1.

INTRODUCTION

Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes or other fruits.

The natural chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the addition
of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the
sugars in the grapes and converts them into alcohol. Different varieties of
grapes and strains of yeasts produce different types of wine. The well-known
variations result from the very complex interactions between the biochemical
development of the fruit, reactions involved in fermentation, and human
intervention in the overall process. The final product may contain tens of
thousands of chemical compounds in amounts varying from a few percent to a
few parts per billion.

Wines made from fruits besides grapes are usually named after the fruit from
which they are produced (for example, pomegranate wine, apple
wine and elderberry wine) and are generically called fruit wine. The term
"wine" can also refer to starch-fermented or fortified beverages having higher
alcohol content, such as barley wine or sake.
Wine has a rich history dating back thousands of years, with the earliest known
production occurring around 6000 BC in Georgia. It first appeared in
the Balkans about 4500 BC and was very common in ancient
Greece, Thrace and Rome. Wine has also played an important role in religion
throughout history. The Greek god Dionysus and
the Roman equivalent, Bacchus, represented wine. The drink is also used
in Christian Eucharist ceremonies and the Jewish Kiddush.

The English word "wine" comes from the Proto-Germanic *winam, an early

borrowing from the Latin vinum, "wine" or "(grape) vine", itself derived from
the Proto-Indo-European stem *win-o (cf. Hittite: wiyana; Lycian:oino; Ancient
Greek: οἶνος oinos; Aeolic Greek: ϝοῖνος woinos).

The earliest attested terms referring to wine are the Mycenaean Greek me-tu-wo

ne-wo (μέθυος νέου), meaning "the month of new wine" or "festival of the new
wine", and wo-no-wa-ti-si, meaning "wine garden", written in Linear
B inscriptions.

Some scholars have noted the similarities between the words for wine in 
Kartvelian 
(e.g. Georgian ), IndoEuropeanlanguages (e.g. Russian вино [vino]),
and Semitic (*wayn), pointing to the possibility of a common origin of the word
denoting "wine" in these language families. Some scholars have argued that
Georgian was the origin of this word and that it entered into the Indo-European
languages via Semitic. The proponents of this view have argued that in
Kartvelian languages the semantic connection of the word "wine" (ღვინო -
ghvino, ღვინი - ghvini, ღვინალ - ghvinal) is traced to the verb "ghvivili"
(ღვივილი, to bloom, to arouse, to boil, to ferment) and the root of "ghv" (ღვ),
which is a common semantic root for many common Kartvelian words (e.g.
"gaghvidzeba", გაღვიძება - to awaken, "ghvidzli" - ღვიძლი - liver).

Wines from other fruits, such as apples and berries, are usually named after the
fruit from which they are produced combined with the word "wine" (for
example, apple wine and elderberry wine) and are generically called fruit
wine or country wine (not to be confused with the French term vin de pays).
Besides the grape varieties traditionally used for winemaking, most fruits
naturally lack either a high amount of fermentable sugars, relatively low acidity,
yeast nutrients needed to promote or maintain fermentation or a combination of
these three characteristics. This is probably one of the main reasons why wine
derived from grapes has historically been more prevalent by far than other types
and why specific types of fruit wine have generally been confined to regions in
which the fruits were native or introduced for other reasons.

Other wines, such as barley wine and rice wine (e.g. sake), are made from

starch-based materials and resemble beer more than wine, while ginger wine is
fortified with brandy. In these latter cases, the term "wine" refers to the
similarity in alcohol content rather than to the production process. The
commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other
languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.
 2. HISTORY

Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest known production of wine,

made by fermenting grapes, took place from the late Neolithic or
early Chalcolithic, possibly as early as the sixth millennium BC, between
theCaucasus and the Middle East, with evidence of winemaking at different
sites dated from 6000 BC in Georgia, 5000 BC in Iran, and 4100 BC
in Armenia.During an extensive gene-mapping project in 2006, archaeologists
analyzed the heritage of more than 110 modern grape cultivars, narrowing their
origin to a region in Georgia, where wine residues were also discovered on the
inner surfaces of 8,000-year-old ceramic storage jars. Chemical analysis of
7,000-year-old pottery shards indicated early winemaking in the Neolithic
village of Hajji Firuz Tepe in Iran's Zagros Mountains. Other notable areas of
wine production have been discovered in Greece and date back to 4500 BC. The
same sites also contain the world's earliest evidence of crushed
grapes. A winemaking press found in 2011 in the Areni-1 site of Armenia has
been dated to around 4100 BC.

However, the spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the
Phoenicians who were centered on the coastal strip of today’s Lebanon – itself
one of the world’s oldest sites of wine production.The wines of Byblos were
exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom (2686 BC–2134 BC) and throughout
the Mediterranean. Evidences include two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC
discovered by Robert Ballard, whose cargo of wine was still intact.As the first
great traders of wine ('Cherem'), the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from
oxidation with a layer of olive oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin -
this may well be the origin of the Greek retsina.

Literary references to wine are abundant in Homer (8th century BC, but

possibly composed even earlier), Alkman (7th century BC), and others.
In ancient Egypt, six of 36 wine amphoras were found in the tomb of
KingTutankhamun bearing the name "Kha'y", a royal chief vintner. Five of
these amphoras were designated as originating from the king's personal estate,
with the sixth from the estate of the royal house of Aten. Traces of wine have
also been found in central Asian Xinjiang in modern-day China, dating from the
second and first millennia BC.

Pressing wine after the harvest;Tacuinum Sanitatis, 14th century

The first known mention of grape-based wines in India is from the late 4th-
century BC writings of Chanakya, the chief minister of Emperor Chandragupta
Maurya. In his writings, Chanakya condemns the use of alcohol while
chronicling the emperor and his court's frequent indulgence of a style of wine
known as madhu.

A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed

with rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in China in the early years of
the seventh millennium BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan,
contained traces of tartaric acid and other organic compounds commonly found
in wine. However, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn,
cannot be ruled out. If these beverages, which seem to be the precursors of rice
wine, included grapes rather than other fruits, they would have been any of the
several dozen indigenous wild species in China, rather than Vitis vinifera, which
was introduced there some 6,000 years later.

One of the lasting legacies of the ancient Roman Empire was

the viticultural foundation laid by the Romans in the areas that today are world-
renowned wine regions. In places with garrison towns (e.g. Bordeaux, Trier,
andColchester), the Romans planted vineyards to supply local needs and limit
the cost of long-distance trading.In medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic
Church supported wine because the clergy required it for
the Mass.Monks in France made wine for years, aging it in caves. An old
English recipe that survived in various forms until the 19th century calls for
refining white wine from bastard—bad or tainted bastardo wine.

In the past decade, the archeological proof of winemaking, even wine

technology, has been unearthed in several Neolithic sites in the Zagros
Mountains of North-Eastern Iran[1,2]. The oldest site to date is called Hajji
Firuz Tepe and is dated 5,400-5,000BC. ‘Tepe’ (or rather ‘tappe’, in Farsi)
refers to a small hill or mound, something an archeologist would dig up when
looking for an ancient site.

Six wine jars (each about 10 inches tall, with a capacity of about 2.5 gallons)
were found. The proof that they did contain wine comes from the chemical
analysis of the residue in the jars. The infra-red absorption spectra show the
presence of tartaric acid and its salt, calcium tartrate. Tartaric acid is the main
acid of grapes and occurs naturally only in wine. One often sees the tiny crystals
in the deposit at the bottom of a glass of (a few years old) wine. They look like
tiny grains of salt. The German name is Weinstein, literally ‘wine-stone’.
.

3. GRAPE VARIETIES AND STRUCTURE

Grape vineyard Vitis vinifera sylvestris

Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species Vitis

vinifera,such as  Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Gamay,p and Merlot. When
one of these varieties is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law
as minimums of 75% to 85%), the result is a "varietal" as opposed to a
"blended" wine. Blended wines are not considered inferior to varietal wines,
rather they are a different style of winemaking; some of the world's most highly
regarded wines, from regions like Bordeaux and the Rhone Valley, are blended
from different grape varieties.

Wine can also be made from other species of grape or from hybrids, created by
the genetic crossing of two species. V. labrusca (of which the Concord grape is
a cultivar), V. aestivalis, V. ruprestris, V. rotundifolia andV. riparia are
native North American grapes usually grown to eat fresh or for grape juice, jam,
or jelly, and only occasionally made into wine.
Hybridization is different from grafting. Most of the world's vineyards are
planted with European V. vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North
American species' rootstock, a common practice due to their resistance
to phylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine. In the late 19th century,
most of Europe's vineyards (excluding some of the driest in the south) were
devastated by the infestation, leading to widespread vine deaths and eventual
replanting. Grafting is done in every wine-producing region in the world except
in Argentina, the Canary Islands and Chile—the only places not yet exposed to
the insect.

In the context of wine production, terroir is a concept that encompasses the

varieties of grapes used, elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry
of soil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the local yeast cultures. The range
of possible combinations of these factors can result in great differences among
wines, influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes as well.
Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate
the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir.[33] However, flavor
differences are less desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other
cheaper wines, where consistency takes precedence. Such producers try to
minimize differences in sources of grapes through production techniques such
as micro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin-film
evaporation, and spinning cones.

Viticulture

The harvesting of healthy, ripe grapes is the end of a successful annual vineyard
cycle and the beginning of the work in the winery. The grower and winemaker
are both aware that any deficiencies in the quality of fruit will affect not only
quality but also profitability. Although the juice of the grape is seen as the
essential ingredient in the winemaking process, other constituents also have
roles of varying importance.
1.1The structure of the grape berry
1.Pulp
2.Pip Bloom
3.Skin
4.Stem

1.1.1 Stalks
Stalks contain tannins that may give a bitter taste to the wine. The winemaker
may choose to destem the grapes completely before they are crushed.
Alternatively, the stalks, or a small proportion of them, may be left on to
increase the tannin in red wine to give extra structure. However, if the stalks are
not removed, they perform a useful task in the pressing operation by acting as
drainage channels.

1.1.2 Skins
Skins contain colouring matters, aroma compounds, flavour constituents and
tannins. The outside waxy layer with its whitish hue is called bloom. This
contains yeasts and bacteria. Below this we find further layers containing
complex substances called polyphenols, which can be divided into two groups:

(1) Anthocyanins (black grapes) and flavones (white grapes) give grapes their
colour and as phenolic biflavanoid compounds they form antioxidants and
thus give health-giving properties to wine.

(2) Tannins are bitter compounds that are also found in stalks and pips. They
can, if unripe or not handled correctly, give dried mouth feel on the palate.
Tannin levels are higher in red wines where more use is made of the skins and
stalks in the winemaking and with greater extraction than in white and rosé
wines. Some varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and Nebbiolo contain
high levels of tannins, others such as Gamay have much lower levels.

1.1.3 Yeasts
Yeasts are naturally occurring micro-organisms which are essential in the
fermentation process. Yeasts attach themselves to the bloom on the grape skins.
There are two basic groups of yeast present on the skins: wild yeasts and wine
yeasts. Wild yeasts (mostly of the genus Klöckera and Hanseniaspora), need air
in which to operate. Once in contact with the grape sugars, they can convert
these sugars to alcohol, but only up to about 4% alcohol by volume (ABV), at
which point they die. Wine yeasts, of the genus Saccharomyces, then take over
and continue to work until either there is no more sugar left or an alcoholic
strength of approximately 15% has been reached, at which point they die
naturally.

1.1.4 Pulp
The pulp or flesh contains juice. If you peel the skin of either a green or black
skinned grape, the colour of the flesh is generally the same. The actual juice of
the grape is almost colourless, with the very rare exception of a couple of
varieties that have tinted flesh. The pulp/ flesh contains water, sugars, fruit acids,
proteins and minerals.
• Sugars: when unripe, all fruits contain a high concentration of acids and low
levels of sugar. As the fruit ripens and reaches maturity, so the balance changes,
with sugar levels rising and acidity falling. Photosynthesis is the means by
which a greater part of this change occurs. Grape sugars are mainly represented
by fructose and glucose. Sucrose, although present in the leaves and phloem
tubes of the vine, has no significant presence in the grape berry. As harvest
nears, the producer can measure the rise in sugar levels by using a refractometer.
• Acids: by far the most important acids found in grapes are tartaric acid and
malic acid, the latter being of a higher proportion in unripe grapes. During the
ripening process, tartaric acid then becomes the principal acid. Tartaric acid is in
important role in wine giving a refreshing, mouth- watering taste and also not
commonly in plants other than vines. Acids have an give stability and perhaps
longevity to the finished wine. There are tiny amounts of other acids present in
grapes, including acetic and citric.

• Minerals: potassium is the main mineral present in the grape pulp, with a
concentration of up to 2500mg/l. Of the other minerals present, none has a
concentration of more than 200mg/l, but the most significant are calcium and
magnesium.

1.1.5 Pips
Pips or seeds vary in size and shape according to grape variety. Unlike with
stalks, there is no means of separating them on reception at the winery. If
crushed, they can impart astringency to the wine due to their bitter oils and hard
tannins. As we shall see later, today’s modern presses take account of this.
 4. CLASSIFICATION

Wine grapes on a vine

Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions of the
world. European wines tend to be classified by region
(e.g. Bordeaux, Rioja and Chianti), while non-European wines are most often
classified by grape (e.g. Pinot Noir and Merlot). Market recognition of
particular regions has recently been leading to their increased prominence on
non-European wine labels. Examples of recognized non-European locales
include NapaValley  and  SonomaValley in California; Willamette
Valley in Oregon; Columbia Valley in Washington; Barossa Valley in South
Australia and Hunter Valley in New South Wales; Luján de Cuyo in Argentina;
Central Valley in Chile; Vale dos Vinhedos in Brazil; Hawke's
Bay and Marlborough in New Zealand; and Okanagan Valley and Niagara
Peninsula in Canada.

Some blended wine names are marketing terms whose use is governed
by trademark law rather than by specific wine laws. For
example, Meritage (sounds like "heritage") is generally a Bordeaux-style blend
of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, but may also include Cabernet Franc, Petit
Verdot, and Malbec. Commercial use of the term Meritage is allowed only via
licensing agreements with the Meritage Association.

European classifications

Moscato d'Asti, a DOCGwine

France has various appellation systems based on the concept of terroir, with

classifications ranging from Vin de Table ("table wine") at the bottom,
through Vin de Pays and Appellation d'Origine Vin Délimité de Qualité
Supérieure (AOVDQS), up to Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) or
similar, depending on the region. Portugal has developed a system resembling
that of France and, in fact, pioneered this concept in 1756 with a royal charter
creating the Demarcated Douro Region and regulating the production and trade
of wine. Germany created a similar scheme in 2002, although it has not yet
achieved the authority of the other countries' classification
systems. Spain, Greece and Italy have classifications based on a dual system of
region of origin and product quality.

Beyond Europe
New World wines—those made outside the traditional wine regions of Europe
—are usually classified by grape rather than by terroir or region of origin,
although there have been unofficial attempts to classify them by quality.

 Vintages

A "vintage wine" is made from grapes that were all or mostly grown in a
particular year, and labeled as such. Some countries allow a vintage wine to
include a small portion that is not from the labeled vintage. Variations in a
wine's character from year to year can include subtle differences in color, palate,
nose, body and development. High-quality wines can improve in flavor with age
if properly stored. Consequently, it is not uncommon for wine enthusiasts and
traders to save bottles of an especially good vintage wine for future
consumption.

In the United States, for a wine to be vintage-dated and labeled with a country

of origin or American Viticultural Area (AVA) (e.g. Sonoma Valley), 95% of
its volume must be from grapes harvested in that year. If a wine is not labeled
with a country of origin or AVA the percentage requirement is lowered to 85%.

Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will
have a similar taste. Climate's impact on the character of a wine can be
significant enough to cause different vintages from the same vineyard to vary
dramatically in flavor and quality. Thus, vintage wines are produced to be
individually characteristic of the particular vintage and to serve as the flagship
wines of the producer. Superior vintages from reputable producers and regions
will often command much higher prices than their average ones. Some vintage
wines (e.g. Brunello), are only made in better-than-average years.
For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage,
which helps winemakers sustain a reliable market image and maintain sales
even in bad years. One recent study suggests that for the average wine drinker,
the vintage year may not be as significant for perceived quality as had been
thought, although wine connoisseurs continue to place great importance on it.

5. RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE

Ancient religions

The use of wine in religious ceremonies is common to many cultures and

regions. Libations often included wine, and the religious mysteries of Dionysus
used wine as a sacramental entheogen to induce a mind-altering state.

Judaism

Wine is an integral part of Jewish laws and traditions. The Kiddush is a blessing

recited over wine or grape juice to sanctify the Shabbat. On Pesach (Passover)
during the Seder, it is a Rabbinic obligation of adults to drink four cups of
wine. In the Tabernacle and in the Temple in Jerusalem, the libation of wine
was part of the sacrificial service. Note that this does not mean that wine is a
symbol of blood, a common misconception that contributes to the myth of
the blood libel. The blessing over wine said before consuming the drink
is: "Baruch atah Hashem (Adonai) Eloheinu melech ha-olam, boray p’ree
hagafen"—"Praised be the Lord, our God, King of the universe, Creator of the
fruit of the vine."

Christianity
All alcohol is prohibited under Islamic law, although there has been a long
tradition of drinking wine in some Islamic areas, especially in Persia.

In Christianity, wine is used in a sacred rite called the Eucharist, which

originates in the Gospel account of the Last Supper (Gospel of Luke 22:19)
describing Jesus sharing bread and wine with his disciples and commanding
them to "do this in remembrance of me." Beliefs about the nature of the
Eucharist vary among denominations (see Eucharistic theologies contrasted).

While some Christians consider the use of wine from the grape as essential for
the validity of the sacrament, many Protestants also allow (or
require) pasteurized grape juice as a substitute. Wine was used in Eucharistic
rites by all Protestant groups until an alternative arose in the late 19th
century. Methodist dentist and prohibitionist Thomas Bramwell Welch applied
new pasteurization techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of grape
juice. Some Christians who were part of the growing temperance
movement pressed for a switch from wine to grape juice, and the substitution
spread quickly over much of the United States, as well as to other countries to a
lesser degree. There remains an ongoing debate between some
American Protestant denominations as to whether wine can and should be used
for the Eucharist or allowed as an ordinary beverage.

Islam

Alcoholic beverages, including wine, are forbidden under most interpretations

of Islamic law. Iran had previously had a thriving wine industry that
disappeared after the Islamic Revolution in 1979. In Greater Persia,mey (Persian
wine) was a central theme of poetry for more than a thousand years, long before
the advent of Islam. Some Alevi sects use wine in their religious services.
Certain exceptions to the ban on alcohol apply. Alcohol derived from a source
other than the grape (or its byproducts) and the date is allowed in "very small
quantities" (loosely defined as a quantity that does not cause intoxication) under
the Sunni Hanafi madhab, for specific purposes (such as medicines), where the
goal is not intoxication. However, modern Hanafi scholars regard alcohol
consumption as totally forbidden

6. WINE MAKING PROCEDURE

Crushing:
The grapes are hand picked and transferred to the crusher. The crusher
punchers the grapes and transfers it to a de-juicer which separates the pulp from
the juice. While the skin, the stems and other remains from the crushing are
used as manure, the juice is sent for fermentation. Grapes can (and might still)
be crushed by stomping on them with your feet in a big vat. But a more
practical way is to use a machine which does the job (and at the same time,
removes the stems). Separation may not immediately occur (especially for red
wines), since skins and stems are an important source of "tannins" which affect
wine's taste and maturity through aging. The skins also determine the color of
the wine. Maceration (the time spent while skins and seeds are left with the
juice) will go on for a few hours or a few weeks. Pressing will then occur. One
way to press the grapes is to use a "bladder press," a large cylindrical container
that contains bags that are inflated and deflated several times, each time gently
squeezing the grapes until all the juice has run free, leaving behind the rest of
the grapes. You can also separate solids from juice through the use of a
centrifuge.

Fermentation:
 The grape juice is first chilled in a combination of stainless steel tanks and
oak barrels and then fermented by adding yeast. This process is called the first
fermentation of wine and it takes about 8 weeks.

Maturation:
The first fermentation wine is further stored in tanks and/or oak barrels for 6-
8 months for maturation.
Bottling:
Once the mature wine is ready, it is stabilized through cold treatment. After
testing the stability of the wine, it then is filtered to screen the balance fine
particles. The filtered wine is then packed in bottles, which are washed
internally and externally with double filtered water to remove bacteria and
germs.

Figure 1 Operations in a winery

 Figure 2: Flow diagram of Red Grape Wine

Selection of grapes ------- Mature and undamaged grapes

Crushing ------------Traditionally manually, but now by crushers
Pre- fermentation--------- 24 hours to three weeks depending on colour required
Removal of skin----------- Can add sulphur dioxide to inhibit wild yeasts
Fermentation --------------- Ageing to develop aromas and flavours
Maturation
Figure 3: Flow diagram of White Grape Wine

Selection of grapes ------- Mature and undamaged grapes

Crushing ------------------- Traditionally manually, but now by crushers
Removal of skin----------- By standing, filtration or centrifugation
Clarification
Fermentation
Ageing

Fermentation
Yeast also gives flavor to the wine. But the yeast that is on the grape skin when
it is harvested may not have the desired flavor. Other things on the outside of a
grape are not good for wine (for example, acetic bacteria on the grapes can
cause the wine to turn to vinegar). The winemaker can eliminate unwanted
yeast's, molds and bacteria, most commonly by using the "universal
disinfectant," sulfur dioxide. Unfortunately, the sulfites which remain in the
wine may cause a lot of discomfort to some wine drinkers. Some winemakers
prefer NOT to do this, and purposely create wines that are subject to the
vagaries (and different flavors) of the yeast that pre-exist on the grapes ("wild
yeast fermentation"). The winemaker has many different yeast strains to choose
from (and can use different strains at different times during the process for
better control fermentation). The most common wine yeast is Saccharomyces.
A less modern, but still widely used way to ferment wine is to place it in small
oak barrels. "Barrel fermentation" is usually done at a lower temperature in
temperature controlled rooms and takes longer, perhaps around 6 weeks. The
longer fermentation and use of wood contributes to the flavor (and usually
expense) of the wine. The skins and pulp which remain in a red wine vat will
rise to and float on top of the juice. This causes problems (if it dries out, it's a
perfect breeding ground for injurious bacteria), so the winemaker will push this
"cap" back down into the juice, usually at least twice a day. In
large vats, this is accomplished by pumping juice from the bottom of the vat
over the top of the cap. Eventually the yeast is no longer changing sugar to
alcohol (though different strains of yeast, which can survive in higher and
higher levels of alcohol, can take over and contribute their own flavor to the
wine-as well as converting a bit more sugar to alcohol. After all this is
completed what you have left is the wine, "dead" yeast cells, known as "lees and
various other substances.

Malo-lactic fermentation
The winemaker may choose to allow a white wine to undergo a second
fermentation which occurs due to malic acid in the grape juice. When malic acid
is allowed to break down into carbon dioxide and lactic acid (thanks to bacteria
in the wine), it is known as "malo-lactic fermentation," which imparts additional
flavor to the wine. A "buttery" flavor in some whites is due to this process. This
process is used for sparkling wines.

First racking
After fermentation completed naturally or stopped by addition of distilled spirit,
first racking is carried out. This involves the wine to stand still until most yeast
cells and fine suspended material settle out. The wine is then filtered without
disturbing the sediment or the yeast.

Winery aging
The winery may then keep the wine so that there can be additional clarification
and, in some wines, to give it a more complex flavors. Flavor can come from
wood (or more correctly from the chemicals that make up the wood and are
taken up into the wine). The wine may be barrel aged for several months to
several years. No air is allowed to enter the barrels during this period. Ignoring
any additional processing that might be used, you could empty the barrels into
bottles and sell your wine. However, during the winery aging, the smaller
containers may develop differences. So the winemaker will probably "blend"
wine from different barrels, to achieve a uniform result. Also, the winemaker
may blend together different grape varieties to achieve desired characteristics.

Stabilization, filtration
Stabilization is carried out to remove traces of tartaric acid. These tartarates
present in the grape juice tend to crystallize in wine and if not removed
completely can slowly reappear as glass like crystals in final bottles on storage .
Stabilization with respect to tartarates may involve chilling of wine that can
crystallize tartarates and these crystals can be removed by filtration.

Pasteurization
If the wine has an alcohol content less than 14% it may be heat pasteurized or
cold pasteurized through microporous filters just before bottling.

Bottling wine
Producers often use different shaped bottles to denote different types of wine.
Colored bottles help to reduce damage by light. (Light assists in oxidation and
breakdown of the wine into chemicals, such as mercaptan, which are
undesirable). Bottle sizes can also vary.

Storing wine
For wines that should be aged, a cellar should have proper :Temperature which
does not have rapid fluctuation. 55 degrees Fahrenheit is a good, but you can
live with 50 to 57 degrees Fahrenheit (10 to 14 degrees Centigrade). Wide
swings in temperature will harm the wine. Having too high a temperature will
age the wine faster so it won't get as complex as it might have. Having too low a
temperature will slow the wine's maturation.Humidity. About 60 percent is
right. This helps keep the cork moist. The wine will oxidize if the air (and its
oxygen) gets to it. If the cork dries out, it can shrink and let air in. This is
another reason to keep the bottles on their sides. The wine itself will help keep
the cork moist.

 Lack of light.
 Lack of vibration.
 Lack of strong odors.

Whatever it is that is causing the odor stands a good chance of getting through
the cork and into the wine.

7. Tasting and collecting

 Judging color is the first step in tasting a wine.

Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. Wines

contain many chemical compounds similar or identical to those in fruits,
vegetables, and spices. The sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of
residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in
the wine. Dry wine, for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar.

Some wine labels suggest opening the bottle and letting the wine "breathe" for a
couple of hours before serving, while others recommend drinking it
immediately. Decanting (the act of pouring a wine into a special container just
for breathing) is a controversial subject among wine enthusiasts. In addition to
aeration, decanting with a filter allows the removal of bitter sediments that may
have formed in the wine. Sediment is more common in older bottles, but
aeration may benefit younger wines.

During aeration, a younger wine's exposure to air often "relaxes" the drink,
making it smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older
wines generally "fade" (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended
aeration. Despite these general rules, breathing does not necessarily benefit all
wines. Wine may be tasted as soon as the bottle is opened to determine how
long it should be aerated, if at all When tasting wine, individual flavors may
also be detected, due to the complex mix of organic molecules
(e.g. esters and terpenes) that grape juice and wine can contain. Experienced
tasters can distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape and
flavors that result from other factors in winemaking. Typical intentional flavor
elements in wine—chocolate, vanilla, or coffee—are those imparted by aging in
oak casks rather than the grape itself.

Banana flavors (isoamyl acetate) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are
spoilage aromas such as sweaty, barnyard, band-aid (4-ethylphenol and 4-
ethylguaiacol), and rotten egg (hydrogen sulfide). Some varietals can also
exhibit a mineral flavor due to the presence of water-soluble salts as a result of
limestone's presence in the vineyard's soil.

Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds released into the air. Vaporization
of these compounds can be accelerated by twirling the wine glass or serving at
room temperature. Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are already
highly aromatic, like Chinon and Beaujolais.

The ideal temperature for serving a particular wine is a matter of debate, but
some broad guidelines have emerged that will generally enhance the experience
of tasting certain common wines. A white wine should foster a sense of
coolness, achieved by serving at "cellar temperature" (55°F/13°C). Light red
wines drunk young should also be brought to the table at this temperature,
where they will quickly rise a few degrees. Red wines are generally perceived
best when served chambré ("at room temperature"). However, this does not
mean the temperature of the dining room—often around 70°F/21°C—but rather
the coolest room in the house and, therefore, always slightly cooler than the
dining room itself. Pinot Noir should be brought to the table for serving at
60°F/16°C and will reach its full bouquet at 65°F/18°C. Cabernet Sauvignon

, zinfandel, and Rhone varieties should be served at 65°F/18°C and allowed to

warm on the table to 70°F/21°C for best aroma.

 Collecting
 Château Margaux, a First Growth from the Bordeaux region of France, is highly collectible.

Outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands
of dollars per bottle, though the broader term "fine wine" covers those typically
retailing in excess of US$30–50. "Investment wines" are considered by some to
be Veblen goods: those for which demand increases rather than decreases as
their prices rise. The most common wines purchased for investment include
those from Bordeaux and Burgundy; cult wines from Europeand elsewhere;
and vintage port. Characteristics of highly collectible wines include:

1. A proven track record of holding well over time

2. A drinking-window plateau (i.e., the period for maturity and
approachability) that is many years long
3. A consensus among experts as to the quality of the wines
4. Rigorous production methods at every stage, including grape selection
and appropriate barrel aging

Investment in fine wine has attracted those who take advantage of their victims'
relative ignorance of this wine market sector. Such wine fraudsters often profit
by charging excessively high prices for off-vintage or lower-status wines from
well-known wine regions, while claiming that they are offering a sound
investment unaffected by economic cycles. As with any investment, thorough
research is essential to making an informed decision.

8. WINE FROM SOME OTHER COUNTRIES

 FRENCH WINE
  GEMANY WINE

 ITALIAN WINE

 SPAINIES WINE

 PROTUESE WINE

 FRENCH WINE:

French wine is produced all throughout France, in quantities between 50 and

60 million hectolitres per year, or 7–8 billion bottles. France is the world's
second largest wine producer behind Italy. French wine traces its history to the
6th century BC, with many of France's regions dating their wine-making history
to Roman times. The wines produced range from expensive high-end wines sold
internationally to more modest wines usually only seen within France.

Two concepts central to higher end French wines are the notion of "terroir",
which links the style of the wines to the specific locations where the grapes are
grown and the wine is made, and the Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC)
system. Appellation rules closely define which grape varieties and winemaking
practices are approved for classification in each of France's several hundred
geographically defined appellations, which can cover entire regions, individual
villages or even specific vineyards.

France is the source of many grape varieties (Cabernet

Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc, Syrah) that are now
planted throughout the world, as well as wine-making practices and styles of
wine that have been adopted in other producing countries. Although some
producers have benefited in recent years from rising prices and increased
demand for some of the prestige wines from Burgundy and Bordeaux, the
French wine industry as a whole has been influenced by a slight decline in
domestic consumption, as well as growing competition from both the New
World and other European countries.

Quality levels and appellation system

In 1935 numerous laws were passed to control the quality of French wine. They
established the Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée system, which is governed by a
powerful oversight board (Institut National des Appellations d'Origine, INAO).
Consequently, France has one of the oldest systems for protected designation of
origin for wine in the world, and strict laws concerning winemaking and
production. Many other European systems are modelled after it. The word
"appellation" has been put to use by other countries, sometimes in a much
looser meaning. As European Union wine laws have been modelled after those
of the French, this trend is likely to continue with further EU expansion.

French law divides wine into four categories, two falling under the European
Union's Table Wine category and two falling under the EU's Quality Wine
Produced in a Specific Region (QWPSR) designation. The categories and their
shares of the total French production for the 2005 vintage, excluding wine
destined for Cognac, Armagnac and other brandies, were:

Table wine:

 Vin de Table (11.7%) – Carries with it only the producer and the

designation that it is from France.
 Vin de Pays (33.9%) – Carries with it a specific region within France (for
example Vin de Pays d'Oc from Languedoc-Roussillon or Vin de Pays
de Côtes de Gascogne from Gascony), and subject to less restrictive
regulations than AOC wines. For instance, it allows producers to
 distinguish wines that are made using grape varieties or procedures other
than those required by the AOC rules, without having to use the simple
and commercially non-viable table wine classification. In order to
maintain a distinction from Vin de Table, the producers have to submit
the wine for analysis and tasting, and the wines have to be made from
certain varieties or blends.

QWPSR:

 Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure  (VDQS, 0.9%) – Less strict than

AOC, usually used for smaller areas or as a "waiting room" for potential
AOCs. This category was abolished at the end of 2011.
 Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC, 53.4%) – Wine from a particular
area with many other restrictions, including grape varieties and
winemaking methods.

The total French production for the 2005 vintage was 43.9 million hl (plus an
additional 9.4 million hl destined for various brandies), of which 28.3% was
white and 71.7% was red or rosé. The proportion of white wine is slightly
higher for the higher categories, with 34.3% of the AOC wine being white.

In years with less favourable vintage conditions than 2005, the proportion of
AOC wine tends to be a little lower. The proportion of Vin de table has
decreased considerably over the last decades, while the proportion of AOC has
increased somewhat and Vin de Pays has increased considerably.

In 2005 there were 472 different wine AOCs in France.

Reforms

The wine classification system of France has been under overhaul since 2006,
with a new system to be fully introduced by 2012. The new system consists of
three categories rather than four, since there will be no category corresponding
to VDQS from 2012. The new categories are:

 Vin de France, a table wine category basically replacing Vin de Table, but

allowing grape variety and vintage to be indicated on the label.
 Indication Géographique Protégée (IGP), an intermediate category
basically replacing Vin de Pays.
 Appellation d'Origine Protégée (AOP), the highest category basically
replacing AOC wines.

The largest changes will be in the Vin de France category, and to VDQS wines,
which either need to qualify as AOP wines or be downgraded to an IGP
category. For the former AOC wines, the move to AOP will only mean minor
changes to the terminology of the label, while the actual names of the
appellations themselves will remain unchanged.

While no new wines will be marketed under the old designations from 2012,
bottles already in the distribution chain will not be relabelled

Wine styles, grape varieties

All common styles of wine – red, rosé, white (dry, semi-sweet

and sweet), sparkling and fortified – are produced in France. In most of these
styles, the French production ranges from cheap and simple versions to some of
the world's most famous and expensive examples. An exception is French
fortified wines, which tend to be relatively unknown outside France.

In many respects, French wines have more of a regional than a national identity,
as evidenced by different grape varieties, production methods and different
classification systems in the various regions. Quality levels and prices vary
enormously, and some wines are made for immediate consumption while other
are meant for long-time cellaring.

If there is one thing that most French wines have in common, it is that most
styles have developed as wines meant to accompany food, be it a
quick baguette, a simple bistro meal, or a full-fledged multi-course menu. Since
the French tradition is to serve wine with food, wines have seldom been
developed or styled as "bar wines" for drinking on their own, or to impress in
tastings when young.[13]

Grape varieties

Numerous grape varieties are cultivated in France, including both

internationally well-known and obscure local varieties. In fact, most of the so-
called "international varieties" are of French origin, or became known and
spread because of their cultivation in France.[14] Since French appellation rules
generally restrict wines from each region, district or appellation to a small
number of allowed grape varieties, there are in principle no varieties that are
commonly planted throughout all of France.

Most varieties of grape are primarily associated with a certain region, such as
Cabernet Sauvignon in Bordeaux and Syrah in Rhône, although there are some
varieties that are found in two or more regions, such as Chardonnay in
Bourgogne (including Chablis) and Champagne, and Sauvignon Blanc in Loire
and Bordeaux. As an example of the rules, although climatic conditions would
appear to be favourable, no Cabernet Sauvignon wines are produced in Rhône,
Riesling wines in Loire, or Chardonnay wines in Bordeaux. (If such wines were
produced, they would have to be declassified to Vin de Pays or French table
wine. They would not be allowed to display any appellation name or even
region of origin.)
Traditionally, many French wines have been blended from several grape
varieties. Varietal white wines have been, and are still, more common than
varietal red wines.

 GERMANY WINE:

German wine is primarily produced in the west of Germany, along the

river Rhine and its tributaries, with the oldest plantations going back to
the Roman era. Approximately 60 percent of the German wine production is
situated in the federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate, where 6 of the 13 regions
(Anbaugebiete) for quality wine are situated. Germany has about
102,000 hectares (252,000 acres or 1,020 square kilometers) of vineyard, which
is around one tenth of the vineyard surface in Spain, France or Italy. The total
wine production is usually around 9 million hectoliters annually, corresponding
to 1.2 billion bottles, which places Germany as the eighth largest wine-
producing country in the world. White wine accounts for almost two thirds of
the total production.

As a wine country, Germany has a mixed reputation internationally, with some

consumers on the export markets associating Germany with the world's most
elegant and aromatically pure white wines while other see the country mainly as
the source of cheap, mass-market semi-sweet wines such as Liebfraumilch.
Among enthusiasts, Germany's reputation is primarily based on wines made
from the Riesling grape variety, which at its best is used for aromatic, fruity and
elegant white wines that range from very crisp and dry to well-
balanced, sweet and of enormous aromatic concentration. While primarily a
white wine country, red wine production surged in the 1990s and early 2000s,
primarily fuelled by domestic demand, and the proportion of the German
vineyards devoted to the cultivation of dark-skinned grape varieties has now
stabilized at slightly more than a third of the total surface. For the red
wines, Spätburgunder, the domestic name for Pinot Noir, is in the lead.

Wine styles

Germany produces wines in many styles: dry, semi-sweet and sweet white
wines, rosé wines, red wines and sparkling wines, called Sekt. (The only wine
style not commonly produced is fortified wine.) Due to the northerly location of
the German vineyards, the country has produced wines quite unlike any others
in Europe, many of outstanding quality. Despite this it is still better known
abroad for cheap, sweet or semi-sweet, low-quality mass-produced wines such
as Liebfraumilch.

The wines have historically been predominantly white, and the finest made
from Riesling. Many wines have been sweet and low in alcohol, light
and unoaked. Historically many of the wines (other than late harvest wines)
were probably dry (trocken), as techniques to stop fermentation did not exist.
Recently much more German white wine is being made in the dry style again.
Much of the wine sold in Germany is dry, especially in restaurants. However
most exports are still of sweet wines, particularly to the traditional export
markets such as Great Britain, which is the leading export market both in terms
of volume and value. The United States (second in value, third in volume) and
the Netherlands (second in volume, third in value) are two other important
export markets for German wine.

Red wine has always been hard to produce in the German climate, and in the
past was usually light coloured, closer to rosé or the red wines of Alsace.
However recently there has been greatly increased demand and darker, richer
red wines (often barrique aged) are produced from grapes such
as Dornfelder and Spätburgunder, the German name for Pinot Noir.

Perhaps the most distinctive characteristic of German wines is the high level
of acidity in them, caused both by the lesser ripeness in a northerly climate and
by the selection of grapes such as Riesling which retain acidity even at high
ripeness levels.

German wine regions

1. Ahr
2. Baden
3. Franconia
4. Hessische
Bergstraße
5. Mittelrhein
6. Mosel
7. Nahe
8. Palatinate
9. Rheingau
10. Rheinhessen
11. Saale-Unstrut
12. Saxony
13. Württemberg

The wine regions in Germany usually referred to are the 13 defined regions for
quality wine. The German wine industry has organised itself around these
regions and their division into districts. However, there are also a number of
regions for the seldom-exported table wine (Tafelwein) and country wine
(Landwein) categories. Those regions with a few exceptions overlap with the
quality wine regions. In order to make a clear distinction between the quality
levels, the regions and subregions for different quality level have different
names on purpose, even when they are allowed to be produced in the same
geographical area.

Common white wine grapes

White grape varieties account for 63% of the area planted in Germany. Principal
varieties are listed below; there are larger numbers of less important varieties
too.

 Riesling is the benchmark grape in Germany and cover the most area in
the German vineyard. It is an aromatic variety with a high level of acidity
that can be used for dry, semi-sweet, sweet and sparkling wines. The
drawback to Riesling is that it takes 130 days to ripen and, in marginal
years, the Riesling crop tends to be poor.
 Müller-Thurgau is an alternative grape to Riesling that growers have been
using, and which is one of the so-called "new crossings". Unlike the long
ripening time of Riesling, this grape variety only requires 100 days to
ripen, can be planted on more sites, and is higher yielding. However, this
grape has a more neutral flavour than Riesling, and as the main ingredient
of Liebfraumilch its reputation has taken a beating together with that
wine variety. Germany's most planted variety from the 1970s to the mid-
1990s, it has been losing ground for a number of years. Dry Müller-
Thurgau is usually labeled Rivaner.
 Silvaner is another fairly neutral, but quite old grape variety that was
Germany's most planted until the 1960s and after that has continued to
lose ground. It has however remained popular in Franconia and
Rheinhessen, where it is grown on chalky soils to produce powerful dry
wines with a slightly earthy and rustic but also food-friendly character.
  Kerner
 Bacchus
 Scheurebe
 Gewürztraminer
 Grauer Burgunder or Ruländer (Pinot Gris)
 Weisser Burgunder (Pinot Blanc)

Common red wine grapes

Red wine varieties account for 37% of the plantations in Germany but has
increased in recent years.

 Spätburgunder (Pinot Noir) - a much-appreciated grape variety that

demands good sites to produce good wines and therefore competes with
Riesling. It is considered to give the most elegant red wines of Germany.
 Dornfelder - a "new crossing" that has become much appreciated in
Germany since it is easy to grow and gives dark-coloured, full-bodied,
fruity and tannic wines of a style which used to be hard to produce in
Germany.
 Portugieser
 Trollinger
 Schwarzriesling (Pinot Meunier)
 Lemberger


 ITALIAN WINE

Italy is home to some of the oldest wine-producing regions in the world and has
overtaken France as the world's largest wine producer. Italian wine is exported
around the world and is also extremely popular in Italy: Italians rank fifth on the
world wine consumption list by volume with 42 litres per capita
consumption. Grapes are grown in almost every region of the country and there
are more than one million vineyards under cultivation.

Etruscans and Greek settlers produced wine in Italy before the Romans started

their own vineyards in the 2nd century BC. Roman grape-
growing and winemaking was prolific and well-organized, pioneering large-
scale production and storage techniques like barrel-making and bottling

Italian appellation system

Italy's classification system has four classes of wine, with two falling under the
EU category Quality Wine Produced in a Specific Region (QWPSR) and two
falling under the category of 'table wine'. The four classes are:

Table Wine:

 Vino da Tavola (VDT) - Denotes simply that the wine is made in Italy.

The label usually indicates a basic wine, made for local consumption.

 Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT) - Denotes wine from a more

specific region within Italy. This appellation was created in 1992 for
wines that were considered to be of higher quality than simple table
wines, but which did not conform to the strict wine laws for their region.
Before the IGT was created, "Super Tuscan" wines such
as Tignanello were labeled Vino da Tavola.

QWPSR:

 Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC)

 Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG)
Both DOC and DOCG wines refer to zones which are more specific than an
IGT, and the permitted grapes are also more specifically defined. The DOC
system began in 1963, seeking to establish a method of both recognizing quality
product and maintaining the international and national reputation of that
product. The main difference between a DOC and a DOCG is that the latter
must pass a blind taste test for quality in addition to conforming to the strict
legal requirements to be designated as a wine from the area in question. After
the sweeping wine laws of 1992, transparent rules were made regarding
requirements for DOCG entry, imposing new limits regarding the production of
grapes per hectare and minimum natural alcohol levels, among others.

The overall goal of the system is to encourage producers to focus on quality

wine making.

Presently, there are 120 IGT zones. In February 2006, there were 311 DOC plus
32 DOCG appellations, according to the PDF document V.Q.P.R.D. Vini
(DOCG – DOC): Elenco e Riferimenti Normativi al 07.02.2006, published by
the Italian Ministry of Agriculture.

Italian wine regions

Italy's twenty wine regions correspond to the twenty administrative regions.

Understanding of Italian wine becomes clearer with an understanding of the
differences between each region; their cuisines reflect their indigenous wines,
and vice-versa. The 36 DOCG wines are located in 13 different regions but
most of them are concentrated in Piedmont and Tuscany. Among these are
appellations appreciated and sought after by wine lovers around the
world: Barolo, Barbaresco, and Brunello di Montalcino(colloquially known as
the "Killer B's").
Italian regions

 Aosta Valley
 Piedmont
 Liguria
 Lombardy
 Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol
 Friuli-Venezia Giulia
 Veneto
 Emilia-Romagna
 Tuscany
 Marche
 Umbria
 Lazio
 Abruzzo
 Molise
 Campania
 Basilicata
 Apulia
 Calabria
 Sicily
 Sardinia

Italian grape varieties

Italy's Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MIRAF), has documented over 350
grapes and granted them "authorized" status. There are more than 500 other
documented varieties in circulation as well. The following is a list of the most
common and important of Italy's many grape varieties.
Bianco (White)

 Arneis - A crisp and floral variety from Piedmont, which has been grown
there since the 15th century.

 Catarratto - Common in Sicily - this is the most widely planted white

variety in Salaparuta.

 Fiano - Grown on the southwest coast of Italy, the wines from this grape
can be described as dewy and herbal, often with notes of pinenut and
pesto.

 Garganega - The main grape variety for wines labeled Soave, this is a
crisp, dry white wine from the Veneto wine region of Italy. It's a very
popular wine that hails from northeast Italy around the city of Verona.
Currently, there are over 3,500 distinct producers of Soave.

 Malvasia Bianca - Another white variety that peeks up in all corners of

Italy with a wide variety of clones and mutations. Can range from easy
quaffers to funky, musty whites.

 Moscato - Grown mainly in Piedmont, it is mainly used in the slightly-

sparkling (frizzante), semi-sweet Moscato d'Asti. Not to be confused
with moscato giallo and moscato rosa, two Germanic varietals that are
grown in Trentino Alto-Adige.

 Nuragus - An ancient Phoenician variety found in southern Sardegna.

Light and tart wines that are drunk as an apertif in their homeland.

 Pigato - A heavily acidic variety from Liguria, the wines are vinified to

pair with a cuisine rich in seafood.
 Pinot Grigio - A hugely successful commercial grape (known as Pinot
Gris in France), its wines are characterized by crispness and cleanness.
As a hugely mass-produced wine, it is usually delicate and mild, but in a
good producers' hands, the wine can grow more full-bodied and complex.
The main problem with the grape is that to satisfy the commercial
demand, the grapes are harvested too early every year, leading to wines
without character.

 Ribolla Gialla - A Greek variety introduced by the Venetians that now

makes its home in Friuli, these wines are decidedly old-world, with
aromas of pineapple and mustiness.

 Friulano - A variety also known as Sauvignon Vert or Sauvignonasse, it

yields one of the most typical wines of Friuli, full of peachiness and
minerality with a pleasant bitter almond finish. The wine was previously
known as Tocai but the name was changed by the EC to avoid confusion
with the Tokay dessert wine from Hungary.

 Trebbiano - This is the most widely planted white varietal in Italy. It is

grown throughout the country, with a special focus on the wines from
Abruzzo and from Lazio, including Frascati. Mostly, they are pale, easy
drinking wines, but trebbiano from producers such as Valentini have been
known to age for 15+ years. It is known as Ugni Blanc in France.

 Verdicchio - This is grown in the areas of Castelli di Jesi and Matelica in

the Marche region and gives its name to the varietal white wine made
from it. The name comes from "verde" (green). The white wines are
noted for their high acidity and a characteristic nutty flavour with a hint
of honey.
  Vermentino - This is widely planted in northern Sardinia and also found
in Tuscan and Ligurian coastal districts. Wines are particularly popular to
accompany fish and seafood.

 Passerina - mainly derives from Passerina grapes (it may even be

produced purely with these), plus a minimum percentage of other white
grapes and may be still, sparkling or passito. In its still version, one
appreciates the acidic profile, which is typical of these grapes, as well as
the delicate aromas.

 Pecorino (grape) - Native to Marche and Abruzzo, it is used in the Falerio

dei Colli Ascolani and Offida DOC wines. It is low-yielding, but will
ripen early and at high altitudes. Pecorino wines have a deep, rich,
aromatic and nutty character.

Other important whites include Carricante, Coda de Volpe,

Cortese, Falanghina, Grechetto, Grillo, Inzolia, Picolit, Traminer, Verduzzo,
and Vernaccia.

Non-native varieties that the Italians plant

include Chardonnay, Gewürztraminer (sometimes called traminer
aromatico), Petite Arvine, Riesling, and many others.

Rosso (Red)

 Aglianico - Considered the "noble varietal of the south," it is primarily

grown in Basilicata and Campania. The name is derived from Hellenic, so
it is considered a Greek transplant. Thick skinned and spicy, the wines are
often both rustic and powerful.
 Barbera - The most widely grown red wine grape of Piedmont and
Southern Lombardy, most famously around the towns of Asti and Alba,
and Pavia. The wines of Barbera were once simply "what you drank
while waiting for the Barolo to be ready." With a new generation of wine
makers, this is no longer the case. The wines are now meticulously
vinified, aged Barbera gets the name "Barbera Superiore" (Superior
Barbera), sometimes aged in French barrique becoming "Barbera
Barricato", and intended for the international market. The wine has bright
cherry fruit, a very dark color, and a food-friendly acidity.

 Corvina - Along with the varietals rondinella and molinara, this is the

principal grape which makes the famous wines of the
Veneto: Valpolicella and Amarone. Valpolicella wine has dark cherry
fruit and spice. After the grapes undergo passito (a drying process), the
wine is now called Amarone, and is extremely high in alcohol (16% and
up) and full of raisin, prune, and syrupy fruits. Some Amarones can age
for 40+ years and command spectacular prices. In December 2009, there
was celebration when the acclaimed Amarone di Valpolicella was finally
awarded its long-sought DOCG status.

 Dolcetto - A grape that grows alongside Barbera and Nebbiolo in

Piedmont, its name means "little sweet one"", referring not to the taste of
the wine, but the ease in which it grows and makes great wines, suitable
for everyday drinking. Flavors of concord grape, wild blackberries and
herbs permeate the wine.

 Malvasia Nera - Red Malvasia varietal from Piedmont. A sweet and

perfumed wine, sometimes elaborated in the passito style.
 Montepulciano - The grape of this name is not to be confused with the
Tuscan town of Montepulciano; it is most widely planted on the opposite
coast in Abruzzo. Its wines develop silky plum-like fruit, friendly acidity,
and light tannin. More recently, producers have been creating a rich, inky,
extracted version of this wine, a sharp contrast to the many inferior
bottles produced in the past.

 Nebbiolo - The most noble of Italy's varieties. The name (meaning "little
fog") refers to the autumn fog that blankets most of Piedmont where
Nebbiolo is chiefly grown, and where it achieves the most successful
results. A difficult grape variety to cultivate, it produces the most
renowned Barolo and Barbaresco, made in province of Cuneo, along with
the lesser-known Sforzato, Inferno and Sassella made
in Valtellina,Ghemme and Gattinara, made in Vercelli's province. The
wines are known for their elegance and power with a bouquet of wild
mushroom, truffle, roses, and tar. Traditionally produced Barolo can age
for fifty years-plus, and is regarded by many wine enthusiasts as the
greatest wine of Italy.

 Negroamaro - The name literally means "black and bitter". A widely

planted grape with its concentration in the region of Puglia, it is the
backbone of the Salice Salentino: spicy, toasty, and full of dark red fruits.

 Nero d'Avola - Nearly unheard of in the international market until recent

years, this native varietal of Sicily is gaining attention for its plummy
fruit and sweet tannins. The quality of nero d'avola has surged in recent
years.

 Primitivo - A red grape planted found in southern Italy, most notably

in Puglia. Primitivo is robust and rustic, with spicy black fruit notes, and
 thrives in very warm climates, where it can achieve very high alcohol
levels.

 Sagrantino - A native to Umbria, it is only planted on 250 hectares, but

the wines produced from it (either blended with Sangiovese as Rosso di
Montefalco or as a pure Sagrantino) are world-renowned. Inky purple,
with rustic brooding fruit and heavy tannins, these wines can age for
many years.

 Sangiovese - Italy's claim to fame, the pride of Tuscany. Traditionally

made, the wines are full of cherry fruit, earth, and cedar. It produces
Chianti (Classico), Rosso di Montalcino, Brunello di Montalcino, Rosso
di Montepulciano, Montefalco Rosso, and many others. Sangiovese is
also the backbone in many of the acclaimed, modern-styled "Super-
Tuscans", where it is blended with Bordeaux varietals (Cabernet
Sauvignon,Merlot, and Cabernet Franc) and typically aged in French oak
barrels, resulting a wine primed for the international market in the style of
a typical California cabernet: oaky, high-alcohol, and a ripe, jammy, fruit-
forward profile.

"International" varieties such as Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot,

and Syrah are also widely grown.

 SPANISH WINE

Spanish wines (Spanish: vino español ) are wines produced in the southwestern

European country of Spain. Located on the Iberian Peninsula, Spain has over
2.9 million acres (over 1.17 million hectares) planted—making it the most
widely planted wine producing nation but it is the third largest producer of wine
in the world, the largest being France followed by Italy. This is due, in part, to
the very low yields and wide spacing of the old vines planted on the dry,
infertile soil found in many Spanish wine regions. The country is ninth in
worldwide consumptions with Spaniards drinking, on average, 10.06 gallons
(38 liters) a year. The country has an abundance of native grape varieties, with
over 400 varieties planted throughout Spain though 80 percent of the country's
wine production is from only 20 grapes—
including Tempranillo, Albariño, Garnacha, Palomino, Airen, Macabeo,Parellad
a, Xarel·lo, Cariñena and Monastrell.

Major Spanish wine regions include the Rioja and Ribera del Duero which is

known for their Tempranillo production; Valdepeñas, drunk
by Unamuno and Hemingway, known for high quality tempranillo at low
prices;Jerez, the home of the fortified wine Sherry; Rías Baixas in the northwest
region of Galicia that is known for its white wines made from Albariño
and Catalonia which includes the Cava and still wine producing regions of
thePenedès as well the Priorat region.

Classification

Spanish wine laws created the Denominación de Origen (DO) system in 1932

and were later revised in 1970. The system shares many similarities with the
hierarchical Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) system of France,
Portugal's Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC) and
Italy's Denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) system. As of 2009, there
were 77 Quality Wine areas across Spain. In addition there isDenominación de
Origen Calificada (DOCa or DOQ in Catalan) status for DOs that have a
consistent track record for quality. There are currently two DOCa/DOQ regions:
Rioja and Priorat. Each DO has aConsejo Regulador, which acts as a governing
control body that enforces the DO regulations and standards
involving viticultural and winemaking practices. These regulations govern
everything from the types of grapes that are permitted to be planted, the
maximum yields that can be harvested, the minimum length of time that the
wine must be aged and what type of information is required to appear on
the wine label. Wineries that are seeking to have their wine sold under DO or
DOC status must submit their wines to the Consejo Regulador laboratory and
tasting panel for testing and evaluation. Wines that have been granted DO/DOC
status will feature the regional stamp of the Consejo Regulador on the label.

Following Spain's acceptance into the European Union, Spanish wine laws were
brought in line to be more consistent with other European systems. One
development was a five-tier classification system that is administered by
each autonomous region. Non-autonomous areas or wine regions whose
boundaries overlap with other autonomous communities (such as Cava, Rioja
and Jumilla) are administered by the Instituto Nacional de Denominaciones de
Origen (INDO) based in Madrid. The five-tier classifications, starting from the
bottom, include:

 Vino de Mesa (VdM) - These are wines that are the equivalent of most
country's table wines and are made from unclassified vineyards or grapes
that have been declassified through "illegal" blending. Similar to the
Italian Super Tuscans from the late 20th century, some Spanish
winemakers will intentionally declassify their wines so that they have
greater flexibility in blending and winemaking methods.
 Vinos de la Tierra (VdlT) - This level is similar to France's vin de
pays system, normally corresponding to the larger comunidad
autonóma geographical regions and will appear on the label with these
broader geographical designations like Andalucia, Castilla La
Mancha and Levante.
  Vino de Calidad Producido en Región Determinada (VCPRD) - This
level is similar to France's Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (VDQS)
system and is considered a stepping stone towards DO status.
 Denominación de Origen (Denominació d'Origen in Catalan - DO)- This
level is for the mainstream quality-wine regions which are regulated by
the Consejo Regulador who is also responsible for marketing the wines of
that DO. In 2005, nearly two thirds of the total vineyard area in Spain was
within the boundaries a DO region.
 Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa/DOQ - Denominació
d'Origen Qualificada in Catalan)- This designation, which is similar
to Italy's Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG)
designation, is for regions with a track record of consistent quality and is
meant to be a step above DO level. Rioja was the first region afforded
this designation in 1991 and was followed by Priorat in 2003, and Ribera
del Duero in 2008.

Additionally there is the Denominación de Pago (DO de Pago) designation for

individual single-estates with an international reputation. As of 2009, there were
9 estates with this status.

Spanish labeling laws

Spanish wines are often labeled according to the amount of aging the wine has
received. When the label says vino joven ("young wine") or sin crianza, the
wines will have undergone very little, if any, wood aging. Depending on the
producer, some of these wines will be meant to be consumed very young - often
within a year of their release. Others will benefit from some time aging in the
bottle. For the vintage year (vendimia orcosecha) to appear on the label, a
minimum of 85% of the grapes must be from that year's harvest. The three most
common aging designations on Spanish wine labels are Crianza,
Reserva and Gran Reserva.

 Crianza red wines are aged for 2 years with at least 6 months in

oak. Crianza whites and rosés must be aged for at least 1 year with at
least 6 months in oak.
 Reserva red wines are aged for at least 3 years with at least 1 year in
oak. Reserva whites and rosés must be aged for at least 2 years with at
least 6 months in oak.
 Gran Reserva wines typically appear in above average vintages with the
red wines requiring at least 5 years aging, 18 months of which in oak and
a minimum of 36 months in the bottle. Gran Reserva whites and rosés
must be aged for at least 4 years with at least 6 months in oak.

Wine regions

Spain has a relatively large number of distinct wine-producing regions, more

than half having the classification Denominación de Origen (DO) with the
majority of the remainder classified as Vinos de la Tierra (VdlT). There are two
regions nominated as Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa)
- Rioja and Priorat - the flagship regions of Spanish winemaking. While most
make both red and white wine, some wine regions are more dominated by one
style than the other.

Grape varieties

Some records estimate that over 600 grape varieties are planted throughout
Spain but 80% of the country's wine production is focused on only 20 grape
varieties. The most widely planted grape is the white wine grapeAirén, prized
for its hardiness and resistance to drop. It is found throughout central Spain and
for many years served as the base for Spanish brandy. Wines made from this
grape can be very alcoholic and prone tooxidation. The red wine
grape Tempranillo is the second most widely planted grape variety, recently
eclipsing Garnacha in plantings in 2004. It is known throughout Spain under a
variety of synonyms that may appear on Spanish wine labels-including
Cencibel, Tinto Fino and Ull de Llebre. Both Tempranillo and Garnacha are
used to make the full-bodied red wines associated with the Rioja, Ribera del
Duero and Penedès with Garnacha being the main grape of the Priorat region. In
the Levante region, Monastrell and Bobal have significant plantings, being used
for both dark red wines and dry rosé.

In the northwest, the white wine varieties of Albariño and Verdejo are popular

plantings in the Rías Baixas and Rueda respectively. In the Cava producing
regions of Catalonia and elsewhere in Spain, the principal grapes
ofMacabeo, Parellada and Xarel·lo are used for sparkling wine production as
well as still white wines. In the southern Sherry and Malaga producing regions
of Andalucia, the principal grapes are Palomino and Pedro Ximénez. As the
Spanish wine industry becomes more modern, there has been a larger presence
of international grape varieties appearing in both blends and varietal forms-most
notably Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay,Syrah, Merlot and Sauvignon blanc.
Other Spanish grape varieties that have significant plantings
include Cariñena, Godello, Graciano, Mencia, Loureira, and Treixadura.

 PORTUGESE WINE

Portuguese wine is the result of traditions introduced to the region by

ancient civilizations, such as the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and
mostly the Romans. Portugal started to export its wines to Rome during
theRoman Empire. Modern exports developed with trade to England after
the Methuen Treaty in 1703. From this commerce a wide variety of wines
started to be grown in Portugal. And, in 1758, one of the first wine-producing
region of the world, the Região Demarcada do Douro was created under the
orientation of Marquis of Pombal, in the Douro Valley. Portugal has two wine
producing regions protected by UNESCO as World Heritage: the Douro
Valley Wine Region (Douro Vinhateiro) and Pico Island Wine Region (Ilha do
Pico Vinhateira). Portugal has a large variety of native breeds, producing a very
wide variety of different wines with distinctive personality.

Grapes

Portugal possesses a large array of native varietals, producing an abundant

variety of different wines. The wide array of Portuguese grape varietals
contributes as significantly as the soil and climate to wine differentiation,
producing distinctive wines from the Northern regions to Madeira Islands, and
from Algarve to the Azores. In Portugal only some grape varietals or castas are
authorized or endorsed in the Demarcated regions, such as:

 Vinhos Verdes - White castas Alvarinho, Arinto

(Pedernã), Avesso, Azal, Batoca, Loureiro, Trajadura; red
castas Amaral, Borraçal, Alvarelhão, Espadeiro, Padeiro, Pedral, Rabo de
Anho, Vinhão.
 Porto/Douro - Red castas Touriga Nacional, Tinta
Amarela, Aragonez, Bastardo, Castelão, Cornifesto, Donzelinho
Tinto, Malvasia Preta, Marufo, Rufete, Tinta Barroca, Tinta
Francisca, Tinto Cão, Touriga Franca; white
castas Arinto, Cercial, Donzelinho Branco, Folgazão, Gouveio, Malvasia
Fina, Moscatel Galego
Branco, Rabigato, Samarrinho, Semillon, Sercial, Roupeiro, Verdelho, Vi
osinho, Vital.
 Dão - Red castas Touriga Nacional, Alfrocheiro, Aragonez, Jaen e
Rufete; White castas Encruzado, Bical, Cercial, Malvasia Fina, Verdelho.
  Bairrada - Red casts Baga, Alfrocheiro, Camarate, Castelão, Jaen,
Touriga Nacional, Aragonez; white castas Maria Gomes, Arinto, Bical,
Cercial, Rabo de Ovelha, Verdelho.
 Bucelas - White castas Arinto, Sercial e Rabo de Ovelha.
 Colares - Red casta Ramisco; White casta Malvasia
 Carcavelos - Red castas Castelão and Preto Martinho; White
castas Galego Dourado, Ratinho, Arinto.
 Setúbal - Red casta Moscatel Roxo; white casta Moscatel de Setúbal.
 Alentejo - Red castas Alfrocheiro, Aragonez, Periquita1, Tinta Caiada,
Trincadeira, Alicante Bouschet, Moreto; White castas Antão Vaz, Arinto,
Fernão Pires, Rabo de Ovelha, Roupeiro
 Algarve - Red castas Negra Mole, Trincadeira, Alicante Bouschet,
Aragonez, Periquita; White castas Arinto, Roupeiro, Manteúdo, Moscatel
Graúdo, Perrum, Rabo de Ovelha.
 Madeira - Red castas Bastardo, Tinta, Malvasia Cândida Roxa, Verdelho
Tinto e Tinta Negra; white castas Sercial, Malvasia Fina (Boal), Malvasia
Cândida, Folgasão (Terrantez), Verdelho.
 Tejo - Red castas Baga, Camarate, Castelão, Trincadeira, Tinta-
Miúda, Preto-Martinho, Aragonez, Touriga-Franca, Touriga-Nacional, Al
frocheiro, Caladoc, Esgana-Cão-Tinto, Jaen, Petit-Verdot, Tinta-
Barroca,Tinta-Caiada, Tinto-Cão, Merlot, Cabernet-Sauvignon, Bastardo, 
Pinot-Noir, Alicante-Bouschet, Grand-Noir, Moreto, Syrah; white
castas Arinto, Fernão Pires, Rabo-de-Ovelha, Tália, Trincadeira-das-
Pratas,Vital, Verdelho, Tamarez, Cerceal-Branco, Alicante
Branco, Chardonnay, Malvasia-Rei, Pinot-Blanc, Sauvignon, Alvarinho, 
Moscatel-Graúdo, Síria, Viosinho.

Appellation system
The appellation system of the Douro region was created nearly two hundred
years before that of France, in order to protect its superior wines from inferior
ones. The quality and great variety of wines in Portugal are due to noble
castas, microclimates, soils and proper technology.

Official designations:

 Quality Wine Produced in a Specific Region (QWPSR) or VQPRD

- Vinho de Qualidade Produzido em Região Demarcada
o These are the most protected wine and indicates a specific
vineyard, such as Port Wine, Vinhos Verdes, and Alentejo Wines.
These wines are labeled D.O.C. (Denominação de Origem
Controlada) which secures a superior quality.
 Wines that have more regulations placed upon them but are not in a DOC
region fall under the category of Indicação de Proveniência
Regulamentada (IPR, Indication of Regulated Provenance)
 Regional Wine - Vinho Regional Carries with it a specific region within
Portugal.
 Table Wines - Vinho de Mesa carries with it only the producer and the
designation that it's from Portugal.

Wine regions

 Vinho Verde is produced from grapes which do not reach great doses of
sugar. Therefore, Vinho Verde does not require an aging process. Vinho
Verde wines are now largely exported, and are the most exported
Portuguese wines after the Port Wine. The most popular variety in
Portugal and abroad are the white wines, but there are also red and more
rarely rosé wines. A notable variety of Vinho Verde is Vinho
Alvarinhowhich is a special variety of white Vinho Verde, the production
 of Alvarinho is restricted by EU law to a small sub-region of Monção, in
the northern part of the Minho region in Portugal. It has more alcohol
(11.5 to 13%) than the other varieties (8 to 11.5%).

 Douro wine (Vinho do Douro) originates from the same region as port

wines. In the past they were considered to be a bitter tasting wine. In
order to prevent spoilage during the voyage from Portugal to England, the
English decided to add a Portuguese wine brandy known as aguardente.
The first documented commercial transactions appearing in registries of
export date as far back as 1679. Today's Douro table wines are enjoying
growing favor in the world, maintaining many traits that are reminiscent
of a port wine.

 Dão wine is from the Região Demarcada do Dão, a region demarcated in

1908, but already in 1390 there were taken some measures to protect this
wine. The Dão Wine is produced in a mountainous region with temperate
climate, in the area of the Mondego and Dão Rivers in the north region of
central Portugal. These mountains protect
the castas from maritime and continental influences.

 Bairrada wine, is produced in the Região Demarcada da Bairrada. The

name "Bairrada" is from "barros" (clay) and due to the clayey soils of the
region. Although the region was classified in 1979, it is an ancient
vineyard region. The vines grow exposed to the sun, favouring the further
maturity of the grapes. The Baga casta is intensely used in the wines of
the region. The Bairrada region produces table, white and red wines. Yet,
it is notable for its sparkling natural wine.
  Alentejo wine is produced from grapes planted in vast vineyards
extending over rolling plains under the sun which shines on the grapes
and ripens them for the production.

Health effects

Red table wine

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 355 kJ (85 kcal)
Carbohydrates 2.6 g
- Sugars 0.6 g
Fat 0.0 g
Protein 0.1 g
Alcohol 10.6 g

10.6 g alcohol is 13%vol.

100 g wine is approximately 100 ml (3.4 fl
oz.)
Sugar and alcohol content can vary.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Although excessive alcohol consumption has adverse health

effects, epidemiological studies have consistently demonstrated that moderate
consumption of alcohol and wine is statistically associated with a decrease
incardiovascular illness such as heart failure. Additional news reports on
the French paradox also back the relationship. This paradox concerns the
comparatively low incidence of coronary heart disease in France despite
relatively high levels of saturated fat in the traditional French diet. Some
epidemiologists suspect that this difference is due to the higher consumption of
wines by the French, but the scientific evidence for this theory is limited.
Because the average moderate wine drinker is likely to exercise more often, to
be more health conscious, and to be from a higher educational and
socioeconomic background, the association between moderate wine drinking
and better health may be related to confounding factors or represent
a correlation rather than cause and effect.

Population studies have observed a J-curve association between wine

consumption and the risk of heart disease: heavy drinkers have an elevated risk,
while moderate drinkers (up to 20g of alcohol per day, approximately 120 ml
(4 imp fl oz; 4 US fl oz) of 13% ABV wine) have a lower risk than non-
drinkers. Studies have also found that moderate consumption of other alcoholic
beverages may be cardioprotective, although the association is considerably
stronger for wine. Additionally, some studies have found greater health benefits
for red than white wine, though other studies have found no difference. Red
wine contains more polyphenols than white wine, and these are thought to be
particularly protective against cardiovascular disease.

A chemical in red wine called resveratrol has been shown to have both

cardioprotective and chemoprotective effects in animal studies. Low doses of
resveratrol in the diet of middle-aged mice has a widespread influence on the
genetic factors related to aging and may confer special protection on the heart.
Specifically, low doses of resveratrol mimic the effects of caloric restriction—
diets with 20–30% fewer calories than a typical diet. Resveratrol is produced
naturally by grape skins in response to fungal infection, including exposure to
yeast during fermentation. As white wine has minimal contact with grape skins
during this process, it generally contains lower levels of the
chemical. Beneficial compounds in wine also include
other polyphenols, antioxidants, and flavonoids.

To benefit fully from resveratrol in wine, it is recommended to sip slowly when

drinking. Due to inactivation in the gut and liver, most of the resveratrol
consumed while drinking red wine does not reach the blood circulation.
However, when sipping slowly, absorption via the mucous membranes in the
mouth can result in up to 100 times the blood levels of resveratrol.

Red wines from the south of France and from Sardinia in Italy have been found
to have the highest levels of procyanidins, compounds in grape seeds thought to
be responsible for red wine's heart benefits. Red wines from these areas contain
between two and four times as much procyanidins as other red wines tested.
Procyanidins suppress the synthesis of a peptide called endothelin-1 that
constricts blood vessels.

A 2007 study found that both red and white wines are effective antibacterial
agents against strains of Streptococcus. In addition, a report in the October 2008
issue of Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention posits that moderate
consumption of red wine may decrease the risk of lung cancer in men.

While evidence from laboratory and epidemiological (observational) studies

suggest a cardioprotective effect, no controlled studies have been completed on
the effect of alcoholic beverages on the risk of developing heart disease or
stroke. Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause cirrhosis of the liver
and alcoholism;[85] the American Heart Association cautions people to "consult
your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation."

Wine's effect on the brain is also under study. One study concluded that wine
made from the Cabernet Sauvignon grape reduces the risk of Alzheimer's
Disease. Another study found that among alcoholics, wine damages the
hippocampus to a greater degree than other alcoholic beverages.

Sulfites in wine can cause some people, particularly those with asthma, to have
adverse reactions. Sulfites are present in all wines and are formed as a natural
product of the fermentation process; many winemakers addsulfur dioxide in
order to help preserve wine. Sulfur dioxide is also added to foods such as
dried apricots and orange juice. The level of added sulfites varies; some wines
have been marketed with low sulfite content.

A study of women in the United Kingdom, called The Million Women Study,

concluded that moderate alcohol consumption can increase the risk of
certain cancers, including breast, pharynx and liver cancer. Lead author of the
study, Professor Valerie Beral, has asserted that there is scant evidence that any
positive health effects of red wine outweigh the risk of cancer. She said, "It's an
absolute myth that red wine is good for you." Professor Roger Corder, author
of The Red Wine Diet, counters that two small glasses of a very tannic,
procyanidin-rich wine would confer a benefit, although "most supermarket
wines are low-procyanidin and high-alcohol."
SERVICE OF WINES