CHAPTER 5

DC-DC Converters

The learning objectives of this chapter

● To learn the switching techniques for dc-dc conversion and
types of dc-dc converter.
● To study operation of dc-dc converter.
● To understand the performances parameters of dc converter.
● To learn the techniques for simulating dc converter.
● To study effects of load inductance on the load current and the
conditions for continuous current.

5.1 Introduction

The dc-dc converter is known as a Chopper. Like a transformer, it

can be used to step down or step up a dc voltage source.

DC converter are widely used

: traction motor control in electric automobiles.
trolly cars.
marine hoists.
fork lift.
mine haulers.

5.2 Principle of Step-down Operation

The principle of operation can be explained by Fig. 5.1a.

The converter switch can be complemented by using a
1) BJT 2) MOSFET 3) GTO 4) IGBT
 Fig. 5.1 Step-down converter with resistive load.

The average output voltage is given by

  
  
      

        (5.1)

and the average current is

   
    
 

Where  is chopping period;


 =  is duty cycle of chopper.

 is the chopping frequency.

The rms value of output voltage is





  
     

  (5.2)

Assuming a lossless converter, the input power is the same as the

output power.
   
     
        (5.3)
  

The effective input resistance seen by the source is what is called a

chopper equivalent resistance:

  
       (5.4)
   
 


The control methods of duty cycle is classified as followings

1. PWM(Pulse width modulation)

2. PFM(Pulse frequency modulation)

3. A mixed control (PWM+PFM)

(Ex. 5.1) Finding Performances of a DC-DC Converter.

From converter shown, determine
(a) the average output voltage   ,(b) the rms value of output
voltage   , (c) the converter efficiency, and (d) the effective input
resistance 

<sol.>

(a)                    V

(b)    
        
       V
       
(c)    ,       ×        W
 


  
     ×       
           ×        W
 
     ×   
 
 
(d)       
  

5.2.1 General of duty cycle

5.3 Step-down converter with RL load

A converter with an RL load is shown in Fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.3 DC converter with

RL load
Fig. 5.4 Equivalent circuits and waveforms for RL load.

A) Continuous current mode

Mode 1.


        

From a voltage equation, the solution for a load current is obtained
by the following expression with initial value(t=0,        ).

 
 

    
            (5.11)


At t=  , the load current    becomes

        (5.12)

Mode 2.


        


With initial conditions        , the solution for current  can be

obtained as

 
    

            (5.13)


At t=  , the load current  becomes

       (5.14)

Under steady-state conditions,    .

From Eq.5.11 at    =kT, the current    becomes

 
  

     
          (5.15)


From Eq.5.13 at         , the current  becomes

 
            

            (5.16)


Solving for  and  , we get

  
    
    


  (5.17)
 
where     is the ratio of the chopping or switching period to the

load time constant.

     
    
   


  (5.18)

The peak-to-peak current is

    

which after simplifications becomes


               
     (5.19)
  

The condition for maximum ripple,

   
  (5.20)


 
gives         or        or    , The maximum
peak-to-peak ripple current(at k=0.5) is

 
max     (5.21)
  

For   ≫  , tanh ≈  and the maximum ripple current can be be

approximated to


max   (5.22)
 
B) Discontinuous current mode

In this mode,    and Eq. 5.11 becomes


    
         


and Eq.5.13 is valid for  ≤  ≤  such that            ,

which gives




      



Because    , we get

   
           


which after substitution of  becomes

      
   
          
 
Condition for continuous current: For  ≥  , Eq.5.17 gives

   

  



≥

Which gives the value of the load electromotive force(emf) ratio

    as
    
  ≤  (5.23)
   

(Ex.5.20 Finding the current of dc converter with an RL load

A converter is feeding an RL load as shown in Fig.5.3 with Vs=220
V,R = 5Ω, L = 7.5 mH, f = 1kHz, and E = 0 V. Calculate (a) the
minimum instantaneous load current  , (b) the maximum instantaneous
load current  , (c) the maximum peak-to-peak ripple current, (d) the
average value of load current  , (e) the rms current  , (f) the
effective input resistance  ,and (g) the rms chopper current 

<sol.>

                

(a) From Eq.5.17,   

  
    
   
z=5/(7.5e-3*1000)=0.6667
I_1 = (220/5)*((exp(0.5*z)-1)/(exp(z)-1))=18.37

     
(b) From Eq.5.18,    
     
I_2 = (220/5)*((exp(-0.5*z)-1)/(exp(-z)-1)) = 25.63 A

(c)             A

 
From Eq.5.21,  max     =220/5*tanh(5/(4*1000*7.5e-3))
  
=7.2662 A

max    220/(4*1000*7.5e-3) = 7.33 A
 

(d) Approximation average value of the load current is

     
       A
 

(e)           

 






 

 
   
         =22.1A

(f) The average source current
      ×  = 11A
 
       or      
 
(g) The rms current is
  
   
 ×    A

5.4 Principle of step-up operation

(a) step-up arrangement

Fig. 5.6 Arrangement for step-up operation.

When the converter is turn on, the voltage across the inductor is


   

and this gives the peak-to-peak ripple current in the inductor as


    (5.26)


The average output voltage is

  
                   (5.27)
  
 

Fig. 5.7 Arrangement for transfer of energy.

The inductor current for modeⅠ is given by


   

and is expressed as
   
    
  
        

(5.28)


   or    


The current for mode Ⅱ is given by


     


and is solved as

  
        (5.29)


   or    


5.5 Step-up converter with a resistive load

A) Mode Ⅰ:   = ON

The equivalent circuit during modeⅠ is shown in Fig.5.8b and the

current is described by


   


which for an initial current of  gives


        (5.31)

 Fig. 5.8 Step-up converter with a resistive load.

which is valid for  ≤  ≤  , At the end of mode Ⅰ,


      (5.32)


B) ModeⅡ :   =OFF


        


Solving the equation for  ,

 
 
    

 
         (5.33)


At the end of modeⅡ,

  
                (5.34)


where   TR/L. Solving for  and  from Eq.5.32 and Eq.5.34,

         
     (5.35)
        
     
     (5.36)
        

The ripple current is


        (5.37)


(Ex5.4) Finding the current of a step-up dc converter.

5.7 Converter classification

Fig. 5.10 DC converter classification

A) First-quadrant converter

Fig. 5.3 DC converter with

RL load

B) Second-quadrant converter

Fig. 5.11 Second quadrant converter.

C) First and second quadrant converter

- First quadrant operation

Vs-S1-Load-S2-Vs, Load-S2-D4

- Second quadrant operation

Load-S4-S2(Powering), Vs-D1-Load-S2-Vs(Regeneration)

Fig.5.12 First and second quadrant.

D) Third and fourth quadrant converter.

- Third quadrant operation

Vs-S3-Load-S4-Vs(Powering), Load-S4-D2(Free-wheeling mode)

- Fourth quadrant operation

S4-Load-S2-S4(Powering by E ), S4-Load-D3-Vs(Regeneration)

Fig. 5.13 Third and fourth quadrant converter

E) Four-quadrant converter

Fig. 5.14 Four-quadrant converter

5.8 Switching-Mode Regulators

1. Buck
2. Boost
3. Buck-boost
4. Cuk

5.8.1 Buck Regulator

Fig. 5.16 Buck regulator with continuous  

Mode Ⅰ: Tr.→ on,      

From equivalent circuit ModeⅠ, the voltage equation is given by


      (5.44)


or

       
        (5.45)
   

ModeⅡ: Tr.→ off,    =(1-k)T

From equivalent circuit ModeⅡ, the voltage equation is given by


       (5.46)


or

   
        (5.47)
 

From Eq.5.45 and 5.47,   is expressed as

         
    
 

Substitution of    and       into the   yields the average output

voltage as


         (5.48)


Assuming a lossless circuit,          

   (5.49)

The switching period T can be expressed as

       
           (5.50)
           

The peak-to-peak ripple current is

       
   (5.51)
  

or

     
   (5.52)


If we assume that the load ripple current  is very small and
negrigible,    .
   
The capacitor average current for      is
  


  

The peak-to-peak ripple voltage of the capacitor is

 
    
            
 



    
  
(5.53)

Substitution of Eq.5.51 and 5.52 into the Eq. 5.53 yields

       
    (5.54)
  

or

     
    (5.55)
 

Conditions for continuous inductor current and capacitor voltage

     

          
          
  

which gives the critical value of the inductor  as

   
     (5.56)


Using Eq.5.48 and 5.53, we get

       

Buck Regulator
     

 
        

     ,    ,    ,

       
     
  
     
 
    
     ,     
 
(Ex.5.5) Finding the values of LC filter for buck converter.

<sol.>
   V      mV     A    kHz     and   V

 
a)        
 
        ×     
b)       
 
 ×  × 
        ×     
c)   


  
  
      ×  ×  ×  ×  × 
d)              ×  ×     mH

             ×  ×  ×    F

5.8.2 Boost Regulators

(a) Circuit diagram

 (b) Equivalent circuits.
(c) Waveforms
Fig.5.17 Boost regulator with continuous  .

Mode Ι : SW. → on


    (5.58)
 

or

  
         (5.59)
 

ModeⅡ : SW. → off


        (5.60)


or

       
        (5.61)
   
From Eq.5.59 and 5.61,   is

        
    
 

Substituting    and       yields the average output voltage,

            

which gives


       (5.63)
 


Assuming a lossless circuit,          
   


     (5.65)


From Eq. 5.58, the peak-to-peak ripple current is obtained by the

following expression.

   
           (5.68)
  

The peak-to-peak ripple voltage of the capacitor is

   
  
 

  

(5.69)

or


   (5.71)


Conditions for continuous inductor current and capacitor voltage.

Using Eq.5.62 and 5.68, we get

   
           
    

which gives the critical value of inductor   as

    
     (5.72)


If   is the average capacitor voltage, the capacitor ripple voltage

      . Using Eq.5.71, we get

 
        


which gives the critical value of the capacitor  as


     (5.73)
 

Boost Regulator

    
                ,     
   
      
     ,      
  

(Ex.5.6) Finding the current and voltage in the Boost regulator.

<sol.>
   V     V    kHz    H    A  and   uF

a)         
 
b)        ×   ×  ×     

       
c)                 A
       

d)        ×   ×  ×     mV


e)       

       F

    F
 

5.8.3 Buck-Boost regulator

Fig.5.18 Buck-Boost with continuous 

ModeⅠ: Q1 → on


    (5.74)
 

or

  
         (5.75)
 

ModeⅡ: Q2 → off


     (5.76)


or

   
         (5.77)
  
From Eq.5.75 and 5.77,

     
    
 

Substituting    and       , the average output voltage is


       (5.78)
 


Assuming a lossless circuit,          
  


    (5.81)


The peak-to-peak ripple current is obtained from Eq.5.77

 
   (5.84)


The peak-to-peak ripple voltage of the capacitor is

   
  
  
  

(5.85)

or


   (5.87)


Conditions for continuous inductor current and capacitor vltage.

The inductor ripple current is      

Using Eq.5.78 and 5.84, we get
    
        
    

which gives the critical value of inductor   as

   
     (5.88)


If Vc is the capacitor voltage, the capacitor ripple voltage      

Using Eq.5.87, we get

 
        


which gives the critical value of the capacitor  as


     (5.89)
 

Buck-Boost Regulator
    
       ,     ,    ,     
   
     
     ,      
  

(Ex5.7) Finding the current and voltage in the Buck-Boost regulator.

<sol.>
   V       A    kHz    H  and   uF

a)         ×   V
b)           ×   ×  ×     mV
  
c)       ×   ×  ×     A

d)        ×   A
The peak-to-peak current of the trasistor is

  
  
   
  
   
  

    
          A
    
  
e)       
  

   
     


    
 
5.13 State-Space Analysis of Regulators

The prior contents on DC-DC converters presented circuit models

without dynamic characteristics. Those models present no indication
of how the converter behaves under transient conditions.

The mathematical transient features of a circuit must be expressed

by differential equations. To facilitate the simulation process, the
differential equations are formulated into the state-space model of
circuit.

An example of two coupled, first-order differential equations is the

equation set

 
            

 
        


The state-space model is a reformulation of the coupled equations

into the matrix-vector form.

      

Where vector  and  are

 
      
 
and matrices A and B are

      
  
     

(Example A)
Find the state-space model of the secon-order differential equation

     

<solution>
First, the dependent variable  in Equation is renamed state variable
 :

         (1)

Next, state variable  is differented with respect to time and

assigned to the state variable  

    (2)

Substitution of  for the first derivative of  in Eq.(1) results in

           (3)

From Eq.(2), the first derivative of  is also the second derivative of

 

   (4)

Substitution of Eq.(4) into Eq.(3) results in

          (5)

The solution of Eq.(5) for the first derivativ of  is

           (6)

Equation (2) and (6) form the coupled equation of the state-space
model:

           
 
 
   

       
   (7)
  

(Example B)
Develop the state-space model of the circuit shown in Figure B.

Fig. B circuit for example B

<sol.>
The state variables are chosen as inductor current  and capacitor
voltage  . Application of KVL around the left circuit loop yiled the
voltage equation
 
         (1)


Application of KCL at the common node of the inductor and capacitor

yields the current equation

   
     (2)
 

A rearrangement of Eqs.(1) and (2) with the first derivatives on the

lefthand side yields

   
           (3)
   
and

   
       (4)
     

From Eqs.(3) and (4), the state-space model emerge as

     
 

  
   

 
 






  
   
  
  




 

    
  
  

(5)

Compute and plot the inductor current response of the circuit B with
circuit parameters:
                    and zero initial conditions.

<sol.>
%
% Response of Inductor Current
%
%
function dx = ckt6_3(t, x)
global A B u
dx = A*x + B*u;

%
%
close all, clear all,clc
global A B u
mH = 1E-3;
uF = 1E-6;
Vs = 170;
Vb = 144;
Rs = 0.3;
Rb = 0.5;
L = 10*mH;
C = 220*uF;
RC = Rb*C;
A = [-Rs/L -1/L; 1/C -1/RC ];
B = [1/L 0;0 1/RC];
u=[Vs;Vb];
X0=[0;0];
[t,X]= ode23('ckt6_3',[0 0.1],X0);
IL = X(:,1);
plot(t,IL),grid
>> Vc = X(:,2);
>> plot(t,Vc),grid
 Fig. Inductor current response.

Fig. the voltage of capacitor.

Fig. (C) Circuit.

Simulate and plot the capacitor voltage of the circuit in Fig.(C) with
prameters  =10A,   ,    mH,  =10㎌, =100Ω, within time
interval 0 to 0.1 second.

<sol.> From fig.(C), the state-space equation is expressed as

     
   

   
  

 
 
  


    
 

    



   

   

%
%
%
close all, clear all,clc
global A B u
mH = 1E-3;
uF = 1E-6;
Rs = 0.3;
Rb = 100;
L = 5*mH;
C = 10*uF;
Is = 10;
Vb = 144;
A = [-Rs/L 1/L; -1/C 0 ];
B = [0 -1/L;1/C 0];
u=[Is;Vb];
X0=[0;0];
[t,X]= ode23('ckt6_3',[0 0.1],X0);
Vc = X(:,2);
plot(t,Vc),grid
 Fig. Solution of Fig.(C)

Simulate the circuit in Example B with Vs = 50 sin(120πt)+170, Plot

the inductor current and the capacitor voltage.

<sol.>
%
% (Simulation of circuit with a time-varying source in place of Vs)
%
close all,clear all,clc
global A B Vb
Vb = 144;
mH = 1E-3;
uF =1E-6;
Rs = 0.3;
Rb = 0.5;
L = 10*mH;
C = 220*uF;
RC = Rb*C;
A = [-Rs/L -1/L;1/C -1/RC];
B = [1/L 0; 0 1/RC];
X0 = [0;0];
[t,X] = ode23('ckt6_4',[0 0.1],X0);
IL = X(:,1);
VC = X(:,2);
subplot(1,2,1),plot(t,IL,'k'),grid
axis square, title('i_L(t)'),xlabel('t(sec)')
subplot(1,2,2),plot(t,VC,'k'),grid
axis square, title('v_C(t)'),xlabel('t(sec)')

%
%
function dx = ckt6_4(t, x)
global A B Vb
Vs = 50*sin(120*pi*t) +170;
u = [Vs; Vb];
dx = A*x + B*u;

Fig. State variables for circuit B

with Vs=50*sin(120*pi*t) +170
 Fig.5.32 Buck converter with state variables

Mode 1.

Applying Kirchoff's voltage law(KVL), we get

       

Application of KCL at the common node of the inductor and capacitor

yields the current equation.


     


which can be arranged to

 
          (5.133)
 
 
         (5.134)
 

where x = state vector = 


 

   
 



 
 


  
 = source vector
 


  

 

         

Mode 2.

Applying KVL from Fig.5.32(c), we get

      

Application of KCL at the common node of the inductor and capacitor

yields the current equation.


     


which can be arranged to


      (5.136)


 
         (5.137)
 

These equations can be written in the universal format:

         

where

x = state vector = 

 

 
 
 



 
 


  
 = source vector=0
   
In feedback system, the duty cycle  is a function of x and may be a
function of u as well. Thus, the total solution can be obtained by
state-space averaging, that is, by summing the terms for each
analysis the switched linear mode. Using the universal format, we get

            (5.139)

            (5.140)

Substitution for         and   , we can find

  
 

  


 
(5.141)


  

 
  
 (5.141)
 

which in turn lead to the following state equation:

 
         (5.142)
 

 
         (5.143)
 
Normalized DC-DC Converter Model

The normalized state-space models of the buck, boost, and

buck/boost converters are obtained by the following equations

Normalized State-Space Model of the Buck Converter

The normalized buck converter model is

  


   
    









 

 
 
    
 
  
  
(6.51)

Normalized State-Space Model of the Boost Converter

The normalized boost converter model is

      


   
    









 
 
   
 











   

(6.52)

Normalized State-Space Model of the Buck/Boost Converter.

The state-space model of the normalised buck/boost converter is

     


    
   










 
 
   
 




  



 
 (6.53)

Simulation of CCM(Current Continuous Mode) Converters

The simulation process of CCM converters is relatively simple. The

binary control variable is switched between zero and one based on
whether the current value of τ falls within the off-time or on-time
portion of the switching period.

(Ex. 6.8)

Simulate a buck converter with circuit parameters Vs = 12 VDC, Vo

= 5 VDC, R = 2.5 Ω, L = 220 μH, C = 47 μF, and f = 5 kHz.

<sol.>
%
% Ex6_8
%
close all, clear all, clc
global A B K
f = 5000;
R = 2.5;
V0 = 5;
I0 = V0/R;
Vs = 12;
K = V0/Vs;
L = 200E-6;
C = 47E-6;
A = [0 -1/(L*f); 1/(C*f) -1/(f*R*C)]; % cf. Eq.6.51
B = [Vs/(f*L); 0];
X0 = [I0; V0]; % initial value is chosen by steady-state value
tf = 10;% simulation interval is 10Hz(t=10/5000=2 ms)
tic % count initial time
[t, X] = ode23('buck',[0 10],X0);
toc % count for time-over
IL = X(:,1);
VC = X(:,2);
subplot(2,1,1),plot(t, IL),grid % t is tau.
title('Inductor Current')
subplot(2,1,2),plot(t, VC),grid
axis([0 tf 0 10])
title('Output Voltage')
xlabel('cycles')

%
%Function File for Simmulation of the Buck-converter
%
%
function dx = buck(t,x)
global A B k
u = 0.5*(1 - sign(t - fix(t) - K));
dx = A*x + B*u;

Fig 6.14 CCM buck converter simulation.

The Critical inductance of the buck converter is obtained by Eq.5.56

   
   = (1 - Vo/Vs)R/(2f)=((1-5/12)*2.5)/(2*5000)

 = 1.4583e-004 = 146 uH

Problems

5.2 Vs=220 v, R=10Ω, L= 15.5mH, f=5 kHz, E=20 V, and k=0.5

a. From Eq.5.17, the minimum instantaneous load current is

z=R/(f*L);
I_1=(Vs/R)*((exp(k*z)-1)/(exp(z)-1))-E/R =8.6453

b. I_2 =Vs/R*((exp(-k*z)-1)/(exp(-z)-1))-E/R

I_2 = 9.3547
c.           
   
d.          

e. the rms load current  is obtained from Eq.5.24

          ,  =8.6453,  =9.3547


  



 

   
   
        

= 9.0023
f. input resistance 

     ×  =4.5,       

g. The rms value of the converter current is
   
   
 ×   


5.3    V         V    Hz     ms   A

and    . The ripple current     ×    ×    A
     
From     ,

       ×     × 
      mH
   × 

5.4 Vs=110 V, E = 220 V, Po= 30 KW

Assuming the lossless circuit, the input power is equal to output

power.
        A
The battery current is

       A

  
               
  

 
                   ×    
  


 Fig. 5.7 Arrangement for transfer
of energy.
5.5 For problem 5.4, plot the instantaneous inductor current and
current through the battery E if inductor L has L=7.5 mH, f=250 Hz,
and k=0.5.


From Eq.5.28,      

  
From Eq.5.29,      


Where           
  ,
 × 
   
            
     
 ×  
 × 
Solving for  and  , yields       
 