Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The diversity of the 21st-century classroom creates numerous challenges for teachers who may not have known
the same diversity themselves as students. Among these, teachers must balance the requirements of high-stakes
accountability while meeting the needs of diverse students within their classroom. The 26th Annual Report to
Congress on IDEA reported that approximately ninety-six percent of general education teachers have students
in their classroom with learning disabilities.1 This is not a surprising statistic, considering there are over six
million students with disability classifications in the United States. The frequency of special education students
in the classroom, however, is only one of the obstacles that teachers face. Teachers must also contend with an
increasing number of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds and from high-poverty
families.2
While many teachers express frustration over high-stakes accountability standards, they acknowledge pressure
to “teach to the test,” fearing non-proficient scores, dissatisfaction from school administrators, and in smaller
systems, the potential risk of embarrassment when scores are made public. Compounding the issue, data has
shown that students with disabilities perform well below their peers in standardized testing.3 In their research,
McTighe and Brown articulate a disconnect between the instructional practices found in today’s classrooms and
educational research that delineates “requirements for promoting genuine student engagement, understanding,
and longitudinal achievement progress.”4 The popular practices and attitudes critiqued by McTighe and Brown
include developing curriculum that is too broad, teachers’ flawed perception of the necessity to “cover” content,
the overuse of worksheets that are modeled after test formats, and “teaching to the test” in order to boost test
scores.
Differentiation in 2-D
Differentiated instruction comprises two major dimensions — the teacher-dependent dimension and the student-
dependent dimension. The two dimensions play off of one another, and each consists of its own set of variables:
1. Teacher-dependent dimension
2. Differentiation through content
3. Differentiation through process
4. Differentiation through product
5. Differentiation through environment
6. Student-dependent dimension
7. Differentiation according to student readiness
8. Differentiation according to student interest
9. Differentiation according to student learning profile
Differentiating instruction involves manipulating the teacher-dependent dimensions — those variables over
which teachers have control. But differentiating instruction effectively requires manipulating those variables
with attention to the student-dependent dimension — the variables over which teachers have no control, but that
make each student unique.
The power of technology lies in the teacher’s ability to use it for customizing instruction. It helps teachers to
address those student variables by manipulating the complexity or level of difficulty of the content, the ways in
which students receive and engage that content, their options demonstrating what they have learned, and the
circumstances under which they do so.
Having this knowledge of student learning preferences is very useful when designing instruction and creating
flexible grouping for students during classroom activities.
Student response systems, or “clickers,” offer another strategy for collecting data from students. These devices
connect to a computer and LCD projector or an interactive white board and allow students to answer questions
in class without sharing their responses with classmates. This option requires devices that must be purchased,
but because some interactive white boards are packaged with clickers, many schools may already have them.
Clickers provide immediate data that is aggregated with no additional effort. The data can be either anonymous
or tied to the individual learner, as many systems can associate the number of the device with a given student to
keep a running record for that student. Once collected, student data can then be used to develop either an
individual or classroom learning profile.
Using clickers to conduct a learning inventory is a formative assessment technique that provides feedback for
both teacher and student. And for students who are challenged with dysgraphia, which affects the ability to
write, clickers focus their attention on identifying the appropriate response, avoiding preoccupation with writing
so that a student can participate as readily as his or her classmates.
Less expensive and even free alternatives to student response systems include web-based tools like Poll
Everywhereand PollDaddy, which allow users to create polls that can capture data on a group of students. These
options record responses students submit through text messaging, handheld devices like iPod Touches, or
laptops. Poll Everywhere also includes an option to store data for individual students.
The article “Using Student Responders Responsibly” offers a thorough discussion of how to make the most of
clickers and web-based alternatives.
Differentiating by content
Differentiating by content can happen in a variety of ways, but the two primary means include 1) using different
content to teach the same subject to students with different needs, and 2) enhancing or augmenting existing
content to make it accessible to all students. Technology can facilitate both strategies — finding new content
and augmenting existing content.
Video: Using Technology to Differentiate by Content
In this video, classroom footage and interviews with educators illustrate a variety of ways to differentiate by
content using technology.
The use of the worldwide web to find information is now so ubiquitous that it’s easy to forget how we taught —
or lived — without it. But it wasn’t long ago that teachers and textbooks provided the sole sources of content
for students in the classroom. Now the range of material immediately available to students is almost without
limit, and includes research-based articles by university professors, digitized books, manipulative images,
archived radio programs, scientific videos, and much more.
Most teachers already understand how to find relevant content for students on the internet. What isn’t always so
obvious is how to find content that supports the learning goals for a lesson while meeting students’ individual
learning needs. How do you find just the right piece of content, in the right format and at the right level, to
reach a particular student? Unfortunately, there’s no magic formula that can answer this question correctly
every time. Formative and summative assessment strategies are necessary to gain feedback on whether a certain
type of content is successful with a particular student. But there are certain basic concepts that can provide a
useful starting point:
Students with ADHD
Students who have problems attending to lecture or reading lengthy texts benefit when verbal and textual input
can be supplemented with visual reinforcement by video or images. Video-streaming subscription sites
like Discovery Education Streaming offer authentic content produced with the learner in mind. These online
video databases are easily searchable and offer a range of topics and levels.
English language learners
Students for whom English is not a first language can become frustrated when presented with information that
meets their English comprehension level but is far below their cognitive level. These students also benefit from
supplementing verbal and written information with videos. Discovery Education videos include closed-
captioning, which reinforces the language by providing spoken and written speech at the same time, while
supporting vocabulary acquisition with images.
Students with reading or processing difficulties
Students who have difficulty reading or processing text similarly benefit from visual reinforcement for a
reading passage. Supplementing a reading passage with images provides valuable context that can scaffold the
learner’s understanding. Before sharing a reading selection with students, the teacher can identify the elements
of the passage that lend themselves to visual enhancement and create a list of images to enhance
comprehension. Image databases like Flickr and the Wikimedia Commons provide easy, searchable access to
countless images, which can be displayed in slideshow format as a pre-reading strategy for the entire class.
Alternately, images can be inserted into a multimedia presentation to be viewed individually alongside a text
while the student reads. If the text is available electronically, it may be possible to insert both the text and the
associated image in the presentation.
AUGMENTING CONTENT
Just as technology offers a way to bring different content to students, it also provides a way to make the same
content accessible to students for whom that might not otherwise be a possibility. A reading passage that may
not meet the needs of every student in a classroom can easily be made accessible with the aid of technology. As
with all differentiation practices, begin by considering the needs of the learner, and let the technology follow.
This concept map, created using the free program Bubbl.us, illustrates key ideas and relationships from a
reading passage about animal habitats. Click on the image for a larger version.
Screen-reading software
If the chosen text is web-based, an initial starting point to support students who have difficulty with reading is
to use screen-reading software. This category of software assists students with learning disabilities by reading
aloud text from a web page or document using a synthesized voice. In some instances, the software highlights
the words as they are being read, allowing students to follow along as they hear the text. This strategy is also
useful for English language learners, although it’s important to ensure that the quality of the audio input offered
is comprehensible to the listener. Screen readers have suffered harsh criticism because the synthetic voice may
not provide the fluency and authenticity needed by some learners. But in recent years, these voices have become
more human-like. Most screen-readers offer a free trial and some of the more simple programs are available for
free.
Concept mapping
Sometimes the challenge posed by the text is one of understanding and remembering relationships. The ability
to understand these connections can frustrate the learner, interfering with comprehension of the text. In a
narrative passage that centers around character interaction, students with processing difficulties may have
trouble retaining the relationship between key characters. In a social studies classroom, the problem may be one
of grasping how key events relate to a historical construct. In an English language arts classroom, the challenge
might be understanding and remembering the organizational structure of a research paper.
Concept maps support students’ comprehension by identifying key concepts and making visible the
relationships between them.18 These visual representations allow students to read the same passage as their
peers without the frustration caused by the inability to synthesize information. To use concept maps as a pre-
reading strategy, teachers can create concept maps and give them to students with processing issues or dyslexia
prior to reading a text. Depending on the level of the students, the teacher may use this to preview the passage
with the whole class or individually. Students can also create their own concept maps after completing a
reading. Used in this way as a post-reading activity, concept maps can help students more closely review what
they’ve read and can serve as formative assessment.
Concept maps can be created using web-based applications or stand-alone software programs. Tools like the
web-based Bubbl.us allow the user to create a simple concept map that may be either printed or downloaded as
an image file. Stand-alone software like Inspiration and Kidspirationfor younger learners, offer a broader range
of features including the ability to insert images to represent the major nodes, and the ability to insert text to
state the relationship between those nodes. While this software is not free, a trial version is available for
download.
Digital textbooks, eBooks, and audiobooks
Digital textbooks, both online and CD-based, offer options for accessing the same content at different levels of
complexity. The digital format offers an advantage over traditional textbooks because digital publications can
incorporate time-based and interactive media directly within the text. For example, North Carolina History: A
Digital Textbook contains a map of North Carolina agriculture from 1860-2007, illustrating the acres of
farmland by county. By dragging a sliding bar underneath the map, the learner can visually see the decrease in
land devoted to farming over time. Students who are dyslexic or who have processing issues benefit from multi-
sensory input afforded by textbook features like this one.
CD-based digital textbooks provided by textbook publishers offer a variety of features, including pronunciation
guides, text-to-speech, and vocabulary support, as well as features that allow the reader to change the formatting
of the text to improve readability.
Many digital textbooks allow students to hear the text. This feature supports students with learning disabilities
and English language learners, who benefit from the ability to hear and view the text simultaneously. Perhaps
one of the best sources for audio-enhanced books of all kinds is the federally funded Bookshare. Operating
under an exception to U.S. copyright law, Bookshare allows registered users to download books, textbooks, and
newspapers to be accessed via text-to-speech readers. Bookshare is freely available to qualifying schools and
students.
CAST UDL Book Builder
Some learning situations may require further customization not possible via pre-fabricated content. In these
situations, the teacher must seek tools for enhancing text as opposed to already enhanced text. One of the gems
of the web is the CAST UDL Book Builder, a free digital book database and book builder. Developed and
hosted by the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST), Book Builder helps educators “create, share,
publish, and read digital books that support diverse learners according to their individual needs, interests, and
skills.” The database and tool integrate a number of technologies like screen-reading software to make content
accessible to students with learning disabilities, yet at the same time integrating functionality that engages the
reader through the use of built-in avatars who pose questions and offer ideas as the students reads.
For example, imagine a student who has difficulty understanding cellular mitosis. The teacher may write his or
her own explanation of the process, including illustrations, and upload them into a “book” on the Book Builder
site. In addition, the program includes built-in avatars, up to three per book, that appear underneath the book as
icons. The teacher may elect to use them to offer addition commentary on a page or to post comprehension
questions for the reader. In this example, an avatar might ask at a certain point, “Who cares about cellular
mitosis? Why is it important?” Just like the text of the book, the text of the avatars can also be read to the
student.
Microsoft Word
One of the easiest differentiation tools for a reading passage is a software program that most teachers have
readily at hand — Microsoft Word. Smaller reading passages, copied and pasted into Microsoft Word, can be
easily enhanced to aid comprehension using standard formatting features within the program. Using the
highlighting feature can help students focus on particular aspects of a text like parts of speech, literary devices,
or key elements of a paragraph or research paper. Teachers can also use the comment feature to provide
scaffolding or context for a student who needs help with a reading passage. Comments allow a user to insert a
call-out box elaborating on a difficult vocabulary word, idiomatic expression, or complicated idea.
For example, imagine an English language learner reading a passage about summer vacation activities. One
section of the reading mentions a family that spends the day at a water park, enjoying a water slide. Since the
concept of a water park and a water slide are somewhat culturally bound, the mention of this activity might
impede comprehension for the ESL student. By creating a comment associated with the term, the student
receives support at the point at which it is needed. This strategy allows the student to continue reading with
relatively little disruption.
Differentiating by process
As with differentiation by content, using technology to differentiate by process requires first attending to the
student-dependent dimension of differentiation. Focusing on student readiness, student interest, and student
learning profile yields effective differentiation centered on learners’ needs.
Video: Using Technology to Differentiate by Process
In this video, classroom footage and interviews with educators illustrate a variety of ways to differentiate by
process using technology.
FLEXIBLE GROUPING
One way to attend to those student-dependent variables is to implement flexible grouping. In flexible grouping,
students are organized in groups according to one of the three variables — ability/readiness grouping, interest
grouping, or grouping by learning profile. The strategy is termed “flexible” because students may be grouped
differently according to the activity or learning objective, and because students can move from one group to
another.
A teacher might draw on an initial learning inventory to group by learning profile, identifying students who
have similar preferences like learning through writing, learning by discussing, or learning by creating
something. Grouping by interest would organize students based on their preference when given a choice like
researching different careers that use biology. Grouping by ability or readiness would organize students
according to their background knowledge of the subject or their ability to proceed through the information at a
certain pace.
The strategy allows teachers to simplify their planning by preparing for two, three, or four basic groups. And
because the groups are flexible students don’t feel pigeon-holed into one niche in the classroom.
Differentiating by product
Student demonstrations of learning reflect who they are as individuals, who they are as creators, and who they
are as learners. Differentiating by product means offering options for how students will express their
understanding of the target learning goals and objectives. Allowing students to choose from several options
empowers them and increases their motivation and engagement. And because numerous studies have shown a
positive correlation between student engagement, appropriate academic activities, and high achievement,
differentiating by product often translates to improved student achievement.20
The range of technologies available for students to create and store products is vast and constantly increasing.
Johnassen and Reeves consider these technologies “cognitive tools” because they “enhance the cognitive
powers of human beings during thinking, problem-solving, and learning.”21 The options and flexibility
provided by these cognitive tools offer support for a range of learning disabilities. As with all other aspects of
differentiation, the key to successfully harnessing the affordances of these technologies lies in using the TPACK
model — start with the learning goals and move through the steps, selecting the technology as the last step.
Effective selection of technology should also be done with attention to students’ readiness, interest, and learning
profile. For every learning objective and student need, there’s an appropriate tool that can play to students’
strengths while engaging and motivating them.
Video: Using Technology to Differentiate by Product
In this video, classroom footage and interviews with educators illustrate a variety of ways to differentiate by
product using technology.
Differentiating by environment
The importance of the fourth element of teacher-dependent differentiation, manipulating the environment to
support all learners, has been established in numerous studies.22 The environment refers to the physical space
where learning takes place and all the elements within that space that have an impact on student learning. While
it is important to know students’ backgrounds and needs in order to effectively teach them, we must also attend
to how students learn best and how environmental factors impact their ability to learn optimally.
Obviously, some elements of the environment cannot be manipulated. Where desks are bolted to the floor or the
temperature is controlled elsewhere, teachers face limitations on how much of the environment they can
influence. But even in the realm of the classroom environment, technology can support differentiation.
Video: Using Technology to Differentiate by Learning Environment
In this video, classroom footage and interviews with educators illustrate a variety of ways to differentiate by
environment using technology.
CONTROLLED CHAOS
Differentiated classrooms are not quiet places of learning. Students move throughout the room as they
collaborate with classmates. Table discussions occur on a regular basis. Students listen to (and create) audio
recordings, and text-to-speech devices sound off, making reading passages accessible to all students. While this
may sound like a symphony of learning to a teacher, a student with processing issues might experience it as an
overwhelming cacophony.
Fortunately, where technology amplifies the learning noise of a classroom, it also provides solutions for keeping
that noise under control. Individual student headsets are a critical component of a differentiated classroom,
allowing students to access audio and video at any time without disturbing their peers. Effective differentiation
by environment also requires careful planning so that some students work individually using headsets while
others work in groups. The noise of students’ collaborative groups doesn’t distract students who are using
headsets to access audio content, and vice-versa.
In schools that have adopted one-to-one initiatives, in which each student has access to a laptop, students have
their own “differentiation in a box.” While each student has the same tools, those tools can be manipulated in
ways that serve individual needs. A one-to-one environment simplifies other aspects of differentiation, because
students have ready access to differentiated content, tools for differentiated learning processes, and resources
for creating differentiated products. Teachers who don’t have the benefit of a one-to-one environment can use
the same principles of differentiation, but need to plan more carefully to distribute resources equitably and make
effective use of the school’s media center.