose tissue​ – acts as insulator via fat storage and does mechanical 
insulation and repair. They are also responsible for blood cell  support. 
 ● Mucous connective tissue​ – found in the umbilical cord and young tooth  ● They play a central role in immunological defence mechanisms. 
pulp. 
Examples: (A) Adipose Tissue; (B) White Adipose Tissue; (C) Brown Adipose Tissue; and 
(D, E and F) Embryonic Connective Tissue—Gelatinous or Mucous Tissue. 
Specialized Connective Tissue: 
● Blood and lymph​ – structurally fiber in dry form that functions primarily 
for gas exchange, immunity, hormonal transport, etc. 
● Cartilage​ – structurally made up of elastic fibers and collagen. Its 
function is for support and flexibility. 
● Bones​ – structurally a rigid connective tissue composed of osteoblasts, 
osteocytes, and osteoclasts plus a calcified matrix of organic (collagen 
and polysaccharides) and inorganic materials (E.g. calcium).  
➔ Can be cancellous/spongy (irregular branching bony spicules) or 
compact (concentric layer surrounding the Harvesian system). 
Erythrocytes / Red Blood Cells (RBCs) 
● These are structurally flat, biconcave discs, about 7.2 μm in diameter. 
● It does not contain mitochondria, nucleus and ribosomes. 
● They have a lifespan of 120 days. 
● There are normally 5 million cells per blood sample and their function is 
to transport oxygen and nutrients. 
Leukocytes / White Blood Cells (WBCs)   
● More like “typical” cells with single nucleus and organelles.   
● Five (5) types of WBCs characterized as granular or agranular.  *Nerve Tissues 
● Average 6000 – 9000 WBCs/cubic millimetre of blood.  ● Structure: Composed of densely packed interconnected nerve cells called 
● Variable life span depending on type of WBC – days (neutrophils) to  neurons (as many as 1010 in the human brain). Little intercellular space 
decades (lymphocytes); in sick people, some WBCs live minutes to hours.  between them. Also contains receptor cells, and is frequently ensheathed 
● All function in defence.  by vascularized connective tissue. 
Thrombocytes / Platelets  ● Functions: Receives stimuli from the environment and internal signals, 
● They are about 3 – 5 μm of highly structured cytoplasm with a lifespan of  which produce relay functionality. The functionality is dependent on 
8 days.  synapses, which serve as the site for the physiological relay if signals. 
● Normally 200, 000 cells are in μL of blood sample.  Classification of neurons is based on: 
● They function in blood clotting mechanisms.  Function 
Megakaryocytes  Sensory neurons ​– responsible for transmission of signals from the environment 
● They are 35 – 150 μm in diameter, which has a lobulated nucleus  or other parts of the body to the central nervous system (CNS). 
containing 8 – 32 genomes formed by endomitosis.  Interneurons​ – for the integration and processing signals. 
● They serve as the origin of platelets.  Motor neurons​ – command the effector organs. 
Lymphocytes  A number of processes 
● They are 6 – 8 μm in diameter and with a minute cytoplasm.  Unipolar ​– one process 
● Normally, there are 5, 000 cells per μL of blood sample.  Bipolar ​– two processes 
● Their lifespan is ½ - 1 day.  Multipolar ​– multiple processes 
The length of signal relay  ● Microorganisms use these two (2) special modifications to move to an 
Interneurons ​– small neurons (connector) whose axons are contained within a  area that is favourable for their growth or to their target cells. 
specific area of the brain.  ● Sperm cells are haploid and contain a flagellum to swim through the 
Projection neurons (excitatory)​ – have long axons projecting to distant targets  vagina. 
or other brain regions.  PILI 
Chemical messenger   ● Often present in pathogenic bacteria. 
Cholinergic (e.g., acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter)  ● Modifications that enable bacteria to adhere to tissue surfaces. 
Adrenergic (e.g., epinephrine and norephinephrine)  DENDRITES AND AXON OF THE NERVE CELLS 
Dopaminergic (e.g., dopamine)  ● Neurons are specialized cells of the nervous system responsible for 
Serotonergic (e.g., serotonin)  transmitting electrical signals that need to travel relatively long 
distances to various parts of the body. 
➔ Dendrites – a cellular process (cytoplasmic extension) that receives an 
electrical signal from another neuron. 
➔ Axon – transmit an electrical signal from the cell body to another neuron. 
ACTIN AND MYOSIN 
● A pair of special proteins mainly comprises the muscle cells. 
● Permits the muscle to contract and elongate for organism activity. 
ENUCLEATED RED BLOOD CELL 
● Red blood cell (RBC) does not contain a nucleus but contains large 
amounts of haemoglobin to transport oxygen throughout the body. 
ROOT HAIRS 
  ● Specialized epidermal cells of plants that increase the apparent area of 
  roots. 
V. CELLULAR MODIFICATIONS  ● These cells are widely believed to play an important role in plant 
-To survive and to have a comprehensive systemic physiology, organisms have  nourishment by enabling the absorption of minerals and water from the 
developed some modifications in their cell structure. These modifications  environment. 
facilitate the acquisition of their needs and their adaptation to a changing   
environment. Cells do not look the same. Depending on their function, cells vary   
structurally.   
SPORES   
● Spore formation​ is a special modification in bacteria.   
● Particularly functions as a defence mechanism to heat, high pressure and   
stress.   
● The spore will transform into a new organism once exposed to a more   
favourable environment.  
● Usually contain 30% water. 
FLAGELLA AND CILIA 
● Flexible membrane extensions structures and often made up of tubulin 
proteins.