YGOLOISYHP

DNA
YMOTANA
THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
BY: SUE S. KALINAWAN, RN MAN

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MODULE OBJECTIVES

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LIST THE COMPONENTS OF THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM.

EXPLAIN THE FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM.

DEFINE TERMS RELATED TO NERVOUS SYSTEM.

DESCRIBE THE ANATOMIC STRUCTURES AND

PHYSIOLOGIC MECHANISMS/ PROCESSES/

SYSTEMS INVOLVED IN NERVOUS SYSTEM,

PREDICT THE CONSEQUENCES OF ANATOMICAL

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AND/OR PHYSIOLOGICAL ALTERATIONS

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

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YMOTANA
01

FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION

02

SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL

NERVES

03

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BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES

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FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM

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MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS.
RECEIVING SENSORY INPUT.
INTEGRATING INFORMATION.
CONTROLLING MUSCLES AND
GLANDS.
ESTABLISHING AND
MAINTAINING MENTAL

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ACTIVITY.

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DIVISIONS OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM

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01

Central Nervous System (CNS)

02

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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FIGURE 1

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CNS
PNS

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Additional Links: CNS: https://youtu.be/q8NtmDrb_qo PNS: https://youtu.be/QY9NTVh-Awo

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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

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BRAIN The brain is located within the skull, and
the spinal cord is located within the vertebral
canal formed by the
vertebrae.

SPINAL CORD The brain and spinal cord connect with

each other at the foramen magnum of the
skull.

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PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

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Cells of the nervous system are called neurons.
NEURONS
Neurons send electrical messages from their cell
body to other cells with long extensions called axons.

SENSORY RECEPTORS The endings of neurons, or separate, specialized

cells that detect temperature, pain, touch,
pressure, light, sound, odor, and other stimuli.

NERVE A nerve is a bundle of many axons that connects the

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CNS to sensory receptors, muscles, and glands.

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PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

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There are 12 pairs of nerves originating from the
CRANIAL AND SPINAL
NERVE brain, called cranial nerves, and 31 pairs of nerves
originating from the spinal cord, called spinal
nerves.

GANGLION A collection of neuron cell bodies located outside

the CNS.

An extensive network of axons and, in some cases,

PLEXUS
neuron cell bodies, located outside the CNS.

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PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

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SENSORY DIVISION The sensory division, or afferent (“toward”)
division, transmits electrical signals, called
action potentials, from sensory receptors in the
body to the CNS.

MOTOR DIVISION The motor division, or efferent (“away”)

division, transmits action potentials from the

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CNS to effector organs, such as muscles and
glands.

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MOTOR DIVISION: SUBDIVISIONS

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The somatic nervous system allows you to decide
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
to move your skeletal muscles, as when you raise
your hand. Voluntary (conscious) division.

The sympathetic division is called the fight-or-

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM flight division, while the parasympathetic division
is called the rest-and-digest division.

ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM A unique feature of enteric neurons is that they

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monitor and control the digestive tract
independently of the CNS through local reflexes.

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FIGURE 2
SOMATIC,
AUTONOMIC,
AND
ENTERIC
STRUCTURES
OF THE
NERVOUS
SYSTEM

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1. Neuron Cell body (soma) The cell body

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NEURON is called the neuron cell body, or soma;

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STRUCTURE as with any other type of cell, the cell
body’s nucleus is the source of
information for protein synthesis.
THREE
2. Dendrite. One type of cellular projection
PARTS
referring to its branching organization.
3. Axon. The other type of cellular
projection is called the axon, or nerve
fiber, referring to the straight alignment
and uniform diameter of most axons.

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The functional classification is based on the
TYPES OF

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NEURONS direction in which action potentials are

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conducted.
Sensory neurons (afferent neurons)
conduct action potentials toward the CNS;
FUNCTIONAL
CLASSIFICATION Motor neurons (efferent neurons) conduct
action potentials away from the CNS toward
muscles or glands.

Interneurons conduct action potentials

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within the CNS from one neuron to another.

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The structural classification scheme is based
TYPES OF on the number of dendrites.

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NEURONS

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Multipolar neurons have many dendrites
and a single axon.

STRUCTURAL Bipolar neurons have two processes: one

CLASSIFICATION
dendrite and one axon.

Pseudo-unipolar neurons have a single

process extending from the cell body, which
divides into two branches a short distance

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from the cell body.

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FIGURE 3

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MAJOR PARTS
OF A NEURON

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GLIAL CELLS OF CNS. Glial cells are the major supporting cells in the CNS. Glial
cells help form a protective permeability barrier between the blood and the
brain and spinal cord, they phagocytize foreign substances, they produce
cerebrospinal fluid, and they form myelin sheaths around axons.

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Glial cells that are starshaped because cytoplasmic
ASTROCYTES
processes extend from the cell body.

Ependymal cells line the ventricles (cavities) of

EPENDYMAL CELLS
the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord.

CNS-specific immune cells. Microglia become mobile

MICROGLIA
and phagocytic in response to inflammation.

Oligodendrocytes have cytoplasmic extensions that

OLIGODENDROCYTES
can surround axons. If the cytoplasmic extensions

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wrap many times around the axons, they form an

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insulating material called a myelin sheath.
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GLIAL CELLS OF PNS. There are two types of glial cells in the
PNS: Schwann cells and satellite cells.

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Schwann cells form myelin sheaths. However,
SCHWANN CELLS
unlike oligodendrocytes, each Schwann cell forms
a portion of the myelin sheath around only one
axon.

SATELLITE CELLS Satellite cells surround neuron cell bodies in

sensory and autonomic ganglia. Besides providing
support and nutrition to the neuron cell bodies,
satellite cells protect neurons from heavy-metal
poisons, such as lead and mercury, by absorbing

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them and reducing their access to the neuron cell
bodies.

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Cytoplasmic extensions of the Schwann cells in the PNS and of the
oligodendrocyte extensions in the CNS surround axons to form either
myelinated or unmyelinated axons.

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Schwann cells or oligodendrocyte extensions repeatedly

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MYELINATED wrap around a segment of an axon to form a series of tightly
wrapped membranes rich in phospholipids, with little
cytoplasm sandwiched between the membrane layers.

The myelin sheath is not continuous but contains gaps ever

0.3–1.5 mm. At these locations are slight constrictions
where the myelin sheaths of adjacent cells dip toward the
axon but do not cover it, leaving an area where the myelin
sheath is much thinner and about 2–3 μm in length.

These gaps in the myelin sheath are the nodes of Ranvier.

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Cytoplasmic extensions of the Schwann cells in the PNS and of the
oligodendrocyte extensions in the CNS surround axons to form either
myelinated or unmyelinated axons.

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Unmyelinated axons are not devoid of myelin, as their
UNMYELINATED
name suggests. Instead, the axons rest in invaginations
of the Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes.

The glial cell’s plasma membrane surrounds each axon

but does not wrap around it many times.

Thus, each axon is surrounded by a series of Schwann

cells, and each Schwann cell can simultaneously
surround more than one unmyelinated axon.

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In both the CNS and the PNS, nervous tissue is organized such that

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axons are grouped together, forming bundles, while neuron cell bodies
and dendrites are grouped together.

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Gray Matter
cortex
DISTINCTIVE
nuclei
AREAS ganglion
White Matter
nerve tracts
nerves

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Leak ion channels, or nongated ion
channels, are always open and are

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ELECTRIC responsible for the permeability of the

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SIGNALS plasma membrane to ions when the
plasma membrane is unstimulated, or at
rest.
ION Each ion channel is specific for one type of
CHANNELS ion, although the specificity is not
absolute. The number of each type of leak
ion channel in the plasma membrane
determines the permeability
characteristics of the resting plasma

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membrane to different types of ions.

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ELECTRIC There are three major types of gated ion

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SIGNALS channels:

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1. Ligand-gated ion channels are stimulated to
open by the binding of a specific molecule to
GATED ION the receptor site of the ion channel.
CHANNELS 2. Voltage-gated ion channels open and close
in response to a specific, small voltage
change across the plasma membrane.
3. Other gated ion channels that respond to
stimuli other than ligands or voltage changes
are present in specialized electrically

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excitable tissues.

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RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

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Intracellular fluid is electrically

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Because there are opposite
neutral because the number of charges, or poles, across the
positively charged cations is equal
to the number of negatively
membrane, the plasma membrane
charged anions. is referred to as being polarized.

Similarly, extracellular fluid is This electrical charge difference

electrically neutral. across the plasma membrane
is called a potential difference.
However, there is a difference in
charge across the plasma In an unstimulated, or resting, cell,
membrane because of the uneven the potential difference is called
distribution of positive and the resting membrane potential.
negative ions across it.

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The resting membrane potential results from two characteristics of neurons:
1. The permeability characteristics of the resting plasma membrane.

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2. Differences in concentration of ions between the intracellular and the extracellular fluids.
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RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

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Depolarization occurs when the
THE RESTING MEMBRANE membrane potential becomes
POTENTIAL CAN BECOME MORE
POSITIVE OR MORE NEGATIVE.
more positive and is the movement
of the membrane potential closer
The charge difference across a to zero.
particular area of membrane is
changed when ions move across On the other hand,
the plasma membrane due to a hyperpolarization occurs when the
change in the ion concentration membrane potential becomes
gradients or ion permeability of more negative and is the
the plasma membrane. movement of the membrane
potential further away from zero

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GRADED POTENTIALS

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A graded potential is a relatively Graded potentials can result from:
small change in the membrane
potential that is localized to one (1) chemical signals binding to their
area of the plasma membrane. receptors,

Often, graded potentials lead to (2) changes in the voltage across

development of action potentials. the plasma membrane,

These local disturbances in the (3) mechanical stimulation,

membrane potential are called
graded potentials (or local (4) temperature changes, or
potentials) because the potential
change can vary from small to large. (5) spontaneous opening of ion
channels.

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Summation of graded potentials occurs when the effects produced by one graded potential combine with the
effects produced by a different graded potential elsewhere on the plasma membrane, which could lead to an action

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ACTION POTENTIALS

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When the graded potentials An action potential has a

summate to a level called threshold,
an action potential results.
Threshold is the membrane
potential at which voltage-gated
Na+ channels open.
Because the trigger zone contains a
much higher proportion of voltage-
gated channels than other parts
of the cell body, action potentials
are initiated there.
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depolarization phase, in which the
membrane potential moves away
from the resting state and becomes
more positive, and a repolarization
phase, in which the membrane
potential returns toward the resting
state and becomes more negative.
After the repolarization phase, the
plasma membrane may be slightly
hyperpolarized for a short period,
called the afterpotential.

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Link: Nervous System Part 2. Action Potential https://youtu.be/OZG8M_ldA1M

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THE SYNAPSE

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The cell that transmits a signal The synapse is the junction between two cells

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toward the synapse is called the where they communicate with each other.
presynaptic cell (before the synapse),
and the target cell receiving the
signal is called the postsynaptic cell
(after the synapse). TYPES OF SYNAPSE
The average presynaptic neuron
synapses with about 1000 other
ELECTRICAL
neurons, but the average CHEMICAL
postsynaptic neuron has up to
10,000 synapses.

Some postsynaptic neurons in the

part of the brain called the

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cerebellum have up to 100,000 Link: Nervous System Part 3. Synapse.
synapses. https://youtu.be/VitFvNvRIIY

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Occur between cells connected by gap

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junctions. The gap junctions allow a local

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current to flow directly from one cell to a
ELECTRICAL neighboring cell.
SYNAPSE
At these gap junctions, the membranes of
adjacent cells are separated by a 2 nm
gap spanned by structures called
connexons.

The connexons are groups of six tubular

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proteins, each called a connexin.

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Occurs where a chemical messenger,
CHEMICAL called a neurotransmitter, is used to
SYNAPSE communicate a message to an effector.

The essential components of a chemical

synapse are the presynaptic terminal, the
synaptic cleft, and the postsynaptic
membrane.

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The presynaptic terminal consists of the

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end of an axon of the presynaptic cell.

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The space separating the axon ending and
CHEMICAL
the cell with which it synapses is the
SYNAPSE
synaptic cleft.

The membrane of the postsynaptic cell

associated with the presynaptic terminal is
the postsynaptic membrane. Postsynaptic
cells are typically other neurons, muscle

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cells, or gland cells.

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For Clinical Examples of Synaptic Function, please see pages 392-395 of Seeley's 11th edition.
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SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL SUMMATION

Presynaptic action potentials through neurotransmitters produce graded

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potentials in postsynaptic neurons. The graded potential can summate

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to produce an action potential at the trigger zone.

Spatial summation occurs when two or more presynaptic

terminals simultaneously stimulate a postsynaptic neuron.

Temporal summation occurs when two or more action

potentials arrive in succession at a single presynaptic terminal.

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NEURONAL PATHWAYS AND CIRCUITS

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1. Convergent pathways have many neurons synapsing with a few

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neurons.
2. Divergent pathways have a few neurons synapsing with many
neurons.
3. Reverberating circuits have collateral branches of postsynaptic
neurons synapsing with presynaptic neurons.
4. Parallel after-discharge circuits have neurons that stimulate
several neurons arranged in parallel that stimulate a common
output.

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NERVES
SPINAL

SPINAL
CORD
AND
THE
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SPINAL CORD

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The spinal cord is the major communication
link between the brain and the PNS inferior to
the head.

GENERAL
STRUCTURE It integrates incoming information and
produces responses through reflex
mechanisms.

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SPINAL CORD

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1. The spinal cord gives rise to 31 pairs of
spinal nerves. Nerves of the limbs enter and
leave the spinal cord at the cervical and
lumbosacral enlargements.
GENERAL
STRUCTURE
2. The spinal cord is shorter than the vertebral
column. Nerves from the end of the spinal
cord form the cauda equina.

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MENINGES OF Three meningeal layers surround the spinal

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cord:

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THE SPINAL
CORD
Dura mater. The most superficial and thickest
membrane. The dura mater forms a sac, often
MENINGEAL called the thecal sac, which surrounds the
LAYERS
spinal cord.

The dura mater around the spinal cord is

separated from the periosteum of the
vertebral canal by the epidural space.

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MENINGES OF Three meningeal layers surround the spinal

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THE SPINAL cord:
CORD
Arachnoid mater. The next deepest meningeal
MENINGEAL membrane is a very thin, wispy arachnoid
LAYERS mater.

The space between this membrane and the

dura mater is the subdural space; it contains
only a very small amount of serous fluid.

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MENINGES OF Three meningeal layers surround the spinal

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THE SPINAL cord:
CORD
Pia mater. The third, deepest meningeal layer,
MENINGEAL the pia mater is bound very tightly to the
LAYERS surface of the spinal cord.

Holding the spinal cord in place within the

thecal sac are the denticulate ligaments and
the filum terminale.

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MENINGES OF Between the arachnoid mater and the

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THE SPINAL pia mater is the subarachnoid space,
CORD
which contains weblike strands of the
arachnoid mater, blood vessels, and
MENINGEAL
LAYERS cerebrospinal fluid (CSF),
NOTE: The epidural space around the brain is only
a potential space. Epidural anesthesia of the
spinal nerves is often induced in women during
childbirth by injecting anesthetics into the

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epidural space of the spinal cord.

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The basic structural unit of the nervous

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REFLEXES

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system is the neuron.

The basic functional unit of the nervous

BASIC UNIT system is the reflex arc because it is the
smallest, simplest portion capable of
receiving a stimulus and producing a
response.

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(1) a sensory receptor,

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REFLEXES (2) a sensory neuron,
(3) an interneuron,
(4) a motor neuron, and
BASIC
COMPONENTS (5) an effector organ.

The simplest reflex arcs do not involve

interneurons.

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REFLEXES. A reflex is an automatic response to a stimulus
produced by a reflex arc. That means it occurs without
conscious thought.

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STRETCH REFLEX
Muscle spindles detect the stretch of skeletal
muscles and cause the muscle to shorten
reflexively.
GOLGI TENDON REFLEX

Golgi tendon organs respond to increased

tension within tendons and cause skeletal
muscles to relax.

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REFLEXES. A reflex is an automatic response to a stimulus
produced by a reflex arc. That means it occurs without
conscious thought.

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1. Activation of pain receptors causes muscles to
contract and move some part of the body away
from a painful stimulus.

WITHDRAWAL REFLEX 2. Reciprocal innervation causes muscles that

would oppose withdrawal to relax.

3. In the crossed extensor reflex, flexion of one

limb caused by the withdrawal reflex stimulates
the opposite limb to extend.

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SPINAL NERVES In the PNS, individual axons are surrounded

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by the endoneurium.

Groups of axons, called fascicles, are bound

STRUCTURE together by the perineurium.

The fascicles form the nerve and are held

together by the epineurium.

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1. 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral pairs,
and 1 coccygeal pair make up the spinal nerves.

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SPINAL

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NERVES 2. Spinal nerves have specific cutaneous
distributions called dermatomes.

ORGANIZATION 3. Spinal nerves branch to form rami.

■ The dorsal rami supply the muscles and skin
near the midline of the back.
■ The ventral rami in the thoracic region form
intercostal nerves, which supply the thorax and
upper abdomen. The remaining ventral rami join

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to form plexuses. Communicating rami supply
sympathetic nerves.

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FIGURE 4

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SPINAL
NERVES AND
PLEXUSES

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Spinal nerves C1–C4 form the cervical
plexus, which supplies some muscles
CERVICAL and the skin of the neck and shoulder.
PLEXUS
The phrenic nerves innervate the
diaphragm.

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1. Spinal nerves C5–T1 form the brachial plexus,

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which supplies the upper limb.

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2. The axillary nerve innervates the deltoid and
BRACHIAL teres minor muscles and the skin of the
PLEXUS shoulder.

3. The radial nerve supplies the extensor

muscles of the arm and forearm and the skin of
the posterior surface of the arm, forearm, and
hand.

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4. The musculocutaneous nerve supplies the
anterior arm muscles and the skin of the lateral

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surface of the forearm.

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5. The ulnar nerve innervates most of the
intrinsic hand muscles and the skin on the ulnar
BRACHIAL side of the hand.
PLEXUS 6. The median nerve innervates the pronator
and most of the flexor muscles of the forearm,
most of the thenar muscles, and the skin of the
radial side of the palm of the hand.
7. Other nerves supply most of the muscles that
act on the arm, the scapula, and the skin of the

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medial arm and forearm.

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1. Spinal nerves L1–S4 form the lumbosacral

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plexus.

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LUMBAR AND 2. The obturator nerve supplies the muscles that
SACRAL
adduct the thigh and the skin of the medial
PLEXUSES
thigh.

3. The femoral nerve supplies the muscles that

flex the thigh and extend the leg and the skin of
the anterior and lateral thigh and the medial
leg and foot.

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4. The tibial nerve innervates the muscles that

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extend the thigh and flex the leg and the foot. It

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also supplies the plantar muscles and the skin
LUMBAR AND of the posterior leg and the sole of the foot.
SACRAL
PLEXUSES
5. The common fibular nerve and its branches
supply the short head of the biceps femoris, the
muscles that dorsiflex and plantar flex the foot,
and the skin of the lateral and anterior leg and
the dorsum of the foot.

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6. In the thigh, the tibial nerve and the common
LUMBAR AND fibular nerve are combined as the sciatic nerve.
SACRAL
PLEXUSES 7. Other lumbosacral nerves supply the lower
abdominal muscles, the hip muscles, and the
skin of the suprapubic area, external genitalia,
and upper medial thigh.

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COCCYGEAL Spinal nerve S5 and the coccygeal nerve form
PLEXUS the coccygeal plexus, which supplies the
muscles of the pelvic floor and the skin over the
coccyx.

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YGOLOISYHP DNA YMOTANA SHANOC - USB
DERMATOMAL
SPINAL CORD

MAP
AND
YGOLOISYHP DNA YMOTANA SHANOC - USB
YGOLOISYHP DNA YMOTANA GNISRUN SB
BLADDER BREAK!
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BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES

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01
Development of the Central Nervous System

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02
Brainstem

03 Cerebellum

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04 Diencephalon

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BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES

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05 Cerebrum

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06
Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid

07 Blood Supply in the Brain

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08 Cranial Nerves

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 The CNS forms from a flat plate of ectodermal

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tissue, the neural plate, on the dorsal surface of
CNS the embryo.

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DEVELOPMENT Just ventral to the neural plate is the notochord,

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a rod-shaped tissue that defines the axis of the
The brain and embryo and eventually gives rise to the central
spinal cord
develop from region of the intervertebral disks.
the neural tube. The lateral sides of the neural plate become
The ventricles elevated as waves, forming neural folds. The
and central crest of each fold is called a neural crest, and
canal develop the center of the neural plate becomes the
from the lumen neural groove.
of the neural
The neural folds move toward each other in the
tube.

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midline and fuse to create a neural tube, which
gives rise to the CNS.

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The cephalic portion of the neural tube
becomes the brain, and the caudal portion
CNS

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becomes the spinal cord.
DEVELOPMENT

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Neural crest cells migrate away from the neural
The brain and crests to give rise to all the sensory, autonomic,
spinal cord and enteric neurons of the peripheral nervous
develop from system.
the neural tube. A series of pouches develops in the anterior
The ventricles
part of the neural tube, forming three brain
and central
canal develop regions in the early embryo:
from the lumen
of the neural a forebrain, or prosencephalon; a midbrain, or
tube. mesencephalon; and a hindbrain, or

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rhombencephalon.

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1. The medulla oblongata is continuous with
the spinal cord and contains ascending and

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BRAINSTEM descending tracts.

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2. The pyramids are tracts controlling
voluntary muscle movement.
MEDULLA 3. The olives are nuclei that function in
OBLANGATA equilibrium, coordination, and modulation of
sound from the inner ear.
4. Medullary nuclei regulate the heart, blood
vessels, respiration, swallowing, vomiting,
coughing, sneezing, and hiccuping. The nuclei
of cranial nerves V, VII, and IX–XII are in the

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medulla oblongata.

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1. The pons is superior to the medulla

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BRAINSTEM

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oblongata.

2. Ascending and descending tracts pass

PONS through the pons.

3. Pontine nuclei regulate sleep and

respiration. The nuclei of cranial nerves V–VIII
are in the pons.

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1. The midbrain is superior to the pons.

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BRAINSTEM

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2. The midbrain contains the nuclei for
cranial nerves III, IV, and V.
MIDBRAIN
3. The tectum consists of four colliculi. The
two inferior colliculi are involved in hearing,
and the two superior colliculi in visual
reflexes.

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4. The tegmentum contains ascending tracts

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BRAINSTEM and the red nuclei, which are involved in

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motor activity.

MIDBRAIN 5. The cerebral peduncles are the major

descending motor pathway.

6. The substantia nigra connects to other

basal nuclei and is involved with muscle tone
and movement.

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The reticular formation consists of nuclei
BRAINSTEM

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scattered throughout the brainstem.

RETICULAR The reticular system functions in many

FORMATION
brainstem activities, including motor control,
pain perception, rhythmic contractions, and
the sleep-wake cycle.

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1. The cerebellar cortex contains more
neurons than the cerebral cortex does. The

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Purkinje cells are the largest cells in the CNS.
CEREBELLUM

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2. The cerebellum has three parts, which
control balance, gross motor coordination,
RETICULAR and fine motor coordination.
FORMATION
3. The cerebellum corrects discrepancies
between intended movements and actual
movements.
4. The cerebellum can “learn” highly specific,
complex motor activities.

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1. The thalamus consists of two lobes
connected by the interthalamic adhesion.

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DIENCEPHALON The thalamus functions as an integration

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center.

THALAMUS 2. Most sensory input synapses in the

thalamus. Pain is registered in the thalamus.

3. The thalamus also has some motor

functions.

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Subthalamus

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DIENCEPHALON The subthalamus is inferior to the thalamus

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and is involved in motor function.

SUBTHALAMUS Epithalamus
EPITHALAMUS
The epithalamus is superior and posterior to
the thalamus and contains the habenula,
which influences emotions through the sense
of smell. The pineal gland may play a role in
the onset of puberty.

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1. The hypothalamus, the most inferior
portion of the diencephalon, contains several

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DIENCEPHALON nuclei and tracts.

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2. The mammillary bodies are reflex centers
for olfaction.
HYPOTHALAMUS 3. The hypothalamus regulates many
endocrine functions. The pituitary gland
attaches to the hypothalamus.
4. The hypothalamus regulates body
temperature, hunger, thirst, satiety,
swallowing, and emotions.

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The longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum into left and right

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hemispheres. Each hemisphere has five lobes.
CEREBRUM ■

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The frontal lobes are involved in smell, voluntary motor
function, motivation, aggression, and mood.
THE CORTEX OF ■ The parietal lobes contain the major sensory areas receiving
general sensory input, taste, and balance.
THE CEREBRUM
IS FOLDED INTO
■ The occipital lobes contain the visual centers.

RIDGES CALLED
■ The temporal lobes receive olfactory and auditory input and
are involved in memory, abstract thought, and judgment.
GYRI AND
GROOVES Tracts connect areas of the cortex within the same
CALLED SULCI, hemisphere (association fibers), between hemispheres
OR FISSURES. (commissural fibers), and with other parts of the brain and
the spinal cord (projection fibers).

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CEREBRUM

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Basal nuclei include the corpus striatum,
subthalamic nuclei, and substantia nigra.
BASAL NUCLEI
The basal nuclei are important in
controlling motor functions.

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CEREBRUM The limbic system includes parts of the

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cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, the
thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the
olfactory cortex.
LIMBIC SYSTEM
The limbic system controls visceral
functions through the autonomic nervous
system and the endocrine system and is
involved in emotions and memory.

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The brain and spinal cord are covered by the
dura, arachnoid, and pia mater.

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MENINGES

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The dura mater attaches to the skull and
has two layers that can separate to form
SURROUND AND dural sinuses.
PROTECT THE
BRAIN AND Beneath the arachnoid mater, the
SPINAL CORD subarachnoid space contains CSF, which
helps cushion the brain.

The pia mater attaches directly to the

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VENTRICLES The lateral ventricles in the cerebrum are

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connected to the third ventricle in the

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THE CNS FORMS diencephalon by the interventricular
AS A HOLLOW foramen.
TUBE THAT MAY
BE QUITE
REDUCED IN The third ventricle is connected to the
SOME AREAS OF fourth ventricle in the pons by the
THE ADULT CNS cerebral aqueduct. The central canal of
AND EXPANDED the spinal cord is connected to the fourth
IN OTHER AREAS. ventricle.

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CSF is produced from the blood in the
CEREBROSPINAL choroid plexus of each ventricle. CSF

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FLUID moves from the lateral to the third and

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A CLEAR FLUID then to the fourth ventricle.
SIMILAR TO
BLOOD SERUM From the fourth ventricle, CSF enters the
BUT WITHOUT
MOST OF THE subarachnoid space through three
PROTEINS. IT apertures.
PROVIDES A
PROTECTIVE CSF leaves the subarachnoid space
CUSHION through arachnoid granulations and
AROUND THE
CNS. returns to the blood in the dural venous

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sinuses.

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CSF is produced from the blood in the
CEREBROSPINAL choroid plexus of each ventricle. CSF

DNA
FLUID moves from the lateral to the third and

YMOTANA
A CLEAR FLUID then to the fourth ventricle.
SIMILAR TO
BLOOD SERUM From the fourth ventricle, CSF enters the
BUT WITHOUT
MOST OF THE subarachnoid space through three
PROTEINS. IT apertures.
PROVIDES A
PROTECTIVE CSF leaves the subarachnoid space
CUSHION through arachnoid granulations and
AROUND THE
CNS. returns to the blood in the dural venous

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sinuses.

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REGIONS
OF THE
BRAIN
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BLOOD SUPPLY 1. The brain receives blood from the internal

DNA
TO THE BRAIN carotid and vertebral arteries. The latter form

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THE BRAIN the basilar artery. The basilar and internal
REQUIRES A carotid arteries contribute to the cerebral
TREMENDOUS arterial circle. Branches from the circle and
AMOUNT OF basilar artery supply the brain.
BLOOD TO
MAINTAIN ITS
2. The blood-brain barrier is formed from the
NORMAL
FUNCTIONS endothelial cells of the capillaries in the brain
and the astrocytes in the brain tissue.

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CRANIAL

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NERVES

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CRANIAL NERVES
PERFORM SENSORY,
SOMATIC MOTOR,
AND
PARASYMPATHETIC
FUNCTIONS.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF CRANIAL NERVES
1. The olfactory (I) and optic (II) nerves
are involved in the senses of smell
and vision, respectively.
2. The oculomotor nerve (III)
innervates four of six extrinsic eye
muscles and the upper eyelid. The
oculomotor nerve also provides
parasympathetic supply to the iris
and lens of the eye.
3. The trochlear nerve (IV) controls
one of the extrinsic eye muscles
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4. The trigeminal nerve (V) supplies the
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muscles of mastication, as well as a
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middle ear muscle, a palatine muscle,
and two throat muscles. The trigeminal
nerve has the greatest cutaneous
sensory distribution of any cranial nerve.
Two of the three trigeminal nerve
branches innervate the teeth.
5. The abducens nerve (VI) controls one
of the extrinsic eye muscles.
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF CRANIAL NERVES
6. The facial nerve (VII) supplies the
muscles of facial expression, an inner
ear muscle, and two throat muscles. It
is involved in the sense of taste. It is
parasympathetic to two sets of
salivary glands and to the lacrimal
glands.
7. The vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) is
involved in the senses of hearing and
balance.
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8. The glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) is
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involved in taste and supplies tactile
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sensory innervation from the posterior
tongue, middle ear, and pharynx. It is
also sensory for receptors that monitor
blood pressure and gas levels in the
blood. The glossopharyngeal nerve is
parasympathetic to the parotid salivary
glands.
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF CRANIAL NERVES

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9. The vagus nerve (X) innervates the 10. The accessory nerve (XI) has only a

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muscles of the pharynx, palate, and spinal component. It supplies the

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larynx. It is also involved in the sense sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
of taste. The vagus nerve is sensory muscles.
for the pharynx and larynx and for
receptors that monitor blood 1. The hypoglossal nerve (XII) supplies
pressure and gas levels in the blood. the intrinsic tongue muscles, three of
The vagus nerve is sensory for four extrinsic tongue muscles, and two
thoracic and abdominal organs. The throat muscles.
vagus nerve provides
parasympathetic innervation to the
thoracic and abdominal organs

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YGOLOISYHP DNA YMOTANA SHANOC - USB
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DNA
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SUPPLEMENTAL LINKS
CNS: HTTPS://YOUTU.BE/Q8NTMDRB_QO
PNS: HTTPS://YOUTU.BE/QY9NTVH-AWO
SNS: HTTPS://YOUTU.BE/0IDGBLCHVSA
PSNS: HTTPS://YOUTU.BE/QQU-VJQJCZE

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DNA
RECAP OF

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TODAY'S MODULE

RECAP 01 RECAP 02

Introduction Functional Organization

RECAP 03 RECAP 04

Spinal Cord and The Brain and Cranial

Spinal Nerves Nerves

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DNA
YMOTANA
GOOD JOB, YOU
REACH THE END OF
THIS MODULE!
IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTIONS OR
CLARIFICATION WITH OUR TOPIC, KINDLY
REACH OUT TO ME AT:

Email: sue.kalinawan@g.batstate-u.edu.ph
FB/Messenger: BSUe Kalinawan

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IMAGE CREDIT: SEELEY'S ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 11TH EDITION

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