CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

1.1
INTRODUCTION
……………………………………………………………………………...
1.1.1 Reinforced Concrete

Reinforced concrete is one of the principal materials use in many civil engineering application
such as the construction of buildings, retaining walls, foundations, water-retaining structures,
highways and bridges. It is a composite material, consisting of steel reinforcing bars embedded
in concrete. The se two materials have complementary properties. Concrete, on the one hand,
has high compressive strength but low tensile strength. Steel bars, on the other can resist high
tensile stresses but will buckle when subjected to comparatively low compressive stresses. Steel
is much more expensive than concrete.by providing steel bars predominantly in those zones
within a concrete member which will be subjected to tensile stresses, an economical structural
material can be produced which is both strong in compression and strong in tension. In addition
the concrete provides corrosion protection and fire resistance to the more vulnerable
embedded steel reinforcing bars.
A typical reinforced concrete element is illustrated in Figure 1.1. The tensile
strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive strength. Reinforcement is
designed to carry these tensile forces, which are transferred by bond between the interfaces of
the two materials. If this bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars will just slip within the
concrete and there will not be a composite action. Thus, reinforced concrete members should be
detailed so that the concrete can be well compacted around the reinforcement during
construction.

Steel
reinforcement

Steel
reinforcement

Concrete

Figure 1.1: Composite action of concrete and steel.

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

1.1.1.1 Structural Design

Structural design is a process of determination of reliable structural system, selection of
suitable materials and determination of optimum member sizes for the structure to be built. The
aim of structural design is to ensure that the structure will perform satisfactorily during its
design life. The criteria which the structure should satisfy may summarize as follows:

i. Fitness for purpose: The arrangement of spaces, spans, ceiling height, access,
and traffic flow must compliment the intended use. The structure should fit its
environment and be aesthetically pleasing.

ii. Safety and reliability: A structure must be strong enough to safely support all
anticipated loadings and it must not deflect, overturn, tilt, vibrate or crack in a
manner that impairs its usefulness.

iii. Economy: the overall cost of the structure should not exceed the client’s budget.
iv. Maintainability: A structure should be designed to require a minimum of
maintenance and to be able to be maintained in a simple fashion.

1.1.1.2 Project Procedure

Reinforced concrete construction project is an outcome of a collaborative venture involving the
client, the architecture, the structural engineer and the contractor. Other specialist may also
have to be consulted, with regard to soil investigation, water supply, sanitation, fire protection,
transportation, ventilation, air-conditioning, acoustics, electrical services, etc. Typically, a
construction project involves three phase as follows :

i. Planning phase
ii. Design phase
iii. Construction phase

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

CLIENT/ PROJECT MENAGER

ARCHITECT

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
• Determine the best
structural systems or
forms to bring the
architect’s concept into
being
• Analysis and design the
structure
• Determine the
arrangement and layout • Produce the structural
of the structure to meet drawings
the clients
• Produce architecture
drawings

CONTRACTOR CLIENT/ PROJECT MENAGER

Construct the structure under Prepare bill of quantities,

the supervision of engineers specification and contract
and architects document

Figure 1.2: Design Process

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

1.1.2 Design Purpose

In the final analysis, there are two most important purpose of which the design engineer must
ensure in the design provided :

i. The safety of the structure under any possible worst loading condition
ii. The deformation of the structure under normal loading conditions remains within the
acceptable range in the context of the structure’s appearance, performance and durability.

1.1.2.1 Code od Practice

Code of Practice is a document that gives recommendations for the design and construction of
structures. It contains detailed requirements regarding loads, stresses, strengths, design
formulas and methods achieving the required performance of completed structure.
The design procedures, described in this module conform to the following Euro
code (EC) published by European Committee for Standardization

EN 1990 Eurocode Basis of structural design

EN 1991 Eurocode 1 Actions an structures

EN 1992 Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures

Euro code 2 (EC2) applies to the design of buildings and civil engineering works in plain,
reinforced and pre-stressed concrete. EC 2 comes in several parts as shown in Table 1.1

Eurocode 2 Title

EN 1992 Part 1-1 General rules and rules for buildings

EN 1992 Part 1-2 General rules – Structural fire design

EN 1992 Part 2 Concrete Bridges – Design and detailing rules

EN 1992 Part 3 Liquid retaining and containment structures

Table 1.1 : Scope of Eurocode 2

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

Eurocode Title Superseded standards

EN 1990 Basis of structural design BS 8110: Part 1 – Section 2
EN 1991-1-1 Densities, self-weight and imposed loads BS 6399 : Part 1 and BS 648
EN 1991-1-2 Action on structures exposed to fire -
EN 1991-1-3 Snow loads BS 6399 : Part 2
EN 1991-1-4 Wind loads BS 6399 : Part 3
EN 1991-1-5 Thermal actions -
EN 1991-1-6 Actions during execution -
EN 1991-1-7 Accidental actions -
EN 1991-2 Traffic loads on bridges BD 37/88

EN 1991-3 Actions induced by crane and machinery -

EN 1991-4 Silos and tanks -
EN 1992-1-1 General rules for buildings BS 8110: Parts 1, 2 and 3
EN 1992-1-2 Fire resistance of concrete BS 8110: Part 1

Table 1.2 : Eurocode vs. BS8110

1.1.3 Structural Elements

Reinforce concrete structures consist of a series of individual members that interact to support
the loads placed on the structure. The complete building structure can be broken down into the
following elements.

i. Beams: horizontal members carrying lateral loads

ii. Slabs: horizontal plate elements carrying lateral loads.
iii. Columns: vertical members carrying primarily axial loads but generally
subjected to axial load and moment.
iv. Walls: vertical plate elements revisiting vertical, lateral or in plane load
v. Foundations: pads or strip supported directly on the ground that spread loads
from columns or walls to the ground.
vi. Staircases: plate elements consist of a flight of steps, usually with one or more
landings provided between the floor levels.

The elements listed above are illustrated in Figure 1.3 which shows reinforced concrete
building construction.

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

Figure 1.3: Reinforced concrete building elements

1.1.4 Creep
Concrete creep is defined as deformation of structure under sustained load. Basically, long term
pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This deformation usually occurs in the
direction the force is being applied. Like a concrete column getting more compressed, or a beam
bending. Creep does not necessarily cause concrete to fail or break apart. Creep is factored in
when concrete structures are designed.

Factor Affecting Creep

1. Aggregate
2. Mix Proportions
3. Age of Concrete

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 CHAPTER 1 :DESIGN CONCEPT

Influence of Aggregate
• Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really the paste which is responsible for the
creep. However, the aggregate influences the creep of concrete through a restraining
effect on the magnitude of creep. The paste which is creeping under load is restrained by
aggregate which do not creep. The stronger the aggregate the more is the restraining
effect and hence the less is the magnitude of creep. The modulus of elasticity of aggregate
is one of the important factors influencing creep.
• It can be easily imagined that the higher the modulus of elasticity the less is the creep.
Light weight aggregate shows substantially higher creep than normal weight aggregate.

Influence Mix Proportions

The amount of paste content and its quality is one of the most important factors influencing
creep. A poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep. Therefore, it can be said that creep
increases with increase in water/cement ratio. In other words, it can also be said that creep is
inversely proportional to the strength of concrete. Broadly speaking, all other factors which are
affecting the water/cement ratio are also affecting the creep.

Influence of Age
Age at which a concrete member is loaded will have a predominant effect on the magnitude of
creep. This can be easily understood from the fact that the quality of gel improves with time.
Such gel creeps less, whereas a young gel under load being not so stronger creeps more. What is
said above is not a very accurate statement because of the fact that the moisture content of the
concrete being different at different age also influences the magnitude of creep.

Effects of Creep on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

• In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with time and may be a
critical consideration in design.
• In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can load to buckling.
• In case of statically indeterminate structures and column and beam junctions creep may
relieve the stress concentration induced by shrinkage, temperatures changes or
movement of support. Creep property of concrete will be useful in all concrete structures
to reduce the internal stresses due to non-uniform load or restrained shrinkage.
• In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential temperature
conditions at the interior and surface, creep is harmful and by itself may be a cause of
cracking in the interior of dams. Therefore, all precautions and steps must be taken to see
that increase in temperature does not take place in the interior of mass concrete
structure.
• Loss of pre-stress due to creep of concrete in pre-stressed concrete structure.

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

The characteristic of creep are:

i. The final deformation of the member can be three to four times the short-term
elastic deformation.
ii. The deformation is roughly proportional to the intensity of loading and to the
inverse of the concrete strength.
iii. If the load is removed, only the instantaneous elastic deformation will recover-
the plastic deformation will not.
iv. There is a redistribution of load between the concrete and any steel present.

The redistribution of load is caused by the changes in compressive strains being

transferred to the reinforcing steel. Thus the compressive stresses in the steel are increased so
that the steel takes a larger proportion of the load.

The effects of creep are particularly important in beams, where the increased deflection may
cause the opening of cracks, damage to finishes, and the non-alignment of mechanical
equipment.

Figure 1.4: Typical increase of deformation with time for concrete

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

1.1.5 Concrete Durability

Durability is defined as the capability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack
and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties. It normally refers to the
duration or life span of trouble-free performance. Different concretes require different degrees
of durability depending on the exposure environment and properties desired. For example,
concrete exposed to tidal seawater will have different requirements than indoor concrete.

Concrete will remain durable if:

• The cement paste structure is dense and of low permeability
• Under extreme condition, it has entrained air to resist freeze-thaw cycle.
• It is made with graded aggregate that are strong and inert
• The ingredients in the mix contain minimum impurities such as alkalis, Chlorides,
sulphates and silt

Factors Affecting Durability of Concrete

Durability of Concrete depends upon the following factors:
Cement content
• Mix must be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent segregation and bleeding. If cement
is reduced, then at fixed w/c ratio the workability will be reduced leading to inadequate
compaction. However, if water is added to improve workability, water / cement ratio
increases and resulting in highly permeable material.
Compaction
• The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by inadequate compaction. Usually it
is being governed by the compaction equipments used, type of formworks, and density of
the steelwork
Curing
• It is very important to permit proper strength development aid moisture retention and to
ensure hydration process occur completely
Cover
• Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set in codes
Permeability
• It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be noticed that higher
permeability is usually caused by higher porosity .Therefore, a proper curing, sufficient
cement, proper compaction and suitable concrete cover could provide a low permeability
concrete

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

1.1.6 Specification of materials

1.1.6.1 Concrete (Clause 2.1,EC2)

The characteristic strength fck is the 28 days cylinder strength. Table 1.4 shows the
characteristic strength of various classes of concrete recommended for use in reinforced and
pre-stressed concrete design. Class C20/25, for example refers to cylinder/cube strength of 20
and 25 N/mm2 respectively.

Concrete Characteristic cylinder Characteristic cube

strength strength, fck (N/mm2) strength, fck cube
class (N/mm2)

C20/25 20 25

C25/30 25 30

C30/37 30 37

C35/45 35 45

C40/50 40 50

C45/55 45 55

C50/55 50 55

C55/67 55 67

C60/75 60 75

Table 1.3: Concrete strength classes

1.1.6.2 Reinforcing Steel (Clause 3.2, ,EC2)

The characteristic strength of steel reinforcement is denotes by fyk. The specified strength for
ribbed reinforcement given in EC2 is in the range of Grade 400 to 600 N/mm2. The more
common type of reinforcement currently use in the UK is Grade 500.

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

1.2
LIMIT STATE DESIGN
……………………………………………………………………............
1.2.1 Limit States
Design method discussed in EC2 is based on limit state principles. A limit state can be defined as
the state of a structure which represents the acceptable limit of an aspect of structural behavior.
The purpose of design is to archived acceptable probabilities that a structure will not become
unfit for intended use that it will not reach a limit state. The two principal types of limit state are
the ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state.

i. Ultimate limit state (ULS)

This requires that the structure must be able to withstand, with an adequate
factor of safety against collapse, the loads for which it is designed to ensure the
safety of the building occupants and/or the safety of the structure itself. The
possibility of buckling or overturning must also be taken into account, as must
the possibility of accidental damage as caused, for example, by internal
explosion.

ii. Serviceability limit state (SLS)

Generally the most important serviceability limit states are:

a. Deflection: the appearance or efficiency of any part of the structure must not
be adversely affected by deflections nor should the comfort of the building
users be adversely affected.
b. Cracking: local damage due to cracking and spalling must not affect the
appearance, efficiency or durability of the structure.

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

c. Durability: this must be considered in terms of the proposed life of the

structure and its conditions of exposure.
d. Fire resistance: this must be considered in terms of resistance to collapse,
flame penetration and heat transfer.

The relative importance of each limit state will vary according to the nature of the structure.
Checks must also be made to ensure that all other relevant limit states are satisfied by the
results produced. Except in special cases, such as water retaining structures, the ultimate limit
state is generally critical for reinforced concrete although subsequent serviceability checks may
affect some of the details of the design.

1.2.2 Characteristics of material strength, action and partial factor

1.2.2.1 Characteristics of material strength
The strength of materials upon which design is based is such strengths below which results
unlikely to fall. These are called characteristic strengths. It is assumed that for a given material,
the variation of strengths will have a normal distribution as shown in Figure 1.1.5.

Mean strength (fm)

Characteristic
Mean strength (fm)

strength (fy))

1.64s

Strength

Figure 1.5: Typical increase of deformation with time for concrete

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

The characteristic strength is taken as that value, below which it is unlikely that more than
5% of the results will fails. Thus statistically:

Characteristic strength = Mean strength – 1.65 (standard deviation)

fk = fm – 1.64s

Where fy = characteristic strength, fm = mean strength and s = standard deviation.

1.2.2.2 Action
Action is the EC2 terminology for loads and imposed deformations. EC2 defines an action
(F) as a force or load applied to a structure. The characteristic actions are the actual loads
that the structure is designed to carry. These are normally thought of as maximum loads
which will not be exceeded during the life of the structure. In statistical terms the
characteristic actions have a 95% probability of not being exceeded. The characteristic
actions used in design and defined in EC2 are follows:

i. Characteristic permanent actions, Gk

Permanent actions include the weight of the structure itself and all architectural
components such as exterior cladding, partition and ceilings. Equipment and static
machinery, when permanent fixtures, are also often considered as part of
permanent load. Examples of weight of material as given in EC1 are shown in Table
1.1.4

Material Density (kN/m3)

Lightweight concrete 9 - 20
Normal weight concrete 24 - 25
Cement mortar 19 - 23
Wood 3.5 - 9.8
Plywood 4.5 - 7
Particle boards 7-12
Steel 77 - 78.5
Water 10

Table 1.4: Wieght of construction materials

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

ii. Characteristic variable action, Qk

These actions are more difficult to determine accurately. For many of it is only
possible to make conservative estimates based on standard codes of practice or past
experience. Example of variable actions on building is the weights of its occupants,
furniture or machinery. Table 1.5 shown the example of variable actions as given in
EC2.

Category of loaded area Qk kN/m2

A A1: All usage within self-contained dwelling 1.5

Area for units
domestic and
A2: Bedrooms and dormitories 1.5
residential
activities
A3: Bedrooms in hotels, hospital 2.0

B B1:General use 2.5

Office area
B2: At or below ground floor level 3.0

C C11: Areas with tables – dining rooms 2.0

Areas where
people may C13: Areas with tables – Classrooms 3.0
congregate
C22: Area with fixed seat – Assembly areas 4.0

D D1: Areas in general retail shops 4.0

Shopping areas

Table 1.5: Imposed load on floors in building

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

1.2.2.3 Partial factor of safety

Other possible variations such as constructional tolerances are allowed for by partial
factors of safety applied to the strength of the materials and to the actions. It should
theoretically be possible to derive values for these from a mathematical assessment of the
probability of reaching each limit state. Lack of adequate data, however, makes this
unrealistic and, in practice, the values adopted are based on experience and simplified
calculations.

The use of partial factors of safety on materials and actions offers

considerable flexibility, which may be used to allow for special conditions such as very high
standards of construction and control or, at the other extreme, where structural failure
would be particularly unsuccessful.

Design Action
The design value of an action is obtained by multiplying the characteristic actions, fk by
partial safety factor for actions, γf

Design actions = Characteristic actions x Partial safety factor

Fd = Fk x γf

The factor, γf accounts for possible increase in load, inaccurate assessment of the effects of
loads, inaccurate modeling of the load and the importance if the limit state being
considered. Values for γf are given in Table 1.6

Situation γc for concrete γs for steel

Persistent & Transient 1.5 1.15

accidental 1.2 1.0

Table 1.6: Partial safety factors for materials

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

Combination of action and pattern

Various combinations of the characteristic values of permanent Gk, variable actions Qk ,
wind actions Wk and their partial factors of safety must be considered for the loading of the
structure. For the ultimate limit state the following action combinations are commonly use:

i. Permanent and variable actions

1.35 Gk + 1.5 Qk

ii. Permanent and wind actions

1.35 Gk + 1.5 Wk

The variable action can usually cover all or any part of the structure and therefore should be
arranged to cause the most severe stresses. So, for a continuous beam the loading
arrangement shown in Figure 1.1.6.

Variable action, 1.5Qk

Permanent action, 1.35Gk

a) All spans loaded

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

b) Adjacent span loaded

c) Alternate spans loaded

Figure 1.6 : Continunous beam loading arrangement

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 CHAPTER 1 : DESIGN CONCEPT

1.3
MODE OF FAILURE
……………………………………………………………………............
Types of failure
There are three types of failure of cross section:

1.3.1 Mode of failure under reinforced design

Where area of steel reinforcement provided is smaller than area of concrete. In this situation,
reinforcement will achieve failure limit before concrete achieve strength maximum. Failure
structure is occurs because of reinforcement fail in tension.

1.3.2 Mode of failure in balance reinforced design

Where area of steel reinforcement provided is similar (or balance) to area of concrete. In this
situation, reinforcement will achieve the limit together with concrete achieve strength
maximum. Reinforcement and concrete will fail simultaneously.

1.3.3 Mode of failure over reinforced design

Where area of steel reinforcement provided is more than area of concrete. In this situation,
concrete will achieve the maximum stress before reinforcement. The failure occurs because of
concrete fall in compression.

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