FLUIDS WEEK 10

A reciprocating pump is a machine in which the pumping action is

accomplished by the forward and backward movement of a piston inside a
cylinder, usually provided with valves. It is classified as a positive
displacement pump.
In 1840, Henry R. Worthington invented the first direct-acting reciprocating
steam pump used for feeding water into boilers.
A displacement pump is a pump in which energy is periodically added by
application of force to one or more movable boundaries of any desired number
of enclosed, fluid- containing volumes. These results in a direct increase in
pressure, up to the value required to move the fluid through valve or port into
the discharge line.

TYPES OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS

To recapitulate, the types of reciprocating pumps are as follows:

A. Piston and plunger type reciprocating pumps

1. Steam or Direct-acting, double-acting pumps
a) Simplex pumps
b) Duplex pumps

2. Power or indirect-acting pumps

a. Single-acting pumps
i. Simplex pumps
ii. Duplex pumps
iii. Triplex pumps
iv. Multiplex pumps
b. Double-acting pumps

i. Simplex pumps
ii. Duplex pumps
iii. Triplex pumps
iv. Multiplex pumps

B. Diaphragm-type reciprocating pumps

1. Simplex-type pumps
a. Fluid operated type
b. Mechanically operated type

2. Multiplex-type pumps
a. Fluid operated type
b. Mechanically operated type
CLASSIFICATION OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS IN TERMS OF THE
NUMBER OF WATER CYLINDERS

1. Simplex pump—a reciprocating pump with one cylinder

2. Duplex pump—a reciprocating pump with two cylinders
3. Multiplex—a reciprocating pump with three cylinders
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS TO REMEMBER:
A reciprocating pump, also known as a piston pump, is a pump in which
motion and pressure are applied to the fluid by a reciprocating piston in a
cylinder.
A piston rod is a rod that is connected to the piston, and either moves or is
moved by the piston.
 Piston speed is the distance traveled by a piston in a given time usually
expressed in fpm or m/s.
The volume that the piston in a cylinder displaces in a single stroke is known as
volume displacement. It is equal to the product of the product of the distance
the piston travels (stroke) and the internal cross section of the cylinder.
A direct-acting pump is a displacement-reciprocating pump in which the
steam or power piston is connected to the pump piston by means of a rod,
without crank motion or flywheel.
A displacement pump is a pump that develops its action through the alternate
filling and emptying of an enclosed volume in a piston-cylinder system.
A positive displacement pump is a pump in which a measured quantity of
liquid is entrapped in a space, its pressure raised, and is delivered like a
reciprocating piston cylinder, rotary vane, gear, or lobe pumps.
A gear pump is a rotary pump in which two meshing gear wheels rotate in
opposite directions so that the liquid is entrained on one side and discharged on
the other side.
Rotary pumps are displacement pumps that deliver a steady flow by the action
of two members in rotational contact.
A screw-type pump is a displacement pump that raises liquid by means of
helical impellers in the pump casing.
A duplex pump is a reciprocating pump with two parallel cylinders.
A submersible pump is one in which the pump itself and its electric driving
motor are together in a protective housing that permits the unit to operate
underwater.
Submersible pumps are either rotary, centrifugal, or reciprocating pumps.
A regenerative pump, also known as a turbine pump, has a rotating-vane
device that uses a combination of mechanical impulse and centrifugal force to
produce high liquid heads at low discharge.
A vertical turbine pump, also known as a deep-well pump, is a multi-stage
centrifugal pump used for lifting water from deep and small-diameter wells. A
surface electric motor operates the shaft.
A hydraulic machine is powered by a motor activated by the confined flow of
a stream of liquid, such as oil or water under pressure.
A hydraulic motor is activated by water or other liquid under pressure.

A jet pump is a pump in which an accelerating jet entrains a second fluid to deliver
it at elevated pressure.
The rotative speed (N) in rpm, of an indirect-acting reciprocating pump for cold
water is given by the equation, N = 907 (L -0.5), where L is the stroke in mm.
A hydraulic pump, also known as a hydraulic ram, is used to force running
water to a higher level by using kinetic energy of flow. The flow of water in the
supply pipeline is periodically stopped so that a small portion of water is lifted
by the velocity head of a larger portion.
The science and technology concerning the mechanics of fluids, especially
liquids, is known as hydraulics.
Steady flow is a flow of fluids in which all the conditions at any one point in a
pipe line are constant with respect to time.
Triplex pumps are three-cylindered pumps used to produce overlapping
deliveries and minimize pulsation.
The discharge capacity of a reciprocating pump is given by the equation, Q = ƞv
VD, where VD is the volume displacement in m3/s, ƞv is the volumetric
efficiency, and Q is the discharge capacity of the pump in m3/s.
A direct-acting, steam-driven reciprocating pump is one in which the steam
piston connects directly to the liquid piston or plunger.
In 1840, Henry R. Worthington invented the first reciprocating steam pump for
feeding water into a boiler.
There are two general types of direct-acting steam pumps: the simplex and the
 duplex. The simplex type has one steam and one water cylinder, while the
duplex type has two duplicate steam and two water cylinders.
A plunger-type pump is a reciprocating pump where the packing is on the
stationary casing instead of on the moving piston.
A diaphragm pump is a reciprocating pump used as a diaphragm to isolate the
operating parts from pumped liquid in a mechanically actuated diaphragm.
Diaphragm pumps, another design of reciprocating pumps, are used for
handling thick pulps, sewage sludge, acids or alkaline solutions, mixture of
water and gritty solids that wear out metal pumps, as well as liquid solutions or
pulps where a constant flow volume is required.
The diaphragm in a diaphragm pump is made of special rubber that resist
corrosion, abrasion, and in special cases, oil and high temperature.
Sludge pumps are primarily designed for pumping sludge or substances too
heavy to be handled successfully by centrifugal pumps.

FLUIDS WEEK 11
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS AND OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION
Hydraulic turbines are water wheels in which the motion of water relative to its
bucket is essential to its action.
Hydraulic turbines are machines that convert the energy of an elevated water
supply into mechanical energy through a rotating shaft.
Hydraulic loss is the loss in fluid power due to flow friction within the
system. Hydroelectric power plant is a facility where electric energy is
produced by hydroelectric generators. In this facility:
Water is the main source of energy.
Kinetic energy and potential energy are converted to mechanical
work. Hydraulic turbine is the prime mover.
Input power is the water
horsepower. Output power is the
turbine horsepower.

CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES

1. According to the action of water

a. Impulse turbine
b. Reaction turbine

2. According to the direction of water flow

a. Radial outward
b. Radial inward
c. Axial or parallel
d. Mixed radial

3. According to the position of shaft

a. Vertical turbine
b. Horizontal turbine

IMPULSE TURBINE
Impulse turbine is a hydraulic turbine or a prime mover in which fluid under
pressure enters a stationary nozzle where its pressure (potential) energy is converted to
velocity (kinetic) energy and absorbed by the rotor.

It is also known as tangential wheel or Pelton wheel.

The name Pelton is to acknowledge and honor its inventor Lester A.
Pelton of California.
 The wheel passage is not completely filled with
water. The water acting on wheel is always
atmospheric.
It utilizes kinetic energy of high velocity jet.
It is used for high head above 200 ft but most commonly applied to heads
above 700 ft.
The range of head from 200 to 700 ft is used for small
units. Heads of 5 000 ft have been used in European
installations. Impulse turbine’s efficiencies vary from
about 82% to 90%.
The net effective head is measured at the bottom of the pitch circle of the
runner with no consideration given to the water level at the tailrace (because
there is no draft tube).
TYPES OF WATER TURBINE RUNNER
1. Propeller or axial turbine or Kaplan turbine is a special type of propeller turbine
featuring variable –angle blades that can be changed with water flow to
maintain high efficiency.
2. Francis or radial- and mixed-flow turbine is used for an intermediate range of heads.
3. Pelton or impulse turbine is used in the highest heads.

RANGES OF SPECIFIC SPEED

Types of hydraulic turbines are classified in terms of the following specific speed
ranges:

1. Impulse or Pelton wheel —used for highest heads, NS = 3.5 to 4.3 rpm
2. Francis runners — used for intermediate heads, NS = 18 TO 85 rpm
3. Mixed-flow runners — used for medium to low heads, NS 100 to 125 rpm
4. Propeller runners — used for lowest heads, NS =110 to 150 rpm

5. Kaplan runners — with pivoted blades that can be angled for best efficiency
at any load, NS = 80 to 150 rpm

HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

A hydroelectric power plant is a facility where electric energy is produced
by hydroelectric generators.

Definition of Terms for a Hydroelectric Power Plant

Gross Head is the total difference in elevation between the water surface in the
stream at the diversion and the water surface in the stream at the point where
the water is returned after having been used for power.
Net or Effective head is the head available for energy production after
deducting losses in friction.
Hydraulic efficiency is equal to the ratio of net head to gross head.
Overall efficiency is equal to the hydraulic efficiency multiplied by the
efficiency of the turbines and generators. The overall efficiency of hydroelectric
plants operating at optimum conditions is usually somewhere between 60% to
70%.
Capacity is the maximum power that can be developed by the generator at a
normal head with full flow.
Firm or Primary power is the power which a plant is expected to deliver 100%
of the time. For a single hydroelectric power, it corresponds to the power
developed when available water, including that derived from storage, is at a
minimum.
Surplus or Secondary power is all power available in excess of firm power.
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS AND OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION

Reservoir is the chamber that stores water coming from the Upper River or
waterfalls. Headwater is the water stored in the reservoir.
Spillway is a passage in the reservoir which discharges excess water to
maintain the head of the plant.
Dam is the concrete structure that encloses the reservoir.
Slit Sluice is a chamber that collects the mud and through which the mud
is discharged.
Trash rack is the screen that prevents leaves, branches, and other contaminants
to enter into the penstock.
Valve is the reservoir component that opens or closes the entrance of the water
into the penstock.
Surge chamber is a standpipe connected to the atmosphere and attached
to the penstock so that the water will be at atmospheric pressure.
Penstock is the channel that directs water from the reservoir to the
turbine. Tailwater is the water that is discharged from the turbine.

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS TO REMEMBER:

Water turbines convert the potential energy in water behind a dam into shaft
work, ordinarily used to drive an electric generator.
Kaplan turbine is a special type of propeller turbine featuring variable-angle
blades that can be changed with water flow to maintain high efficiency.
Francis or radial- and mixed-flow turbines are used for an intermediate range of
heads.
Propeller turbines are built with fixed blades and variable-pitch blades.
One disadvantage of most hydro plants is their dependence on the rate of water
flow in a river.
One method of storing water during low power-demand periods to supply
energy during high-load periods of hydro plants is to use the reversible pump
turbine.
Pump turbines are usually physically larger than a turbine of the same capacity
and the motor generator is more costly than a standard generator.
The horsepower developed by a hydraulic turbine may be calculated by
deriving an equation based on the definition of a horsepower, such as:

where P is the turbine output, in Hp; Q is the water flow, cfs; Heff is the net
effective head, ft; ρ is the density of water, lb/ft3; and E is the turbine hydraulic
efficiency.
A net effective head is the difference in the total head for the water entering the
turbine casing and the total head leaving the draft tube.
Specific speed is the speed of a hypothetical model turbine having the same
configuration as the actual turbine, when the model would be of the proper size
to develop 1 Hp at a head of 1 ft.
Speed factor of a hydraulic turbine is given by the equation:

where Ns is the specific speed, rpm; Bp is the brake power of the turbine, Hp;
and Heff is the effective head of the turbine, ft.
Lester A. Pelton is the inventor of the Pelton wheel of a hydraulic
turbine. Impulse turbine efficiencies vary from about 82% to 90%.
The effective head of an impulse turbine is measured at the bottom of the pitch
circle of the runner with no consideration given to the water level at the tailrace
(because there is no draft tube).
James B. Francis is the inventor of the reaction type of turbines.
Francis-type reaction turbines are usually employed for heads of 70 to 900 ft,
and up 1100 ft.

Hydraulic turbines are water wheels in which the motion of water relative to its
bucket is essential to its action.
The two classifications of hydraulic turbines based on the position of the shaft are
the vertical turbine and the horizontal turbine.
The gross head tailwater for a hydroelectric plant is the difference
between the headwater elevation and tailwater elevation.
The net or effective turbine head is the difference of gross head and friction
head losses in the penstock.
The hydraulic efficiency is the ratio of net head and gross head.
The overall efficiency of the turbine is equal to the hydraulic efficiency
multiplied by the volumetric efficiency and turbine mechanical efficiency.
The overall efficiency of a hydroelectric plant operating at optimum conditions
ranges from 60% to 70%.
Firm or primary power is the power that a plant can be expected to deliver
100% of the time.
Surplus secondary power is the power available in excess of firm power.
Hydroelectric plants are classified into run-of-river plant, storage-type plant,
and pumped-storage plant.
A storage-type plant is one with a reservoir of sufficient size to permit carry-
over storage from the wet season to the dry season and, thus, to develop a firm
flow substantially more than the minimum natural flow.
A run-of-river plant is one with a very limited storage capacity and can be used
only as water comes.
Run-of-river plant are suitable only for streams that have a sustained flow
during the dry season or where other reservoirs upstream provide the necessary
storage.
A pumped-storage plant is one that generates power for peak load but at off-
peak, water is pumped from the tailwater pool to the headwater pool for future
use.
Water tailrace is the channel into which the water is discharged after passing
through the turbine.
In impulse turbine, wheel passages are not completely filled with
water. Water acting on impulse turbine wheels is always
atmospheric.
In reaction turbines, wheel passages are completely filled with water.
The energies used in reaction turbines are both kinetic and pressure
engines. Storage reservoir holds the water to run the plant.
A dam is a concrete structure that creates the required head of the hydraulic turbine.
A spillway discharges water during extreme flood flow so that water in the
reservoir does not overflow the dam.
 An intake equipment consists of rocks and screens to keep trash from
being carried down to the wheels and head gate.
 A penstock conducts water to the turbine.
 Fore bay is a small equalizing reservoir from which the penstock
sometimes draws water.
 Turbines are hydraulic prime movers driving electric generators.
 Surge tank is a component that absorbs water hammer during load
fluctuations and serves as an auxiliary reservoir during high load
 demands.
 Draft tube is a conduit at the outlet of the turbine that conducts water
away from the turbine.

Dump power is hydropower in excess of load requirement that is made

available by surplus water.
Firm power is a power intended to be always available even under
emergency conditions.
Prime mover power is a maximum potential power constantly available
for transformation into electric power.
Cold reserve is a reserve-generating capacity in service but not in
operation. Hot reserve is a reserve-generating capacity in operation but
not in service.
Reserve equipment is the standby equipment or installed equipment in excess of that
required to carry peak loads.
System reserve is a reserve-generating capacity and ready to take load.
Generator of efficiency refers to the effectiveness of conversion of mechanical
power into electric power.
Specific speed of the turbine runner is the speed in rpm in which a
geometrically similar or homologous turbine operates to deliver one (1) brake
power under a head of one (1) foot.
A storage reservoir (dam) is used to hold enough water to operate the plant for
some duration of time.
The penstock is a hydroelectric generating station that utilizes the stream flow
without storage.
A dam is the concrete structure that encloses the reservoir.
Slit sluice is a chamber that collects the mud and through which the
mud is discharged.
Trash rack is a screen that prevents the leaves, branches, and other water
contaminants to enter into the penstock.
Valve is a component that opens or closes the entrance of the water into the
penstock. Surge chamber is a standpipe connected to the atmosphere and
attached to the penstock so that the water will be at atmospheric pressure.
Penstock is the chamber that leads water from the reservoir to the turbine.
Turbine is the equipment that converts the energy of the water into mechanical
energy.
Pumped storage plant is a hydroelectric plant that involves the use of the off-
peak energy to store water and to use the stored water to generate extra energy
to cope with the peak load.
Propeller-type hydraulic turbine is a capable of operating with net head of up to
70 ft. Peripheral coefficient is the ratio of the peripheral velocity of the runner
and the velocity of the jet.
Generator speed is determined using the equation: where N is the
number of generator poles.
FLUIDS WEEK 12-13

GAS

COMPRESSORS

DEFINITION
Gas compressor is a machine used to transport gas from one point to another
point with higher energy level.

PRACTICAL USES OF COMPRESSED AIR

1. Operation of small engines and pneumatic tools.
2. Operation of air hoists
3. Cleaning of air blast
4. Tire inflation
5. Paint spraying
6. Air lifting of liquids
7. Other specialized industrial
application 8.
TYPES OF GAS COMPRESSORS
1. Reciprocating compressors
a) Single-stage reciprocating compressors
b) Multi-stage reciprocating compressors
2. Rotary compressors
a) Screw-type compressors
b) Gear-type compressors
c) Vane-type compressors
3. Centrifugal gas compressors
a) Single-stage centrifugal gas compressors
b) Multi-stage centrifugal gas compressors

ROTARY AND CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

Centrifugal compressor is a compressor in which the compression of the gas is
accomplished through the action of centrifugal force.
Rotary compressor is a compressors action is accomplished by the use of
rotating elements in the form of screws, gears, or vanes.
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
In the reciprocating compressors, the compression of gas is accomplished
through the back-and-forth movement of the piston or plunger inside the
cylinder.
 These compressors could be single-stage or multi-stage machines.

PREFERRED COMPRESSION CURVES

Consider the compression curves in the pVdiagram (Figure 12.4) below.

Figure 12.4
 pV Diagram of Compression Processes

Compression curves with values of n between unity and k will fall within the
shaded area; the work necessary to drive the compressor decreases as the value
of the exponent n decreases.
Polytropic compression and values of n less than k are brought about by
circulating cooling water or air around the compressor cylinder to conduct away
some of the heat generated by the compression.
Specified values of n based on experience are as follows:
n = 1.35 or higher→ for inexpensive compressors of the type found automotive
service centers
n =1.3 or less → under favorable conditions
n =1.25 to 1.3→ represents the best results for water-jacketed compressors
In the isothermal compression, all the heat equivalent of the compression work
is carried away, (U1 = U2).
In the isentropic compression, no heat is carried away and the gas leaves with
an increase in internal energy equivalent to the compression work.
In the polytropic compression, there is some heat carried away and a certain
increase in internal energy and temperature.
The heat rejected during the polytropic process is expressed by

Note:
If compression process is polytropoic, k = n
Actual volumetric efficiency is lower than the conventional volumetric
efficiency because of fluid friction of flow (the pressure in the cylinder is less
than the pressure of the free air) and because the cylinder walls, being relatively
hot, heat the incoming air (less mass of hot air can occupy a given space).
The volumetric efficiency decreases as the clearance increases.
As the volumetric efficiency of a compressor decreases, the capacity decreases.
Displacement volume (corresponding to one diagram) is the volume swept by
the piston in one stroke.